MR MATHEW AND HIS WIFE MRS MATHEW KIMWAGA PARFECTY

CHAPTER ONE

GRAMMAR REVIEW

1.0 Introduction

This chapter gives an overview of the grammatical structures of English language. It is

organized into two parts such as the part of the speech as well as introduction to

Syntax. Parts of the speech will be grouped into two areas such as words in major word

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classes and minor word classes. In introduction to syntax, it will discuss larger syntactic

units of the language such as phrases, clauses and sentences. In order to understand these

larger units of language, we need to study about words because these large units are

formed out of words.

1.1 WORDS

What is a word?

Word has different meanings. However the general meaning of word is the meaningful

unit of language which can stand alone and give sense or the meaning. It is entered in a

dictionary as a headword (lexeme) and it allows the generation or additional of other

forms of the language to be added.

KINDS OF WORD CLASSES/ PARTS OF SPEECH

Word classes are some times called Parts of Speech in which, according to Wren and

Martin (2004)1 refer to how words are divided into different kinds or classes. Words are

divided into classes or kinds depending on their uses or functions they perform in

sentence. Words are categorized into two major groups which are:

1. Major word classes

2. Minor word classes

Major word classes are sometimes known as open classes since new words can be

formed. These include Nouns (Ns) Verbs (Vs) Adjectives (A) and Adverbs (Adv).

1
Wren and Martin, High English Grammar and Composition, 2004:

2
Minor word classes are sometimes known as closed classes since they do not form new

words and do not allow the additional of new forms. These include preposition,

determiners, pronouns, interjections, conjunctions, particles etc.

MAJOR WORD CLASSES

1.1.1 NOUNS (N)

What is the noun?

Wren and Martin (2004)2 define noun as a word used as the name of a person, place or

thing. This definition does not complete the meaning of the word noun, this is because

there are words that are nouns and yet do not name thing, person or thing. How can we

say about beauty, kindness, judgment etc? I agree with Milaca, T.A 3 that a noun is a word

that we use for giving a name to a person, place, things, quality, idea or action.

So generally, a noun is the word class category that expresses the name of persons, places

animals, things, ideas and concepts. Example Adam, boy, table, chair, lion, water, love

ness, home, house, village, rhinoceros etc.

There are four characteristics that help to identify nouns:

 They are preceded by determiners (a, the, an, some etc)

 They are headwords of Noun Phrases eg. The most dangerous person (HW)

 They can change into singularity and plurality ie. Child- children

 They can have special endings eg. child-hood.

2
Wren and Martin; High School English Grammar and Composition; 2004: 05.
3
Melaku, Simplified English Grammar pg. 2

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TYPES OF NOUNS

Different linguistic scholars have different ways of classifying nouns.

Proper vs. Common Nouns

Proper nouns are nouns that can stand alone, do not allow plurality, no determiners and

normally they start with capital letters. They are nouns of particular people or things. In

example [1] below the word Malegeza is proper noun since it agrees with the three

characteristics of proper noun.

[1] Malegeza is not a naughty boy.

Common nouns are nouns given in common to people, things or places. In the sentence

[1] above, the words a naughty boy is common noun since it is given to a common boy

who is not particular but anyone. The major features of common nouns are that they

begin with small letters in the middle of the sentence, they take articles and determiners

and finally they allow singularity and plurality.

Countable vs. uncountable nouns

Count Nouns are those nouns that can be counted either by single object or group of

objects. This kind of noun allows one to find the total number of things or people.

Countable nouns can be changed from singular to plural. The plural of count nouns can

be done by adding suffixes –s, -es, -ies, or putting the nouns into groups so we count

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them considering these groups. For instance; a chair, group of people, an army of soldier,

Swamp of bees.

Non-Count or Mass nouns. These are nouns that are not countable. They are liquid,

water, and flower, wood. It is difficult to find the total number of these objects because of

their nature. These nouns are always in singular form so they have no indefinite articles

a, an. Some times these nouns are preceded by some, any, little, etc. some uncountable

nouns abstract nouns while others are substances that are considered uncountable.

(Thomson & Martinet 1986)4

Examples of uncountable nouns are shown in the table 1 below;

Table 1: Uncountable Nouns

Water Sugar Suggestion

Milk Floor Information
Alcohol salt news

furniture Soap Loveness

firewood Rice Hatred
wall sand loneliness

Abstract vs. Concrete Nouns.

Abstract nouns are nouns that cannot be seen, felt, touched or smelled. Wren & Martin

(2004)5 assert that an abstract noun is name of a quality, action or state considered apart

from the object to which it belongs. Examples of abstract nouns; kingdom, hatred,

blackness, childhood, strength, theft, judgment, wisdom, gospel.

4
Thomson & Martinet, 1986
5
Wren Martin (ibid) pg 6.

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Concrete nouns are nouns that can be seen, touched or even felt. These nouns are definite

and specific. According to Kajare (2007)6 concrete nouns are nouns that refer to tangible

or physical objects or substances which can be counted and uncounted.

For instance; chair, goat, salt, sand etc.

1.1.2 ADJECTIVES

What is an adjective?

Adjective is a word class category that used to modify or give qualities of nouns or

pronouns. Adjectives are used to add something to the meaning of the nouns. The

placement of adjectives differ from language to language.

English A + N: A good child

Swahili N + A: Mtoto mzuri

Adjectives are contradicted with adverbs since they have the same forms of structures.

What differentiate them depends on how they are used in sentence Construction. How

can we identify adjectives? Sreedharan7 asserts that adjectives are the complements

qualifying the subjects thus do not modify verbs but nouns. The verbs such as ‘to be’, to

seem’, to become’, appear, look, feel, turn etc. have to be followed by the adjectives

rather than adverbs

For example: The president felt sad.

He grew big.

ANTONETA appears smart

6
Kajare, J.S. English language for Advanced level Students; 2007:58-59
7
Sreedharan, V. How to Write Correct English, pg 75

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All bold words are adjectives as the add information about nouns and pronouns.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ADJECTIVES

 Adjectives pre modify nouns eg. The big fat hen.

 Adjectives can be seen in comparative and superative

small – smaller, smallest

 Adjectives can occur as complements alone; the house is beautiful

 Most adjectives allow additional of – ly to make it adverb. Happily, kindly etc

 Adjectives can be intensified by very etc.

a very notorious girl

Suffixes of adjectives

-able, -al, -ous, -some, -y, -full, -like, -less, -ive, -ous, -ant, -ish etc.

Functions of adjectives

They can functions as complement or the object or subject; Mary is beautiful

I will be sad

 Adjectives are used as exclamations

Marvelous!

 Adjectives can post modify nouns

Eg. Anything, new? Something important?

 They (adjectives) can be shortened (verbless clause)

Call me later if possible

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  They may appear as the heads of NP ie The unacceptable, you are talking the

impossible.

Kinds of Adjectives

Wren & Martin (ibid) propose that adjectives are divided into the following classes or

kinds;

 Descriptive adjectives

These adjectives are used to describe or to show the qualities of the nouns or

pronouns.

Examples

1. these are Chinese phones.

2. Lushoto is very mountainous district.

3. Mateso is a lazy guy.

The italic words in examples 1 to 3 are descriptive adjectives because they describe

the qualities of corresponding nouns.

 Adjectives of Quantity

These adjectives give or show how much things are involved or how the nouns are

meant. These adjectives answer the question how much.

Examples

4. I had enough time to think about it.

5. She spent the whole day reading novel.

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6. Few commodities were sold.

Again, examples 4 to 6 indicate quantity adjectives. These are the ones with italic and so

they show how much the corresponding nouns are meant.

 Adjectives of Number

These are sometimes called Numerical adjectives. They are used to show the number

of nouns involved. They always answer the question how many nouns.

7. Mama Masumbuko has twelve children.

8. He is the first born.

9. They were neither chosen president of IJASO.

 Demonstrative Adjectives

These are the adjectives that show demonstrate which person or thing is meant. It

points out the particular noun in relation to the speaker.

Consider examples 10 and 11 below;

10. This boy is naughty.

11. Those who came here yesterday.

The both examples above show demonstrative adjectives which are written in italic

way.

 Interrogative adjectives

These are the adjectives together with nouns are used to ask questions.

Examples

12. Which road shall I pass?

13. Whose boyfriend is this person?

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 1.1.3 ADVERBS

These words are used to modify other word classes such as verbs, adjectives, adverbs

etc. Adverbs specify the mode of action of verbs.

Example; yesterday, very, frankly, normally etc.

There are two functions of adverbs such as

i. They are used to modify other words

Ie. I am frankly tired

She spoke to every body

The day after tomorrow

ii. They are adverbial dance elements

Eg. You are leaving tomorrow

Types of adverbs

There are three types of adverbs

i. Single adverbs; are made up of a single adverb i.e. soon, just, alike etc

ii. Compound adverbs; they are combined with more than one adverbs

Eg. Please come early in the morning

It is some how difficult.

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 iii. Complex adverbs, they normally end with suffixes such as –ly as in normally,

occasionally, happily, sandy rainy,etc

THE MEANING OF ADVERBS

Adverbs are further subdivided depending on the meaning they convey

Space; They live in rural (where)

I went to playing ground

Time; I will visit him on Saturday (when)

I lived here since 1961

They often go to the dancing hall

Process (manner, instrument, and means) how

She walks slowly

I spoke to the phone

She eats with spoons

Degree You have answered it sufficiently

I ‘m badly missed you

Modality; I certainly accept your proposal.

1.1.4 VERBS

What is a verb?

A verb is a word that expresses the event, action, the process or activity done by the

subject. Nouns are doing and action words. Verb refers to the kind of the word that

shows the action, state of being or event done by the subject.

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Types of Verbs

According to Thomson and Martinet (1986)8 verbs are identified into two classes, which

are;

(i) Main verbs (V)

(ii) Auxiliary verbs (Aux)

Main Verb

The main verbs stand on their own and give complete meaning of the action. Example

walks, dance, play, sing etc. because they show the action of doing something. The word

go is the main verb since it shows the action of moving from one place to another.

Types of Main Verb

Main verbs are also being subdivided into two types:-

(i) Regular verbs, they have special regular ending form used to mark past and

past participle played, danced, jumped, arrived etc

(ii) Irregular verbs, they have irregular or no special endings when marking past

or past participle come, see, run, eat, write etc.

Auxiliary Verbs

Auxiliary verbs are the verbs that cannot stand alone and give complete meaning. The

main function of the auxiliary verbs is to help the main verbs in its completion of their

8
Thomson and Martinet, A Practical English Grammar, 1986:105

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functions. Examples of auxiliary verbs include verbs such as be, have, do, may, shall,

ought.

The form of the verb changes due to time. Example the verb GO has different forms or

realizations such as

GO> GOES > GOING > WENT > GONE

All these forms of the verb go changes because of the changes in time. Therefore, time

has a great ability in changing the forms of the verbs. When the form of the verb changed

because of time, this is called TENSE.

INDICATORS OF TIME

There are several indicators that will help us in identifying certain kinds of tenses or time.

These include the use of the following words in sentences

TENSE/ TIME INDICATORS

Simple present tense Always, normally, every, daily, often etc.
Present Continuous tense now
Present Perfect Just now
Present Perfect Continuous Since/ for
Simple Past Yesterday, last….
Past Continuous/ past perfect When….
Future time Will/ shall/ going to….
Future Continuous This time tomorrow
Future Perfect By this time tomorrow

TENSE

What is the tense?

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Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (2003)9 defines the word tense as any

form of the verb that shows the time, continuance or completion of an action or state that

is expressed by the verb. So generally, tense has something to do with the form of verb

that describes the action in a specific time. There are three key words in defining the term

tense, which are the form of the verb, the action as well as the time. The form of verb

changes due to changes in time. So each time has its own specific form of the verb.

Examples;

I am (present tense)

I was …( past tense)

I will be …..(Future time)

TYPES OF TENSES

Tenses can be classified into three main types. These types are as follow;

1. Present tense

2. Past tense

3. Future time

PRESENT TENSE

This is the kind of the tense which indicates the action taking place in the present time. It

may be either habitual actions, ongoing action or completed actions. Following these

kinds of action in present tense, helps in identifying and understanding the subtypes of

the present tense. There are three subtypes of present tense which are;

 Simple present tense

9
Person Education Limited, LDCE, 2003:1709

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  Present continuous tense

 Present perfect tense

 Present perfect continuous tense

The present continuous, present perfect continuous and present perfect tense are treated

by most linguists as parts of Aspects rather than tense

SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE

Simple present tense is the tense that shows the habitual action or repeated events.

Eastwood (1999)10 argues that we use simple present in following circumstances;

 For repeated actions i.e. She goes to school every day,

 feelings or thought i.e. I think he is right,

 states, things staying the same or facts i.e. We live quite near,

 Future meaning ie the new semester starts soon.

More examples;

She likes ugali.

I come here daily.

Indicators

Always, normally, occasionally, often, every,

Usually, regularly, never, ever etc.

10
Eastwood, J, Oxford Practice Grammer with with Answers 1999: 10

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 Rule

1) For all first, second persons and third plural [I,we,you, they]

Subject + V

I write notes every day.

2) For third person singular [he, she, it]

[He/ she/ It or Jane] +V + -s,-es, -ies

She goes to school

It rains everyday

It flies on the sky.

PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE

Eastwood (ibid) argues that we use the present continuous tense for something happening

now. Generally, present continuous tense indicates the on going actions or actions that

are happening or taking place on the moment of speaking and continue to happen.

Example:

1) I am lecturing students now.

2) We are listening to the teacher

3) They are sitting down

Formula

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 Subject + present (be) + V + ing

4. It is shining at this moment

5. Are we reading this book now?

6 Jane and Zaina are not traveling today.

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

Melaku argues that present perfect tense is used to describe action completed either in the

recent past or at an indefinite time in the past

Formula

Subject + (has have) + past participle of the verb

She/He + It + Jane + has + past participle

I /we/you/they/ students + have + past participle

1) I have written notes.

2) She has eaten some food now.

3) Father and mother have just arrived

4) Have you already decided?

5) It has not rained today.

PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS ASPECT

According to Thomson and Martinet (1999) the present perfect continuous is used for an

action, which begin in the past and still continuing or has only just finished

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 1) I have been waiting for an hour and he still hasn’t turned up.

2) I am so sorry I am late. How you been waiting long?

Formula

Subject + has/have +been + V + ing

The indicators for the present perfect continuous are the use of since and for in the

sentence. This aspect involves three different tenses such as present (has/have), perfect

(been) and continuous tense (V+ ing)

Consider the following sentences

1) I have been living here since 1998.

2) She has been working there for three consecutive years.

3) Jane has not been studying for short time.

4) Have I been copying your behavior?

5) How long have you been learning English?

6) For a long time it has been barking out.

These sentences 1-6 are examples of present perfect continuous aspect. They began in the

past and can be either continuing as in examples 1 and 6 and may also have just

completed recently example 2 and 3 indicate that the action has been completed within

that time. (Thomson and Martinet, 199911)

11
Thomson and Martinet, A practical English Grammar, 1999 173

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SIMPLE PAST TENSE

What is Simple Past tense?

Leech, G and Svartvile [1994]12 argue that the past tense refers to definite time in the

past which may be identified by past time adverbial in the same sentence, the preceding

language context and the context outside language.

Consider

1. Amos was born in 1982

2. He arrived last month.

3. Did you accept him?

Wren and Martin (2004) 13 argue that this tense is used to indicate an action complete

in the past. The actions took place in the previous time.

Indicators

Yesterday, last, previous, ago

Formula

There is no specific formula for simple past tense because verbs can be either regular or

irregular verbs. For regular verbs, the formula is:

[ Subject + V + (d) ed]

Example;

4. The baby cried throughout the night.

5. They played football yesterday.

There is no formula for irregular verbs since these verbs have no specific ending.

Consider these examples,

12
Leek and Svartvik, A Communicative Grammar of English, 1994:68-69
13
Wren and Martin; High School English Grammar and Composition; 2004:83

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 6. She ate ugali yesterday.

7. We visited our grandfather last year.

8. Shilla went to Arusha two weeks ago.

9. Did she come here the previous week?

10. Madame did not travel to Serengeti.

THE PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE

This is the combination of the two tenses such as past (past verb be i.e. was, were) and

continuous tense (V + ing).

According to Wren and Martin, (ibid) the past continuous tense is used to denote an

action going on at sometime in the past. Here the argument is that the action was going to

take place in the past time and ended when the other action was taking place.

Indicator

The main indicator for the past continuous tense is the use of when that introduces the

subordinate clause.

Consider

1) She was writing notes when her father came.

2) Were they sitting down when the guest arrived?

3) When I saw him, he was dancing Ndombolo.

Example, in I the action of writing notes started in the past time and it went on or

continued up to the time when her father came.

THE PAST PERFECT TENSE

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 This is the combination of two tenses such as past tense and perfect tense as in (had)

past participle (perfect) respectively. This tense is used to show the action that had been

completed in the past time Wren and Martin (ibid) argue that this tense describes the

action completed before a certain moment in the past time.

Indicators

The main indicator of the past perfect tense is the use of WHEN. However, other

indicators may be before, after, while etc. The difference between this tense and past

continuous is the fact that the action is complete when the action took place while in past

continuous the action was still going on.

Formula

Subject + had + past participle

Examples;

1) She had eaten.

2) They had already gone before teacher arrived.

3) Had you written notes when he rubbed the board?

4) Kisa had not attended the meeting.

5) The bus had gone even before I reached the station.

6) A thief had surrendered when we reported to the police.

THE PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

According to Eastwood, John (1999) the past perfect continuous is used for an

action completed over a period ago. We are thinking of the action going on. Wren

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 and Martin (ibid) argue that this tense is used for an action that began before a

certain point in the past and continued up to that time. The combination of three

tenses such as past ( had), perfect (been) as well as continuous tense (V +ing)

Examples

1) At the time when we reported, Mlundi had been teaching there

2) He had been working there for three years when the company ran economic

crisis.

FUTURE TIME

Some time we talk of the actions that are not yet to happen and are expected to happen

sometimes to come may be tomorrow, next year ext.

SIMPLE FUTURE TIME

This is kind of the time that is used to express the actions that are expected to happen in

the coming time.

1. I shall visit my uncle tomorrow.

2. She will pay her fees next month.

3. Mr. Mkunjulu is going to meet her today.

Indicators

(Tomorrow, next, time to come)

Three forms are used mostly to denote future time. These are shall, will and going to.

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 Eastwood (1999) argues that we use WILL to say what we know or think about the

future in which it has neutral meaning. The word WILL is used mostly to the third person

singular. It is used to an instant decision not on the idea that have been decided or

planned.

4. I am hungry I think I will eat Ugali.

Shall

We use shall for the future but only on the first person I and the plural of any thing e.g.

they, students etc

5. I shall visit him.

6. They shall make appointment.

Shall is also used to give offer, suggestion

7. Shall we go there?

Formula

Subject + will

Shall +V

Be + going to

Going to: Is also used to denote future tense especially when we have decided to do

something before saying it.

Examples:

8. Kikwete is going to represent the speech

9. I am not going to visit you this weekend

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 FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE

What is future continuous?

This kind of tense indicates the action that is going to continue to happen in the coming

time. The action has not yet happened but will take place in future and will be going on.

It talks about actions, which will be in progressive in the future.

Indicator

1. This time tomorrow

2. I will be traveling this time tomorrow.

Formula

Subject + will/shall +be + V + ing

1) Do not come at 8:00, I will be sleeping.

2) This month next year, she will be arriving home.

3) He will not be seeing us next week.

4) Shall you be marrying next week?

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE

This is the combination of two tenses future (will/shall), and perfect ( have + past

participle).It is used to indicate the action that will be completed by certain time in the

future.

Indicator

By this time tomorrow

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Formula

Subject + will/she + have + past participle

1) She will have completed the exams by this time next Friday.

2) By the next year, I will have married that boy.

3) It will have gone by the time you go there.

4) I will not have done the test by this time tomorrow.

5) Shall I not have visited you before you visit me?

FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

This is the combination of the three different tenses such as future (shall/will) perfect

(have + been) continuous tense ( V +ing) According to Wren and Martin, (2004:88)

future perfect continuous tense is used to for action which will be in progress over a

period of time that will end in the future.

Formula

Subject + will/shall + have + been + V +ing

1) By the end of December, we will have been living there for five years.

2) I the coming month, we shall have been working have for 10 years.

3) I shall have been teaching for ten years by July 2011.

4) By the year 2020, James will have been working as Advocate for forty years.

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MINOR WORD CLASSES/CLOSED LEXICAL CATEGORIES

1.1.5 DETERMINERS (DET)

What is determiner?

Determiner is a word that determines or co-occurs with nouns to express quantity,

number, possession and definiteness.

Example

The book

Many blue pencils.

Examples of determiners include [a, an, the, many, several, few, all, my, her, his etc]

1.1.6 AUXILIARY VERBS [AUX]

These are kinds of verbs that help the main verb to function. They are used with the main

verbs and often precede verb phrase or in question they precede NP. Examples are may,

might, shall should, will would, can could and verb be [is, are, was]

Types of Auxiliary Verbs

Auxiliary verbs are divided into two types

Modal Aux. verbs, they help the main verb

[shall – should, will –would, can-could, may-might, dare, must, ought – need to etc.

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Primary Auxiliary, these have both modal auxiliaries and main verb these are; do, have

and be.

Functions of Auxiliary verbs

1. Are used for inversion of statement to questions

e.g. Are you leaving? You are leaving

2. Aux. Are used for negation

Eg. I do not accept

3. Are used for tag question;

Eg. He is present, isn’t he?

4. Marks tense of verb

E.g He was traveling (past tense)

1.1.7 PRONOUNS (PRO)

What is a pronoun?

A pronoun is a word that is used to replace or represent the nouns. They are used instead

or in the place of nouns or noun phrase. Examples he, she, it, I, we, you, her, that etc.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PRONOUNS

1. They have similar function as NP i.e. they can be subject or object

He loves her.

2. They do not allow modification

The man with black suit.

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 * He with the black suit.

3. They differentiate human vs non human

He/ she/ I/ we for human and it for non-human.

4. They distinguish singular and plural

I we

He/she/it you

You they

5. The indicate persons

1 I We
2 You You

3 He/she/it They

Types of pronouns

There are many types of pronouns

1. Personal pronouns

These pronouns are used to identify the speaker or a person

e.g. I, we, you, they, she, he

2. Possessive pronouns

They show possession (attributive & predicative)

e.g my, her, his, our, their for attributive and mine, hers, his, ours, theirs for

predicative

3. Demonstrative PRO; demonstrate the position

This, this, these, that those etc.

4. Reflexive PRO; add suffixes self/selves

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 Myself, ourselves, himself, themselves

5 Relative PRO used to post modify relative clause

That book which is stolen,

5. Interrogatives; are used to ask questions,

e.g which, what, where, how, which etc

1.1.8 PREPOSITONS (P)

What is proposition?

Is a word that shows relationship among words. Prepositions combine with Noun Phrase

to form DP which modify nouns or verbs.

Examples at, in, on, under, near, beside, inside, with, on behalf of, accordance to etc.

1 .The man with knife

2. he ran down the nouns.

EXERCISE

1. Considering the meaning, types, characteristics and functions; discuss the

following word categories with examples;

(1) Conjunctions,

(2) Exclamations

(3) Articles

(4) Particles

(5) Interjections

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 B. SYNTAX

What is Syntax?

Syntax is the one of the subfields of linguistics that deals with the rules and principles of

forming large units of language such as phrases and sentences. Syntax studies the

organization of words into phrases, clauses as well as sentences.

PHRASES

What is a phrase?

A phrase is the group of words that together have particular meaning. Or a phrase is a

group of words without finite verb that are used to form the larger units of language such

as clauses and sentences. In a phrase, one main word is called Headword. The headword

is one that carries the meaning of the whole phrase. Without headword, there is no

phrase.

Types of Phrases

There are four types of phrases. These phrases are as follow;

1. Noun Phrase NP

Noun Phrase is a word or group of words whose headword is a noun. It can be formed by

only one noun or pronoun or by group of several words. If is only one noun or pronoun,

this is called simple NP but is there several words on it then it is called complex NP.

Examples

1. He is sleeping now

NP

2. Father and mother are sleeping.

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 NP

3. The man who came here yesterday has gone to sleep.

NP

As shown above NP can be simple as in example 1 or very complex as in examples 2.and

3. However complex the NP could be, NP is divided into the four parts namely;

1. The head

2. The Determiners

3. The pre-modification

4. The post modifications

The HEAD is the obligatory part of NP and without it the phrase becomes meaning. It

controls other words and verb concord in the sentence. It is called the Head word (Hw)

and it can be a noun, pronoun, adjective, the Gerund verb.

CONTITUENTS OF NP

Noun Phrase constitutes three important aspects. These are as follow;

 Headword

 Determiners

 Modifications

DETERMINERS

Determiners are the words that determine the number and the definiteness of the Nouns

phrase DET precedes the Nouns, example a, an, the, some few, those, these etc.

KINDS OF DETERMINERS

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There are three kinds of determiners in the Nouns phrase. These are:

(1) Pre determiners (2) Central determiners (3) Post determiners

Pre determiners Central Det Post det HEAD

Both Articles [a, an, the] Cardinal no

Double Demonstrative One, two

Half [This, that these] Ordinal no

Twice Possessives First, second

Mary [My, her] General

Such Quantifiers ordinals

What [Any, no every Next, last other

Two third Each, either] Quantifiers

Wh-determiners Few, little

[Whatever, whichever, whoever] Several, less

All Those Several Presenters

PreDet. Central Det Post Det. Hw

MODIFICATION

Modification involves giving more information of the head word in the NP. It involves

two types:

(1) Pre modifications

(2) Post modification

PREMODIFICATION (PRE MOD)

These are all information that modify head and are written, before the head. They

include adjective, participles, noun, gerund, adverb phrase and sentence.

32
 One NP may have one or several adjectives as pre modifiers.

These adjectives are arranged in certain chronological order

The General (Good, cheap etc)

The size (Small, big huge, large)

The shape (Fat, round, thin, slim

Quantity (Few, six, ten)

Age (old, young)

Colour (real, brown, green, black)

Substance (wooden , plastic, METAL

Deviational & Nationality (Afghan, American, Sudanese

Head word

Example

The good expensive, big modern, rounded one new Iron roofed house

1 2 3 4 5 6 9

general size shape quantity Age color substance nationality head

The good big rounded one New Iron roofed house

expensive

POST MODIFICATION (POST MOD.)

Are the words used after the head word that are used to modify the Head word. These

post modifiers can be;

33
  Relative clause, the woman who helped the poor blind man

 adjectives i.e. Attorney General,

 Adjective & PP i.e. students good at English,

 Adjective & comparative degree i.e. a student more intelligent than teacher,

 adjective infinitive clause; a task easy to accomplish,

 NP i.e. man (the age of your father),

 infinitive clause (to win the match, men hunting elephants, students selected to

IJA,

 prepositional phrase, the cigarette (in the box)

 Adverb phrase the way to the market etc.

1.2.1 VERBAL PHRASE (VP)

This is the simple verb or group of words who is the main word or headword is the main

verb. Other scholars argue that what comes after the NP is verb phrase.

Examples

The grandfather likes to tell us story during the evening

NP VP

The verb phrase consists of the Auxiliary verbs, the main verb together with NP an PP.

The auxiliary verbs can be modal auxiliary verbs like should, could and primary auxiliary

like be, have.

34
He has gone to school

He has been going to school for four years

Other scholars refers it as Phrasal Verb meaning the group of words that is used as a verb

and consists of a verb with adverb or preposition after it i.e. look after, switch off etc.

TRANSITIVITY

Transitivity refers to the ability of the verb to carry objects. Some verbs have ability to

carry object while others do not.

Intransitive Verb {ITV}

These verbs cannot carry object. These verbs are called Intransitive verbs (ITV)

Examples appear, die, happen enjoy, want, lie etc.

Example

He is going to school.

Ashura died last year.

Transitive Verbs [TV]

There are verbs that carry the object as their obligatory part. These are called transitive

verb (TV). They can carry objects or complements.

Types of transitive verbs

They are divided into three types;

35
 1. Monotransitive verb; refers to the ability of the verb to carry only one object

(direct object)

He has bought an exercise book

2. Ditransitive verb; the verb carries two objects

Direct object & indirect object

He bought her a gift.

3. Complex transitive; the verb carries either object or Adverbs or object and

complement students made him chairperson. He put the idea across.

Linking verbs

These are of two types

1. Current Linking Verb (CLV); they indicate state.

He remained calm.

He appeared smart.

2. Resulting Attribute (RA)

They give the outcomes or result of the event

He became sick

1.2.2 PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE

36
Normally this is the group of words consisting of preposition together with prepositional

complement. Prepositional complement can be;

i) An NP i.e. students in the class,

ii) A-wh-clause; i.e. sometimes it is wise to hear on what elders advice; -

iii) - ing clause i.e. By accepting an offer, it was silence killing to Juma.

FUNCTIONS OF PP’s

1. PP function as adverbials;

E.g. She lives in modern house

2. PP function as post modifiers in NP

The house we lived in is on fire.

3. As verb complement

E.g. He was desired on his hard working

4. PP as Adjective complement

e.g. Othman is smart in theft

5. PP as NP

e.g. We visit parent during the holidays

6. Subject complement

He seems in deep feelings

1.2.3 ADVERBIAL PHRASE [ADVP]

These are group of words whose headword is the adverb. They may be formed out of

sequence of adverbs or may be together with other word classes like verbs or

prepositions.

37
Example

1. He came here early in the morning

ADVP

2. Ally is frankly tired

ADVP

3. She accepted his marriage proposal after six months

ADVPuyft

1.3 CLAUSES

1.3.0 The meaning of the clause

A clause is the group of words and is one of the largest grammatical units with the

subject together with the finite verb. A group of words with a verb within it is called a

clause. A clause cannot be a phrase because phrase is not necessarily having verb. A

clause can be a simple sentence since a sentence can have one verb or more verbs.

Example

Mwanaharamu eats porks

This can be either a clause or a simple sentence

Although his parents are saved, Mwanaharam is thief.

Clause 1 clause 2

This construction (sentence) has two clauses (two verbs; saved & is)

38
A clause description

A clause can be described or analyzed by the three ways as shown under the following

table

A clause

Clause elements Use Functions

S V O C A finite infinite

Infinitive verbless wh Relative

1.3.1 CLAUSE ELEMENTS/ SYNTACTIC STRUCTURES

A clause has five clause elements which are also called syntactic structures. These are as

follow;

1. Subject 2. Verb 3. Object 4. Complement 5. Adverbial

1.3.1.1 SUBJECT (S)

A subject refers to the doer of the actions in the sentence. Somebody or something, which

is agent and it, is doing or performing the activity. It can be one word or group of words.

Normally in Active sentences subject is in the beginning of the sentence and in passive, it

becomes optional part in the end of the sentence preceded by phrase.

Example

A. He killed a lion

Subject

39
B. A lion was killed (by him)

Sub

A subject can be;

1. A noun, e.g. Lions are dangerous.

2. Pronoun, e.g. they are shouting.

3. NP e.g. The tall slim black girl won miss Tanzania competition.

4. Wh-clause e.g. where she has gone is unknown)

5. To- infinitive e.g. to study hard is to realize dreams.

6. That clause e.g. that Feruzi completed school would mean better life.

7. Gerund e.g. Exercising is following doctor’s advice.

1.3.1.2 VERBS (V)

Is another clause element that takes the position of the verb. It can be single verb or

auxiliary verbs together with the main verb. This is widely discussed in verb and in verb

phrase.

1.3.1.3 OBJECT

Object refers to the person, thing or animal that is affected by the action or verb

Teacher has punished three students

S V O

When passivized, an object takes the position of a subject

Example

40
Three students have been punished by the teacher.

TYPES OF OBJECT

There are two types of objects which are;

1. Direct object (Od)

2. Indirect object (Oi)

DIRECT OBJECT

This is one of the elements that is directly affected by the verb. If it is only one in

sentence is just object. But if two objects are present in sentence, Direct Object comes

after the indirect object.

Example

He bought his mother a khanga

S V Oi Od

INDIRECT OBJECT

This is the type of the object which is affected by the action indirectly. It is normally the

human who is the beneferies of the circumstance.

Mr. Kalunguyeye built his father a modern house

S V Oi Od

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A COMPLEMENT (C)

A complement is clause element that gives more information about either subject or

object.

It is divided into groups

1. Subject complement (Cs)

2. Object complement (Co)

Subject complement (Cs)

Refers to the complement that adds more information about the subject.

Example

1. Mr. Matangopori is a generous man Cs

2. She seems happy

Object complement. (Co)

This complement adds more information to the object

Example

She painted the house white colour

O Co

The class selected Aron the class monitor

O Co

ADVERBIAL (A)

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This gives extra information about the action, state or event. It can be about place, time

and manner. Adverbial can be;

 an adverb, i.e. She will be here soon

 AdvP, i.e. Malegeza came here early in the morning yesterday.

 PP, i.e. we lived in Arusha.

 Finite clause i.e. He did the although he was sick exams,

 non finite clause

 to-infinitive, ed, inf.,

 NP,

 Verb-less clause.

 Many adverbs. We were studying in the class today.

TYPES OF CLAUSES

There are two main types of a clause. These are;

(1) Independent clause (main clause)

(2) Dependent clause (sub ordinate clause)

Independent clause (main clause)

This is the clause which carries a finite verb and it is complete on itself (gives a complete

meaning). The main clause has a quality of a simple sentence.

Examples;

43
1. I like ugali

2. The woman was traveling to Mwanza

Examples 1 and 2 above are the main clauses. This is because they have one finite verb,

they can stand themselves and give complete meaning.

Dependent clause (Subordinate clause)

As the name suggesting, this clause is not complete in isolation, it depends on the main

clause for its completion of the meaning.

Normally it is coordinated by subordinate conjunctions.

Example

3. When father came we all entered in our rooms

Dep.cl.

FUNCTIONS OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSE

Subordinate clause has different function as;

 Subject

e.g. That our teacher is transferring is obvious imposible.

 Object

it is obvious that our teacher is dismissed.

 Adverbial;

e.g. I will go to school when I get chance

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  Post modifier of NP

E.g. I want wife who will not drink alcohol.

 Complement of preposition;

E.g. that will depend on the topic

IDENTIFICATION OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSE

1) The presence of subordinate conjunction, although, though in case, provided that,

inspite of, if even though.

2) The presence of comma after or before subordinate clause

What I want, my husband

3) The presence of to infinitive; to pray is the key to life

4) The presence of particles ed-ing i.e. Having prayed, we all went to sleep.

5) Inversion; Had I known, I would not have accepted the offer.

6) That clause i.e. that he came early pleased his boss.

7) Wh-clause i.e. what he knew is not what was needed.

1.4 A SENTENCE

1.4.0 Introduction

Sentences have been important aspect of the grammar that has attracted many linguistic

scholars to do their detailed studies on the subtopic. There are many school of thoughts of

how should exactly sentences be looked at in different languages. There is considerable

literature on English sentences rather than other languages especially Bantu languages.

45
Scholars have made sentence to be very complicated to the extent of making the topic

look strange to the native speakers of the language. The main goal of this paper is to

simplify the complexity of sentences. It will be used mainly to colleges and institutes that

use Competence Based Curriculum and even high school students. It will focus on the

concept of sentence, its kinds, its parts, its types as well as its correct use of complete

sentences in academic writing of English sentences.

Example

Anne Kilango is very courageous women

NP VP

S
NP VP
N N V ADVP
Anne Kilango is ADV NP

very A N
courageous woman
1.4.1 THE CONCEPT OF SENTENCE

The concept sentence has been viewed differently by different scholars. According to

Wren and Martin (2004) when we speak or write we use words. These authors define

sentence as a group of words that make a complete sense. The similar definition is given

by Melaku, T.A ( )14 where he defines a sentence as a group of words that expresses a

complete thought. He further argues that the purpose of the sentence is to show the action

or state of the person, place etc. p 92.

‘… The purpose of a sentence is to describe an action or a state condition of a person, a

place, a thing, an idea.’

14
Melaku’s book Simplified English Grammar has not been indicated year of publication.

46
These two definitions have been criticized by Kadeghe, M. (2005) by arguing that they

have problems. He describes the two problems such as how will one know how to define

a complete thought. And the second problem raised by Kadeghe is that of difficulties

people face in establishing the boundaries between a word and sentence in some

languages like Kiswahili. He provides his definition by saying that a sentence is the

highest syntactic unit of the language made up of one or several clauses.

This study agrees with Kadeghe that a sentence is the highest syntactic unit of the

language. This is true since any language is built up from smaller units that are combined

together forming the larger units such as phrases, clauses and sentences. In this case

sentence is the highest syntactic unit. The smaller units include phonemes and

morphemes. However this definition should not be taken as one and correct way of

defining sentence. By saying sentence is made up of one or several clauses may be true or

not depending on what type of the clause is described. It is not any clause that can be

treated or qualify to be sentence. There are clauses that are not sentences. Consider the

following construction 1-5 here below;

Examples

1. When he arrived there.

2. As soon as he arrived there.

3. Although he arrived there.

4. Arriving there.

5. Washed his hands.

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The above five examples can be treated as clauses since they are the groups of words that

consist of the verbs within them. However these can not be treated as sentences though

they are clauses. All dependent clauses in isolation can not be treated as sentences. Why

dependent clause cannot qualify to be treated as sentence? This question takes us back to

the first problem raised by Kadeghe. The question of complete thought. How one does

define complete thought. I think one will define complete thought if he/ she is left with

no question. That is if such a person gets the full information described by the speaker.

This is called complete sense or idea. In the examples 1-5 above, the hearer will have

many questions in his head such as when he arrived what happened. This shows the

incomplete thought.

Therefore this study recognizes the completeness of the idea, thought or sense. It

therefore defines a sentence as the largest syntactic unit of the language that gives

complete ideas, thoughts or senses. All main clauses are sentences since they give

complete idea and the hearer is left with no question as shown in examples 6-8 below;

Examples;

6. He works hard.

7. I went to the market yesterday.

8. Masumbuko will be traveling to Arusha this time tomorrow.

9. When he arrived there he greeted all people.

10. Washed his hands Maalim started praying.

Although sentences 9-10 contain dependent clauses but become sentences since there are

main clauses that complete the idea or thought.

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1.4.2 PARTS OF THE SENTENCES

Despite the differences of argument presented by different linguistic scholars, most of

them come to the agreement that sentences are made up of two parts. This is supported by

Wren and Martin (2004) who present two parts of sentences that are subject and

predicate.

1.4.2.1 Subject

Subject is defined by these two scholars as the part of the sentence that name some

person or thing. Generally this part of the sentence shows the doer of the action. It can be

a person, animal or a thing that performs the activity or action. This is called subject.

Normally in active sentences subject is positioned in the begging of the sentence.

Melaku (ibid) classifies subjects into three kinds namely simple subject, compound

subject as well as complex subject. He defines simple subject as a noun or pronoun that

states whom or what the sentence is about. He further argues that simple subject does not

include the modifier of the noun but normally it is made up of one word or some times

more than one word like the title names etc. consider the following examples;

11. Anna will visit the orphanage centre.

12. The president Kikwete went to Tabora yesterday.

13. The visitors left national park early in the morning.

14. She visited me last weekend.

The bolded words in the examples 11-14 show the simple subjects. They are called

simple subjects since they are made up of either single word or several related words that

can be changed into a personal pronoun.

49
In describing compound subject; Melaku argues that compound subject is simple subject

that consists of two or more nouns or pronouns. It reflects the fact that a compound is

made up of more than one thing. So in compound subjects more than one noun is put

together with coordinating conjunctions. Consider the following sentences here below;

15. Mateso and Masumbuko stole few chickens.

16. All the three boys together with five girls got division one..

17. Adam, Mary, Ashura and Mwanahawa wrote some notes.

The underlined three subjects in examples 15-17 indicate the compound subjects. They

are called compound subject since they are made up of more than one noun.

The last kind of subject is that of complex subject. Melaku (ibid) defines complex subject

as a subject that consists of simple subject together with all the words that modify or

identify it. This idea is supported by Leech, G. and Svartvik,(1994) adding that this kind

of the subject may include subordinate clause and what they call subjunctives. These

kinds of the clauses are said to have subordinators such as that, although, when, as soon

as, if, while etc. consider the following examples;

18. A person who came here yesterday has gone to Nairobi.

19. When she saw him she collapsed on the spot.

20. Working with board of directors gave him confidence.

21. If I were you I wouldn’t refuse his offer.

22. The car that Mr. Mlundi owns got an accident recently.

50
The underlined constructions in the examples 18-22 are good examples of what Leech

and Svartrik call complex subjects.

1.4.2 Predicate

Predicate is defined by Wren and Martin (ibid) as a part of the sentence that tells

something about the subject. This part of the sentence consists of the verb together with

other words that complement it. Predicate shows how action takes place. Predicate can be

formed out by simple verb or verb together with other words that follow it. This gives

chance to Melaku to divide predicate into three types namely; simple predicates,

compound predicates as well as complex predicates.

Starting with simple predicate Melaku defines it as the verb or verb phrase that describes

the action or states the condition of the subject. He further asserts that simple predicate

does not include modifiers and words that complete the meaning of the verb. Consider

the following examples;

23. She wears tight clothes.

24. We were sleeping yesterday.

25. James had been thinking to become the minister.

Compound predicate refers to the predicate that combine two or more verbs of different

status. It involves two or more verb or verb phrases which in most cases is conjucted by

coordinating conjunctions. Consider the following examples;

26. Shakira was singing and dancing yesterday.

27. The lion suddenly stopped, gazed the hare and then ran after it.

51
 28. Padre Nyomi sang, prayed and wished best of luck on Christmas day.

Complete predicate is described by Melaku as predicate that consists of the simple

predicate and all the modifiers and words that complete the meaning of the verb.

Consider the following sentences below;

29. The IJA selected students only those who got division 1 and 2.

30. The teacher cleaned the blackboard and wrote it again.

31. The soldiers listened to captain carefully.

Other linguistic scholars argue that sentences are made up of two main parts that are

Noun Phrase NP for subject and Verb Phrase VP for predicate. But all in all every

sentence must have these two parts. This is supported by Wren and Martin (ibid)

when they say pg 2 ‘… hence every sentence has two parts subject and predicate.’

They further argue that the subject comes first before predicate. Occasionally subject

may be put in the end especially in passive sentences. Also in imperative sentences

the subject YOU are understood by the hearer so it is left out by the speaker. These

sentences below prove the above assertion..

Examples;

32. Here comes the queen of the England.

33. They were sentenced five years jail by the magistrate.

34. (You) come here.

The bolded words in examples 32-34 indicate different positions subjects take in some

circumstances rather than its usual initial position.

52
1.4.3 TYPES OF SENTENCES

Linguistic scholars again differ considerably when it comes to the point of classifying the

types of sentences. Here scholars have different views on how sentences can be divided.

These scholars are divided into two groups. First group is the functionalist scholars and

second ones are the formalist scholars. Functionalist scholars are those scholars who

divide the types of sentences according to the functions or purposes of the sentences in

the language. The formalists are those linguistic scholars who classify types of sentences

according to the form or structures of the sentences in the language.

Hence, there are two ways of classifying sentences i.e. types according to purposes of the

sentences and types according to the structures or forms of the sentences.

TYPES OF SENTENCES DUE TO THEIR FUNCTIONS/ PURPOSES

In this group of scholars, they divide types of sentences according to their purposes or

functions these sentences play in the language. These scholars divide sentences into

four types which are as follow;

 Declarative sentences

 Imperative sentences

 Interrogative sentences

 Exclamatory sentences

DECLARATIVE SENTENCES

Wren and Martin (2004) defines declarative sentence as the kind of the sentence that

makes a statement or assertion. According to Melaku (ibid) this kind of sentence

53
 usually ends with the period or full stop. Most of the sentences we speak or write are

declaratives; consider the following examples;

35. She wrote notes yesterday.

36. It’s so hot today.

37. I appreciate your kindness

38. The President Mkapa is attending Obama’s inauguration day.

These sentences are good examples of declaratives. They give information or statements

or assertions. Declarative sentences usually start with subject and then are followed by

simple predicate.

INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES

This is another kind of the sentences in which according to Melaku it is used to ask

questions. In this kind of the sentence it always ends with the question mark (?). People

ask questions when they need to know some information they do not know. In English

language interrogative usually start with WH – words or AUXILIARY verbs. The

primary function of the interrogatives is to express the lack of information so the speaker

or the hearer is searching for the missing information. The following are good examples

of interrogative sentences;

39. What is your name?

40. Where were you yesterday?

41. Is the chairman going to make the speech?

42. How did this happen?

43. Did you accept his invitation?

54
44. When did Martha get married?

IMPERATIVE SENTENCES

This kind of the sentence is primarily used to give order, command or entreaties.

(Kadeghe 2005; Wren and Martin 2004; Melaku). Its basic subject, the second person

YOU is understood by both speaker and hearer so the speaker usually leaves it out.

Imperatives are usually used by superior to the inferior to give command or order.

Sometimes negative may be used or even may use third person as in example 46. The

following are good examples of the imperative sentences;

45. (You) clean the blackboard.

46. Let him speak.

47. Come here quickly.

48. Don’t test my patience.

49. Don’t come late tomorrow.

These sentences end with the full stops just like declaratives but the only difference is

the fact that imperative use command language to give order.

EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES

This is the kind of the sentence that arouses the emotion, feelings or attitudes of the

speaker. Melaku argues that exclamatory sentences are used to show strong feeling.

These kinds of sentences usually end with exclamatory point or mark (!). the

following are some examples of exclamatory sentences;

50. How wonderful to meet you!

51. I finally made it!

55
 52. Nice to meet you!

53. It was my pleasure for accepting my invitation!

TYPES OF SENTENCES ACCORDING TO THE FORMS

Other group of scholars is that which divide types of sentences according to the

structures or forms of these sentences in that particular language. These scholars are

also called structuralists or formalists. This group of scholars considers the primacy

of classification of types of sentences on how they have been structured or formed in

the language but not their functions they perform in that particular language. These

linguistic scholars divide sentences into four types which are as follow;

1. Simple sentences

2. Compound sentences

3. Complex sentences

4. Compound complex sentences

SIMPLE SENTENCES

This is the type of the sentence structure whose syntactic structure has only one main

clause or one independent clause. According to Wren and Martin (2004:193) simple

sentence is a type of sentence that has only one subject and one predicate. They further

argue that this type of sentence has only one finite verb that is used to give one complete

meaning or event. Consider the following examples of sentences below that will help us

to clarify simple sentences in detail;

54. I like ugali.

55. Mwanahawa hates white people.

56
 56. Children and adults were singing nice songs.

57. Boys and girls of the Institute of Judicial Administration are coming to visit

orphans here tomorrow morning.

These four sentences are good examples of simple sentences. They are all made of one

simple subject and simple predicate. Simple sentences are not necessarily being made up

of only one simple subject and one single verb only, but these sentences may have

compound subjects with many Noun Phrases [NP] as examples 56 and 57 show above.

Also these kinds of sentences may not necessarily have only one simple verb. They

sometimes have compound verbs made up of one or more verbs with other words that

complement it forming Verb Phrase [VP]. All sentences 54- 57 above are composed of

compound verbs meaning that they other word classes that complement these verbs.

In sentence 54 the subject is I and the verb is like, so the noun ugali is used to

complement or to show the understanding of what the subject likes. The same applies to

the example 57. In this example is good example of the simple sentences that have both

compound subject and compound verb. The subject is made up of compound NP which is

Boys and girls of Institute of Judicial Administration and the compound verb is made

up of two verbs such as coming and to visit together with other kind of word classes that

complement the verb such as orphans here tomorrow morning.

COMPOUND SENTENCES

Melaku defines compound sentence as the type of the sentence that consists of two or

more independent clauses that are joined together. He further argues that, this kind of

57
sentence usually joines the independent clauses with a comma and one of the

coordinating conjunctions and, but, nor, or, for or yet. Also according to Wren and

Martin (2004) compound sentence as one made up of two or more principle or main

clauses. They further argue that principle or main clauses are part of large sentence in

which each principal contains a subject and a predicate of its own that can stand by itself

and give a complete sense. These main clauses or principals that stand on themselves and

give complete sense according to these two authors are called independent clauses.

Consider the following two structures based on Wren and Martin (2004:194)

The moon was bright.

We could see our way.

These are two main clauses. They can be two separate sentences since each can stand by

itself and give complete meaning. The two sentences or main clauses may be combined

into one sentence by using coordinating conjunction. In this regard we call the combined

sentences as compound sentences.

58. The bus stopped. We all entered in. we saw our English teacher.

59. The work was so difficult. We finished the work.

60. Father is reading newspaper. Mother is preparing food.

61. The accident happened. Few passengers were injured. Two passengers died on

the spot. I was saved.

62. She came home. Adam was not present.

The above sentences are different independent clauses. These clauses may be combined

into compound sentences. These main clauses can be combined by coordinating

conjunctions like and, but, or, nor etc, semicolons, comma or by using conjunctive

58
adverbs such as then, however, therefore or consequently. The sentences below are

compound sentences formed from combining different independent clauses.

63. The bus stopped and we all entered in then we saw our English teacher.

64. The work was so difficult but we finished it.

65. Father is reading newspaper and mother was preparing some food.

66. The accident happened, few passengers were injured; however two passengers

died on the spot but I was saved.

67. She came home but Adam was not in.

COMPLEX SENTENCES

This is another type of the sentences according to their forms. Complex sentence is

defined by Wren and Martin (ibid) as the type of the sentence that consists of one

main clause and one or more subordinate clauses. They argue that one main clause

makes good sense by itself and can stand by itself as a complete sentence.

Subordinate clause cannot stand by itself and make good sense. This kind of the

clause is sometimes known as dependent clause. It depends mainly on the main clause

for its completion of the meaning or sense.

68. The man is my father’s friend. The man who is teaching.

In this example the clause the man is my father’s friend is the main or independent

clause since it stands on itself as complete sentence and gives a complete meaning. In

clause the man who is teaching is dependent clause since it can not stand by itself as a

complete sentence and does not give complete meaning. It needs the main clause to

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 complete its meaning. When these two dependent and main clauses are combined

together they form what we call complex sentences.

68. The man who is teaching is my father’s friend.

Other more examples of the complex sentences are as follow;

69. When the judge entered the class we all stood up.

70. Although she studies hard she won’t pass the exams.

71. What I want, my husband.

72. Had I known I wouldn’t accept her invitation.

73. Working hard that day he decided to get some rest.

74. That he is generous is unacceptable.

75. I will go there provided that they go along with my obligations.

All of these sentences are examples of the complex sentences. They are all having one

main clause and one or more subordinate clauses. There are two characteristics of this

kind of the sentence namely one independent clause and that of dependent clause. To

identify subordinate clauses one has to look for the presence of subordinators such as

although, since etc, the presence of the comma as shown in example 71, the infinitives to,

inversion as in 72, that clause as shown in 72 and the presence of the WH words as

indicated in 69 and 71.

COMPOUND COMPLEX SENTENCES

Melaku, T.A (ibid) defines compound complex sentence as the kind of the sentence that

has two or more independent clauses and one or more subordinate clauses. This kind of

the sentence generally consists of more than one main clauses that are joined by the

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coordinating conjunctions such as and, but, or etc just like in compound sentences but the

difference comes since this kind of the sentence also combines with the dependent

clauses that are coordinated with subordinating conjunctions such as that, who whose,

where, when etc. so compound complex sentences in general are made up of two or more

main clauses and two or more subordinate clauses.

Consider the example 76 below;

76. The man who came here yesterday had to travel yesterday but he had no bus fees

so he decided not to go but to look for any Samaritan who can help him the bus

fare.

This sentence 76 is a good example of the compound complex sentence. This sentence

can be broken into different clauses such as follow;

76 a. The man who came here yesterday.

b. The man had to travel yesterday.

c. He had no bus fair.

d. He decided not to go.

e. He has to look for any Samaritan.

f. Who can help him the bus fare

All these clauses have been combined together and become one compound complex

sentence by using the subordinator such as who as in clauses a. and f. Also the above

complex sentence is combined with several coordinating conjunctions to make compound

sentences such as so and but. The Compound complex sentences do not necessarily have

two or more subordinators and coordinators but may also have only one subordinating

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and one coordinating conjunction. Melaku (ibid) further argues that a subordinate clause

may interrupt an independent clause as he gave an example page 137.

Bud, who wanted to cut fire wood, stayed out all afternoon, but his feet stayed warn

because he wore fleece lined boots

According to him this sentence is compound complex sentence since it has two

independent clause and two subordinate clauses. The subordinate clause who wanted

to cut fire wood, interrupt with the independent clause Bud stayed out all afternoon.

The following are some more examples of the compound complex sentences;

77. The teacher who taught us grammar traveled to Arusha last week but he could not

stay there longer because he had some lectures to us.

78. Bwana Kazimoto is wise, hard worker and loved to help people, which helped

him to be elected the member of parliament of where he comes from.

SENTENCES IN WRITING

In writing all learners are advised to use complete sentences. Complete sentences

according to Melaku, are the sentences that have at least one subject and one predicate

and that express a complete idea or thought. The complete idea or thought is that

complete meaning of the sentence and that which do not raise more questions.

In academic writing, there are two common errors done by students when writing tthese

academic works. These errors are the use of sentence fragment as well as sentence run-

on.

SENTENCE FRAGMENT

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Melaku defines sentence fragment as a group of words that either lacks a subject or

predicate or does not express a complete thought. Therefore the sentence is considered

fragment if it has no verb, no subject or if it begins with the subordinate clause without

the main clause to complete the meaning. Consider the following sentences;

79. Children going to Babu running, jumping and joking each other.

80. Running down the river and washing their clothes.

81. While they approaching the village.

These all are fragmented sentences. Sentence 79 is fragment because it has no verb. The

word running can not be treated as the verb of sentence. So the correct sentence would

be Children were running/ ran/ run to Babu, jumping and joking each other. Also

sentence 80 is another fragmented sentence since it lacks the subject. So the correct

sentence would be children were running down the river to wash their clothes.

The last example 81 is also fragmented sentence since it begins with subordinate clause

without the main clause to complete the meaning of the sentence. The correct sentence

would be: While approaching the village, they met one old man.

RUN- ON SENTENCE

Melaku also defines a run- on sentence as the sentence that consists of two or more

complete sentences written as if they were one sentence. However this definition is not

satisfactory since correct sentences can be formed by joining two complete sentences and

become one correct sentence. Run on sentence generally occur when two or more

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sentences are incorrectly joined together. Hence the correctly joined sentences need to

have one of the following structures or forms (sentence, and sentence, sentence; sentence,

if clause, sentence, sentence if clause and sentence. sentence). The common run-on

sentences include comma splice and fused sentences. Consider the following;

82. She accepted his proposal but gave him one condition. (Run-On sentence)

There is no comma before coordinator but in the two sentences. The correct one is She

accepted his proposal, but gave him one condition.

83 She insulted me and she ran. (Fused sentences) the correct sentence is She insulted

me, and she ran.

Therefore I would like to advice learners of English language or any other language

when writing any academic writing to always avoid these two errors such as sentence

fragment and Run-on sentences. All students should use complete sentences with

subject and predicate to complete meanings of sentences.

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 CHAPTER TWO

ACADEMIC WRITING

3.1 NOTES TAKING

Notes taking according to Kadeghe refers to the means of recording the main points of

information in a lecture & text in a such a way that it can be taken very quickly. Notes

taking are very essential to the learners since it is part of reading and listening skills.

These skills enable learner students to get the quality education they ever needed.

Students in their day to day activities either read books or other resources or they

normally get knowledge by listening from their instructors. Reading books is key to

learners. When reading they don’t just go to the library and pick up any book and start

reading from the first page to the last page. Also listening to the lecture is another

65
important source of getting knowledge. If learners do not have skills of taking notes,

they will always waste time trying to read every thing and write every thing lecturers say.

SKILLS TECHNIQUES OF NOTE TAKING

According to Kadeghe there are three techniques or note taking; these are;

(1) Be selective

(2) Look for points

(3) Be brief

15

BE SELECTIVE

The first technique in note- taking is to select or to choose the main points to write. You

can not write every thing the lecturer say. Choose only those important points to write.

It is suggested to take at least ¼ of the lecture.

LOOK FOR POINTS

Another important skill for notes -taking is that of looking for the main points to record

or write. Again, you can not take everything you read in book or listen to the lecturer.

You only look for the key points to take. Avoid traditional way of writing full sentences

filling all lines. This is waste of time and you will fail to catch up with lecturer. The best

way is by listing the main points using the number or dashes or buckets

15
Kadeghe, Modern Communication skills (2006:207)
2. Malalu, simphfied ….( ) :72
3. Kadeghe, modern C.Sk, cibid:86

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BE BRIEF

The main problem, which students face, is what to write. Sometimes, learners find every

thing said by lecturer is important and the lecturer is too fast. How do a learner solve this

problem.

Learners should be brief. This can be reached by leaving out many words that are not

important. To avoid the use of articles the etc

1. To avoid the use of verb to be is/are/was etc

2. To avoid the use of prepositions

3. Using of abbreviation, symbols and some letter.

These may be standard or may just be designed by learner himself. If it is

designed by a learner, it should be understood in the future.

 Using of standard abbreviation

Std - Standard

Eg - Example given

Ie - Such as

@ - at

Plaintiff II defendant

Designed Abbreviations & symbols

Case law - cs Lw

Case - Cs

Statitute - stat

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Legistation - leg

Judgments - jgmt

Principle - princ.

Apply - app

Rule - rl

Regulation - reg

Order - ord

Liability - liabty

Sentence - sent

Punishment - pnshmt

Constitution - cons

Islamic - IsI

Custormay law - Cust – law

Respendant - respnd

Accused - ACC

Precedent - precd

Court - cat

In reading skills, Kadeghe identifies three types of reading skills with purpose in mind.

1. Intensive reading: This is detailed studies of reading or relevant materials to your

study. This kind of reading sometimes may involve notes taking.

2. Scanning; this is the kind of reading for only specific purpose such as authors,

dates, specific section/ topic.

Scan the text in specific words in mind

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Skimming this refers to reading in order to gain overall idea.

3.2 WRITING BIBLIOGRAPHIES/REFERENCES

What is a bibliography?

According to Longman Dictionary of contemporary English, Bibliography is a list of all

the books and articles used in preparing a piece of writing.

Kadeghe: Bibliography is a list of all sources books, articles, and cases, handouts used in

writing an essay, project, paper or any other piece of academic writing.

References refer to all books an papers such as dictionaries, encyclopedia used in

academic writing. Both bibliography and references are written in the last pages of the

essay research in the last pages of the essay research project. As a students you list all

sources you consulted to enrich your work whether they involve direct quotations or

paraphrased information. It is a serious academic crime to use ones work without

acknowledging/appreciating him/her. As result this is called Plagiarism.

ENCYCLOPEDIAS

What is an ency clopedia?

This is defined by Longman Dictionary as a book, CD or set or books containing facts

about many different subject or containing detailed fact about one subject.

Kadeghe: Encyclopedia is one of the sources that give the basic general information.

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PAPERS

What is a paper?

Is the piece of writing that is officially published and is done by individual, government

as part of report and research done.

HOW TO WRITE BIBLIOGRAPHY/REFERENCE

Writing of Bibliography or References differ depending on the field or subject or the

work and the style whether American or British style. It also depends on the work itself

whether is handwritten a printed. The following are general theoretical guidelines for

writing an academic Bibliographies or References.

 All list of sources such as books, papers, journals, manual, websites….etc are

arranged alphabetically from A-Z according to the surname,,,,,, of authors

 You write both the surnames of authors if there two authors but if more than two

then you are write the surname of the first author and to be followed by et ac.

 After writing the name(s) of author(s) then write the publication year ( ) and

bracelet it.

 Then after the publishing year, write the little of the book or paper. If it is

handwritten then underline the title but if it is printed then italicised put a single

quote to unpublished material.

 If material (source) is re-edited, quote the edition correctly 2nd ed, the journal, the

volume number and issue number must be written with year of publication.

 After the edition, please write the name of publishers

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  Lastly is the place of publication

 After the edition, please write the name of publishers.

 Lastly if the place of publication

 If there names of editors, write Ed. ED(s) to differentiate with authors.

 The article form journal and book, write, the authors, year of publication, the title

of article the name of editors of journal place of publ. And finally the name of

publishing house.

NOTE

 Bibliography & references are not numbered;

 Write each lexical word with capital letter

 Italicize or under line the title of book

Examples

Wren and Martin (2004) High School English

Grammar 5th, New Delhi, S.Cand & company Ltd.

Shapo, H.et a writing and Analysis in the Law, New York, The foundation Press inc.

Smith, J.et al General Principal of Criminal law 2nd ed cambridge, CUP.

3.3 FOOTNOTES

What is footnotes?

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Footnote is a note at the bottom of the page in a book, which gives more information abt

something, piece of additional information that is not important but interest or helps to

understand 5th.

In writing footnotes a raised number is placed at the end of the sentence in which

reference is made. It is normally written by end of the paper and the numbering of

footnotes is continuous throughout the paper. The information gives is footnotes in brief

consisting only the author, title and page number. The full information is given at the end

of the work in Bibliography.

Example

“The purpose of a sentence is to describe an action or state condition of a person place

thing or idea,

CITING ONLINE MATERIALS

Sometimes students need to cite materials on line. After searching these materials in

search engines like Google, learners need to acknowledge both in footnotes and in

Bibliography. In writing online cited materials both in footnotes and in Bibliography one

needs for follow.

Author, title, available at www……………….(accessed 28th Aug, 2010)

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Sometimes as a learner may find the repetition of bibliographical information such as

publication year to the same author and title, in this juncture learners need to use latin

word.

IBID which means ibidem at the same place wren and martin High school English

grammar and composition (ibid) 28.

You can also use OP.CIT from latin word OPUS citare the work cited the work

mentioned before to refer to the same work as in reference earthier to essay.

CHAPTER THREE

REPORT WRITING / RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction

This chapter gives the discussion on report writing. In the end of this chapter, learners

will be able to comprehend or understand the purpose of the report, to plan, organize or

structure the report, to collect the information for the report, understanding the

presentation of data as well as the styles of report writing. In the chapter, there are the

types and the parts of the report. Finally, there are guidelines for appropriate report

writing.

3.1 MEANING OF KEY WORDS

3.1.1 Report

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Report is a written or spoken description of a situation or event giving people the

information they need (LDCE)16. Report is a statement of a result of an investigation or of

any matter on which definite information is required (OED)17. Generally, report is a piece

of writing containing information obtained by careful investigation of the subject or topic

selected from the field. Tewari (1999) argues that report writing includes the purpose, the

importance, the limitation, the procedure, the findings and the conclusion of the

findings.18

3.1.2 Research

Research is defined by LDCE (2003:1398) as a serious study of a subject in order to

discover new facts or test new ideas. In addition, Tewari (1999:1) research is to search or

to find out and examine again to acquire new knowledge. Generally, research is an active

process of investigation that follows several stages such as research questions, research

methodology, collection and analysis of the data, interpretation and reporting of the

findings.

Research process involves six stages such as identifying the problem, literature review,

designing research methodology, data collection, data analysis and finally report writing.

Therefore, research is the general term and report writing is a part and the most important

stage of the research process.

16
LDCE; Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English 2003:1394
17
OED: Oxford English Dictionary
18
Tewari, H.N. Legal Research Methodology, 1999:222

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3.2 Types of Reports

There are two main types of reports depending on how they are presented. These types

are;

3.2.1 Oral Reports

These are the types of reports that are presented through oral means or through speaking

via mouth. For instance when a journalist reports news or events in mass media.

3.2.2 Written Reports

These are the kinds of the reports that are presented through writing forms. This is

common way of presenting different investigated information. These reports need a

special way of organizing the information and need to be well structured.

The types of the reports depend on two factors, which are the purpose of the report and

the subject area being studied. The purpose is the major aim or the reason why the report

is being written for. The types of sentences due to the purpose of the report are as follow;

 Factual report; this is the kind of report that gives the fact information about a

certain information. For example, a police officer may write a report on the

accident or robbery.

 Leading report, this is another type of report, which is used to persuade or

convince the reader or the consumer of the report to buy his/ her ideas towards

making of decision. Government towards implementing different socio-economic

activites uses this kind of report.

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  Instructional report; is the kind of the report that explains systematic description

of how to go along with the procedures of doing thing. It gives the instructions or

guidelines of doing certain things.

In addition, the types of reports can be looked at in terms of the subject areas. This

allows the reports to be divided according to the subject or topic being studied. The

nature of the subject or topic of the report selects the type of the report. The following

are some of the types of reports due to the subject areas;

 Technical report

 Legal report

 Laboratory report

 Field work report

3.3 Stages of Report Writing

There are seven stages of writing effective reports. These stages are clarified here below;

3.3.1 Clarification of terms of reference

Terms of references are guiding statements used to define the scope of the investigation.

Terms of references can be in terms of the objectives of the report or research problems.

Having clear objectives or research questions helps in selection of the information to be

gathered and to communicate these information more clearly. Any report must have a

purpose or objectives to be achieved. A report question makes a report or research study

to be in a particular direction. It is stated in question form and it has to be very specific

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with all key terms of the report. The objectives of the report should be listed down telling

exactly what report will investigate.

3.3.2 Planning the report

Concise, clear and effective report needs careful planning. This goes hand to hand with

having adequate time for completion of each stage prior to submission. In planning the

report, one needs to break down the whole report into parts such as sections and

subsections. Always set a deadline or time limit for the completion of each chapter.

3.3.3 Collection of data

After understanding your objectives or report problems and after having effective

planning of the report, the next step will be going to the field to collect the data. There are

number of issues to be considered in field especially the types of information you need,

where to find them, how to get them, the quantity of the information etc. The information

or data that you collect are only those that will fulfill your objectives. This will also

include method that are used to get the information, will you use interview,

questionnaires or checklist. Which method will you keep or record the data by recording

to audio or video or just writing on a notebook. May be sometimes you will be supposed

to review different library survey.

3.3.4 Organization of the report

Perhaps one of the most difficult stages of report writing is that of selecting the topic of

the report and how to organize it to be researchable. We can organize the information of

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the report by brainstorming ideas. Brainstorming ideas may be done by doing the

following;

3.3.4.1 Using Spider Diagram/ Concept Mapping

In spider diagram is sometimes called Concept Mapping, this is the way of visualizing

ideas for subject or topic to choose for the report. You can write the main theme in

centre, circled it, and write down all the ideas and keywords related to the topic. Each

idea is circled after drawing lines radiating from center. Some ideas will form main

headings and others will form subsections. This will enable researcher to choose the most

interesting concept map or subject for the research.

For instance a student A when trying to select topic to do research on court proceedings

may decide to use Concept Mapping to brainstorm ideas as shown in figure 1 below;

Figure 1: Concept Mapping

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3.3.4.2 Keeping an idea book

This is the way of storing main ideas, which you think will interest you in conducting

research. These ideas are kept in small books. In addition, you can list all ideas that are

linked to certain subject. With many ideas, you can choose the related ideas and group

them together. The advantage of keeping an idea book is that it helps to remind different

ideas that you think are interesting to writing a report in them.

3.3.5 Structuring the information

Structuring the information of the report differ from one subject to another or from one

tutor to another. It is important to consult your supervisor to find out precisely the

structure of the report. However all reports are structured into three parts which are front

matters, contents and back matters. These parts of report are dealt in section 3.4.

3.3.6 Writing the First Draft

After collecting data and understanding the organization and the structure of the

information, the next stage will be writing of the first draft of the report. In writing the

first draft there are the general requirements that need to be understood by the learners or

the researchers. These general requirements are as follows;

3.3.6.1 Word processing

The report needs to be carefully word processed, it should be printed on A4 paper on only

one side, it should be double spaced, should have wide margins of 4.00 cm in left for

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comments from supervisor and to allow for binding and 2.5 cm (1 in) elsewhere. Roman

numerals such as i, ii, iii, iv etc. will be used below the paper on preliminary matters and

Arabic numerals such as 1,2,3.4 etc. on the rest of the document.

3.3.6.2 Paragraphing

Paragraphs on report should be carefully arranged each one containing one point. The

paragraphs should be very clear and concise. It should have illustration, justification and

exemplification. Avoid long paragraphs. Headings should be short, clear and bold or

underlined. Main headings should be centered but subheadings should be aligned to left.

3.3.6.3 Style

Reports are formal documents and scientific. They are not personal letters or invitation

cards. They need to be written in formal style and formal language. Always when writing

reports avoid the use of personal pronouns such as I, we, you, myself, ourselves, our, my

etc. it is better to use passive voice to avoid the use of the personal pronouns. Examples;

1. *I conducted my research > research is conducted.

2. *I found out that > It was found.

3.3.6.4 Page Limit

Page limit differs from one report to another. The page limit depends mainly on topic or

subject studied, method used. It also depends on supervisor; some need fewer pages

while others need many pages. However, we expect the minimum 20 pages and

maximum of 60 pages including bibliography and appendices depending on the program

studied.

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3.3.7 Writing the second and the final draft

After writing the first draft and submitting to the supervisor, it is obvious that it will be

corrected. It will be recommended changes in grammar, contents, style etc. The next

stage will be writing of the second draft. In writing this draft, you are supposed to check

on grammar, content, style, format or organization. Depending on supervisor’s

comments, then you will be supposed to give the work to the editor for edition. Finally,

you will be in position to write final draft ready for submission.

3.4 Parts of the Report

Generally, the reports are structured into three parts that are;

 The Preliminary matters

 The Main text/ Content

 The End Matters

3.4.1 Preliminary matters

These are written in front of the report. This part of the report is very important since it

provides the first impression. Therefore, they are supposed to be written very carefully,

adequately and clearly. Preliminary matters are written in small Roman numbers to

differentiate them from the content or the main text. The following details are written

under preliminary matters.

3.4.1.1 Title and Title page

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This contains the title or the topic of the report or dissertation, candidate’s name, course

program, the date of submission especially the month and the year as well as the name of

the institution or college where the program is undertaken. The title of report should be

attractive, informative, clear and effective. Normally the title should not be more than

five words. Avoid wordy or long title and make sure that it should predict research

objectives.

3.4.1.2 Supervisor’s Certification and Copyright

This section certifies that the supervisor has read and therefore recommends for the

acceptance of the report. It contains the statement that the report is original work and is

submitted for fulfillment of certain program. It has name of the supervisor and its

signature ready for submission.

In addition, the section should provide the statement of copyright and the format of the

copyright depends on general guidelines and regulations of the college or institute.

3.4.1.3 Student’s Declaration

This is declaration made by the candidate in order to show that the work or report is ones

original work and that it has not been submitted elsewhere. The declaration has student’s

name, his/ her signature and date of submission.

3.4.1.4 Dedication (if any)

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This is a special tribute to a person or people especially the one you love or respect or as

a sense of honor and recognition. It is an optional section and the candidate is free

whether to include it in report or not.

3.4.1.5 Abstract

The brief concise summary of the report, which is written after completing the report to

show the research problem, data, method as well as the major findings, is called an

abstract. In abstract, there is briefing of what has been done and what is to be done or the

gap of knowledge. It should be brief and comprehensive telling everything the report

contains. It is suggested to not be more than 3 paragraphs and not more than 100 words.

3.4.1.6 Acknowledgement

It is obvious impossible for research to be done without the help, assistance or guidelines

from other people or institution. This page gives a room for the researcher to appreciate

or acknowledge different people who contributed in one way or other the completion of

the report.

3.4.1.7 Table of Contents (ToC)

This provides a guideline to the readers of the report on how to get specific information

quickly, easily and conveniently. It includes the chapters, headings and subheading into

their corresponding pages. It is written after writing completely the whole report. It has to

be analytical showing clearly all topics and subtopics of each section. It can be written

83
automatically in computer or manually. After ToC you will be supposed to write List of

Tables, Table of Cases, List of Figures and List of Abbreviations on each fresh page.

3.4.2 The Main Text or Content

This is the body of project report, which provides answers to the research problems. It is

organized into chapters. This part of the report includes the general introduction,

literature review, research methodology, data presentation, and data analysis, discussion

of the findings, summary, conclusion and recommendations. The numbers of chapters

depend on the kind of the report as well as supervisor’s suggestions or comments.

However, most researchers organize their reports into five chapters.

3.4.2.1 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

This chapter provides the general introduction of the report. It contains an introduction,

background of the study, Statement of Problem, objectives of study, research questions,

significance, literature review, and conceptual framework, limitation of the study and

finally organization of work. All these inclusion of chapter one is arranged into sections

beginning with 1.0 as indicated below;

1.0 Introduction

This gives definition of the topic. It tells the reasons for selection such a topic rather than

other topics. The key question asked is why this topic catches your attention out of many

topics. It gives the basic information of report.

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1.1 Background to the Problem

This gives the background history or nature of research problem, the main issues and the

people involved etc. Normally background to the problem shows the history, the culture,

their languages, the neighbouring areas of studied area etc. In addition, this subsection

provides background to the study where it shows what have been done so far which is

related to your study and justification for selection of the topic.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

This short statement states or identifies specific problem of the report. Tell exactly what

specifically you are going to write a report about. Be specific to the problem. Usually one

paragraph is enough to use source or statistics to state your problem.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

This gives the reasons of conducting research on that particular topic. It states clearly

specific activities that you are going to do in overcoming research problem. These

activities should be achievable, measurable and doable. As a researcher, you need to list

your objectives telling exactly what you are going to do whether analyzing, describing,

comparing, examining, collecting, writing, verifying or justifying some information.

1.4 Research Problems/ Questions

These questions used to direct researcher in order to fulfill the research objectives. They

are used to summarize the expected findings. Research problems are supposed to be

stated as questions and should be very specific. They need to include all the key concepts

or terms to be investigated and should be operationalized.

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1.5 Significance of the Study

This provides the contribution or benefits of your report. The contribution should be

related to knowledge. State why do you thing your report is important or beneficial to the

society.

1.6 Literature Review

Literature review has to do with a survey to related sources or literature such as books,

journals, dissertations and other published sources so as to know what has been done in

relation to what to be done. The main reason of reviewing literature is to determine

whether your work is origin or not. This is because if you do not review literature, you

will find that your work has been done in the same way hence academic plagiarism.

Always in literature review you need to ask yourself what has been done on topic or is

anyone who has done a work related to yours. Where do your work fits, what are their

weaknesses and their strengths, where is the gap of knowledge. It is not just describing

what has been done but it should be critical thus evaluating their shortcoming and

strength so as to find knowledge gap. Evaluate their scope, theoretical framework,

methodology etc. and arrange your literature in chronological order.

1.7 Conceptual and Theoretical Framework

This is the general framework of looking at certain concepts or reality. Anything is

structured by using certain models or theories. A theory is set of concepts used to define

and explain some phenomenon. Theory proposes abstract principles to predict and

explain such phenomenon. A theory must base on evidence, justification and must be

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testable. It gives to the rise and development of models. Models are based on scientific

theory and seek to explain a particular subset of phenomena. It is difficult to understand

phenomena without abstract theories and models.

1.8 Limitations and Scope of the Study

Limitations are the shortcomings or restrictions that encountered by the researcher in his

proposed topic. It is advisable to take some precautions to minimize these restrictions.

Limitations can be terms of time, capital, language incompetence, accessibility,

instruments etc. Scope of the study refers as the limit or boundary of your report. What

you include in topic and what you exclude. It is very important to have a scope of the

study because you cannot search or write everything.

1.9 Organization of the Study

It is important to tell how you organized your chapters and briefing the content on each

chapter. This will help the reader of report to see the structure of your report and to go

along with it.

CHAPTER TWO: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

2.0 Introduction

The chapter normally presents research methodology used by the researcher. In this

chapter, the two methods such as qualitative and quantitative methods are addressed.

Qualitative research is the method of research that deals with the quality of values,

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attitudes, emotions and feelings. This kind of research method is very subjective. Unlike

quantitative research is the kind of the research method, which deals with the quantity of

numbers, statistics, etc. This kind of research method tends to very objective. This goes

along with discussion on research design that concerns with experimental and non

-experimental methods.

2.1 Population and Sampling

Population is the number of people you choose in your research. The question that you

will ask yourself is whether you will use larger population or small portion of population

to work with. Sampling refers to as the small group of the people who have been chosen

from a larger group to give information or to answer the questions asked by the

researcher. Sampling is part of statistical practice where the sampled population is used to

yield the knowledge about the whole population. When doing sampling method there are

number of issues to be considered such as selecting informants from either larger

population or small population, what quantity, why only that population, and whether the

sampled population is representative or not.

There are many kinds of sampling methods which are statistical and non- statistical

sampling or probability or non- probability. But all these sampling can be random

sampling19, systematic sampling20, stratified sampling21, cluster sampling22 etc. (Westfall,

L. Sampling Methods Handbook)

19
Random sampling is statistical sampling method used where each item in population has the same
probability of being selected as part of sample.
20
Systematic sampling, the kind of statistical sampling method used when every nth element from the list is
selected as the sample.
21
Stratified statistical sampling method is used when the representatives from each subgroup within the
population need to be represented in the sample.
22
Cluster sampling, the population sampled is divided into groups called clusters.

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2.3 Data Collection Procedure

Data collection procedure has to do with the procedures or methods used by the

researcher in collecting data and how to record the information. As the researcher, you

can record your data by tape recording, video recording, writing on notebook, etc.

Also, what procedure or way of collecting data. As the researcher, you can use

questionnaires where the respondents will be asked to fill these questionnaires. You can

conduct formal interview, where you will ask the respondents different questions that

help you to get the information you need. You can use checklist, where you will list all

words or information, which the respondent will be ticking the right and appropriate

responses to them. Finally, the researcher may use the observation method, where the

researcher will collect the information by just observation what the respondents are

doing.

2.4 Data Analysis Procedures

It is important to explain how you will analyze your data. The analysis is organized

according to structure of the information. It must show descriptions or statistics analysis

of the data.

CHAPTER THREE: DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

OF THE FINDINGS

3.0 Introduction

The chapter gives data presentation, data analysis and the discussion of the findings. The

first thing to be done is to divide the chapter into sections appropriate to your topic. In

every fresh chapter it important to begin with introduction where you will introduce the

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chapter by briefing it and showing the organization of such a chapter, the main text and

finally the conclusion. This chapter may be divided in sections that will precisely show

the data presentation, analysis and discussion of the findings.

3.1 Data Presentation

This section presents different data that are going to be analyzed and discussed. These

data supposed to have been checked their accuracy before presenting them in report. The

data will be divided into subsection appropriate to the study by summarizing them in

tables, graphs, figures or diagrams.

3.2 Data Analysis

This is the interpretation of the different data. The analysis of data will always follow the

objectives of the study. The table, figures will be analyzed, interpreted and transcribed to

get an understanding of what they mean. It is important to label the extract of figures

interpreted. Determine all areas you want to address and analyzes them one by one. The

good analysis of data will help in discussion of the findings.

3.3 Discussion of the Findings

When you reach this stage, you will ask yourself what you have found in your analysis.

The discussion of the findings gives the room for researcher to draw his judgments and

conclusions to some phenomena he is searching. After analyzing the areas of interest, you

will give discussion to the areas that fill your objectives. When discussing the findings, it

is important that you make one point at time, giving explanations and justifications from

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the examples or tables, understanding the limitations of data, analysis and objectives.

Always convince your reader by making him buys ideas. You can also used the previous

labeled extracts or example to justify the current issue.

3.5 Conclusion

When concluding, always tell what the chapter has done so far and summarize the new

findings. Tell also in conclusion what will be addressed in the next chapter to have good

flow or linkage of your report.

CHAPTER FOUR: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

4.0 Introduction

Introduce the chapter by telling the issues discussed in previous chapter. Also tell what

this chapter will address and give the organization of the chapter by showing the sections

that will dealt in the chapter.

4.1 Summary of the Major Findings

This gives the researcher a room to give out the important issues raised from the study

and the major findings. It will summarize all chapters and give the important findings.

This includes literature review, methods used and discussion of the findings.

4.2 Conclusion

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This again gives conclusion to different findings as well as telling different lessons

learned from the study. In conclusion, put one wise memorable word to be remembered.

4.3 Recommendations

This is the suggestions of some things that need to be implemented or done. The

recommendation can be done in policy, theory, practice, or it can be done for actions to

be taken or the recommendation may be done for further studies or research.

3.4.3 The End Matters

This is the third and the final part of the report. It includes Bibliography or References,

and Appendices.

3.4.3.1 Bibliography/ Reference

Bibliography contains the list of all sources or materials such as books, journals etc. that

you have read to enrich your study. Reference is the list of all the books or texts you read

and cited in your report. Both bibliography and reference are arranged in alphabetical

order following the names of authors of these materials. They must be consistent and

must have acceptable format. These sources are useful to those who are interested in

developing the topic or the problem.

3.4.3.2 Appendices

These are different documents and other materials relevant to your study but are not part

of your main text. These include letters, questionnaires, tests etc.

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 REFERENCES

Kadeghe, M (2005) English for Advanced Levels: A Complete Textbook Book 1.

Afroplus Industries Ltd. Dar es Salaam.

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Leech, G and Svartvik, J. (1994) A Communicative Grammar of English. Longman

London and New York.

Melaku, T.A ( ) Simplified English Grammar. TMP Printing Departtment. Tabora.

Wren and Martin (2004) High School English Grammar and Composition. S. Chand

and Company Ltd. New Delhi.

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