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Article history: Daylighting is a passive strategy which is significant in increasing the liveliness, performance, and visual
Received 23 December 2015 comfort of the residents. It helps to reduce the overall electrical energy consumption of a building. The
Received in revised form absorbed radiation by the façade and building interior varies depending on different factors including the
18 July 2016
sky, environmental barriers, vegetation and position of the sun. The urban environmental factors are
Accepted 24 August 2016
Available online 2 September 2016
fairly effective in creating an appropriate visual space while reducing the energy consumption of a
building. This paper aims to review the relevant literature including the basic concepts of daylighting, sky
Keywords: types, movement of the sun and effective architectural parameters in an urban context. The importance
Daylight illuminance of these factors regarding daylight absorption by the facade and interior part of a building, visual comfort
Daylighting
and energy efficiency are discussed thoroughly. The concluded results indicate that these factors are of
Visual comfort
high significance and their impact on the amount of daylight and energy consumption is undeniable.
Building façade
Urban context Based on the geometry of urban canyons (height to width ratio of a street), by increasing the street
Energy consumption width, the amount of radiation reaching urban canyons significantly increases whereas the energy
consumption reduces. In addition, by increasing reflectivity coefficient of materials in exterior surfaces of
horizontal and vertical directions, the amount of daylight reaching the interior portions of a building is
increased and the need for artificial lighting is consequently reduced. Exterior shading devices also
provide visual comfort and decrease the energy consumption of a building. The amount of radiation
(daylight) shone into a building is considered an energy saving option, which depends on the region
climate. However, a street orientation might cause an uneven distribution of the general radiation on
surfaces of the urban canyons.
& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 862
2. Daylighting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 863
2.1. Physical definition of light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 864
2.2. Different types of lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 864
2.3. Models considered for the daylight factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 864
2.3.1. Sky model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 864
2.3.2. Room model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 864
2.3.3. Designing the element model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865
3. Visual comfort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865
3.1. Reflectivity of materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865
4. Lighting standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865
4.1. EN 12,464-1 Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865
4.2. CIE Standard (iinternational commission on illumination) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 866
5. Daylight simulation software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 866
6. Energy consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 867
n
Correspondence to: Architecture Department, Technology and Engineering Faculty, Ilam University, PO Box 69315-516, Ilam, Iran.
E-mail addresses: nazanin_n_a@yahoo.com, n.nasrollahi@ilam.ac.ir (N. Nasrollahi), Tdoshokry8847@yahoo.com (E. Shokri).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.08.052
1364-0321/& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
862 N. Nasrollahi, E. Shokri / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 66 (2016) 861–874
Table 2
Review of the summary of scientific articles published during 1993–2015 in the field of urban daylighting.
2015 [6–13] Energy and exploitation of resources in shape and facades of high-rise buildings, Sustainable architecture, external lighting and access to solar
passive design systems, the balance between solar radiation and building's energy radiation
requirements, topography and vegetation in cities, SVF, urban canyons, sky compo-
nent and reflection of external components, urban morphology and environmental
sustainability.
2014 [14–20] Solar sustainable urban plans, brightness reached to building facades in city forests, The brightness distribution in the cloudy sky, the role of urban
form and location of urban blocks, thermal behavior and access to sunlight inside and canyons in thermal comfort.
outside of buildings, solar geometry and natural light, geometry of urban canyons,
SVF.
2013 [21–28] Light in open urban spaces, solar radiation and solar brightness in vertical facades, Solar radiation reached to the building façade and the sun
the impact of design on the amount of light reached to the building, the shape of movement.
building skylights.
2012 [29–31] The impact of building and urban design parameters in the amount of light reached to Developing a new simulation tool to study daylight in urban
building based on the situation of sun and sky and the geometry of urban canyons, plans.
sustainability of environment and urban spaces.
2011 [32–35] Solar radiation, urban context and energy usage, the impact of the geometry of urban The positive impact of the geometry of urban canyons on
canyons on energy consumption of buildings, vertical and horizontal brightness, SVF. energy consumption reduction in the buildings.
2010 [36–38] Reflection from the ground and the buildings’ surrounding in daylighting design, The positive impact of orientation on the radiation reached to
daylighting brightness on horizontal and vertical surfaces. building, reducing lighting energy consumption.
2006 [5,39,40] Reflection of the light from materials around building, the relationship between a The light reached to the facades, optimization of daylighting in
building and its context to access to sunlight. the urban spaces.
2005 [41] daylight and its impact on human, brightness in buildings, sustainable urban plans The relationship between comfort conditions and urban
environment.
2004 [42] Solar radiation, energy consumption, thermal comfort inside of the building. Calculation methods of solar radiation.
2002 [43–45] Solar radiation reached to the building façade in urban districts. Consideration of solar energy in urban design.
2001 [46–49] Natural light in high-rise buildings, natural light in city, geometry and conditions of Daylight, satisfaction and thermal comfort of the users.
the sky, reflections of the ground and surfaces.
1999 [50] SVF in urban forests, comparison of daylight software, shading devices, visual com- Comprehensive urban planning guide to access solar energy.
ponents to access daylight.
1998 [51] Passive solar heating in building, direct solar radiation. Anticipation of the tools for various situations to access
sunlight.
1994 [52] Daylight for lighting of the building. Reduction of electricity consumption.
1993 [53] Distribution of sky brightness, SVF. Developing a mathematical framework for sky brightness.
Conducting a comprehensive and reviewing research in this field lighting is highly recommended in order to reduce the energy
could offer a wide range of detailed information, and also con- consumption of buildings. The amount of daylight entered to a
tribute to clarify the amount of light emitted to the urban facades building from the openings is related to creation of space illumi-
and the interior space of buildings. This creates the desirable vi- nation, yielding in visual comfort enhancement. It is highly sig-
sual comfort and enhances the architectural principles and stan- nificant to address the daylight both outside and inside of build-
dards in this regard, which offers practical outcomes. Therefore, ings as well as recognizing its impact on saving electrical energy
this research aims to investigate the effects of daylight on urban [38]. Furthermore, daylight is a sustainable development strategy
environments approaching the visual comfort and energy con- to increase the visual comfort, energy optimization and develop-
sumption to fill the existing research gaps in terms of important ment of the green buildings. Building openings which allow the
parameters such as architectural elements and reflections of the daylight to enter the building not only create a pleasurable indoor
building materials. environment, but also allow the residents to have their visual
connection with the outdoors. Daylight is the best resource for
colorful renders [62–64]. Generating electricity consumes a lot of
2. Daylighting fossil fuels that its negative impacts on the environment, building
pollution, acid rains and hazardous diseases are undeniable. The
Daylighting is known as an important element in architecture unnecessary increase in emission of carbon dioxide results in
as well as a useful strategy in energy optimization of buildings global warming and climatic changes. This shows that saving
[38]. Daylight creates a sense of happiness and vitality that could electricity does not exploit any non-renewable fossil fuel, but also
positively affect people. Integration of daylighting and artificial environmental friendly by reducing the pollution and emission of
864 N. Nasrollahi, E. Shokri / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 66 (2016) 861–874
Table 3
Existing models for the simulation of the daylight factor and its properties [82].
Models Details
Sky model For daylighting scheme only, different CIE sky condition
such as overcast, clear etc. are accommodated
Process model For light process: radiosity and raytracing methods used
Room model For incorporating different room configurations and
geometry
Design element For specifying shading devices such as window blinds,
louvers, luminaries, furniture objects, door, model sensors
Occupancy model To define lunch breaks for people and to create, record,
interpret and analyze occupancy pattern of the given
space
3.1. Reflectivity of materials The EN 12,464-1 Standard [96] which is designed for interior
spaces and outdoor environments is one of the new methods for
Light reflection is usually assumed as the percentage of re- qualitative and quantitative measurement of brightness. Visual
flected lighting energy from a surface [81]. In general, there are tasks could be performed with precision and efficiency consider-
three modes for reflection from a surface: ing this standard. In this standard, the required degree of visibility
and comfort in a wide range of working environments is de-
– If the light is reflected from a material, that material is called termined by diversity and duration of the activities. The brightness
reflective. could be defined by daylight, artificial light or a combination of
– If the reflected picture is preserved, the surface is called both [99]. In this method the required brightness is specified for
specular. the area of activity and its surrounding environment; which yields
– If the picture is not preserved, the surface is called diffusing [81]. to energy consumption saving. Considering the main purpose of
having such standard is not solely security and health of the users,
Fig. 2 indicates various reflections (from surrounding surfaces, yet it fulfills the security and health requirements of the users. This
sun and the sky dome) reached to a building on the urban scale. As standard does not offer a specific solution; hence, the designers
it is shown in the picture, every object in the space is reflective and are not restricted to develop new techniques. In addition, it does
has a reflection of (ρ). However, most of objects are diffusing and a not confine the usage of innovative tools [99]. The EN 12,464-1
few of them are specular. European Standard [96] for indoor and outdoor environments is
Johnson [90] and other researchers [9,91,92], studied the sky one of the new methods of quantitative and qualitative mea-
view factor (SVF) in urban environments and its impact on the surement of brightness. Visual tasks could be performed with
866 N. Nasrollahi, E. Shokri / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 66 (2016) 861–874
Table 4
Simulation software used in the field of daylight [82].
precision and efficiency in this standard. The degree of visibility and explanations related to the light and brightness are mentioned
and comfort required in a wide range of working environments is in the statement. Daylight, visual comfort, energy consumption in
determined by a variety of activities and duration of the activity. In interior and exterior spaces as well as all the required information
the European Standard of EN 12,464-1 some new indicators are regarding natural and artificial lighting are precisely defined in the
introduced for measurement of brightness: CIE Standard [102].
Rendering Appearance (Ra2) [100]: Is the ratio of objects re-
cognition or pictures color under a source of light to the recogni-
tion under the sunlight. This index is assumed as 100 for the sun. 5. Daylight simulation software
Unified Glare Rating ( UGRL) 3 [101]: Glare is a sense created in
bright areas located in the vision field of a person. It might be Daylight is a recently added factor in the simulation process.
experienced as an unpleasant or a disabling glare. There has not been a significant focus on this issue so far, making
Illumination(Em ) 4 [102]: By definition, illumination is the average daylight simulation is quite a new field of simulation studies [103].
value of brightness intensity over a specific surface; brightness In North America, there has been a lot of growth of interest re-
should not be less than this amount [99]. garding lighting simulation, which is attributed to the building
standards and the certification system of green buildings. Ac-
4.2. CIE Standard (iinternational commission on illumination) cordingly, the ASHRAE Standard emphasis the utilization of day-
light in a specific space for the purpose of energy conservation
One could perform their high quality visual activities accurately [104]. At the same time, Soviet Union used the certification system
in presence of appropriate amount of light in the space. The of green buildings (LEED) [1] extensively and developed daylight
simulation as an approach in obtaining daylight certificates.
brightness could be supplied by daylight, artificial light or a
Therefore, developing daylight simulation became demanded to-
combination of these two. The required vision degree in a wide
pic with almost similar importance of building modeling simula-
range of working space is classified according to the type and time
tion, but there is a fundamental difference between these two
of the activity.
simulations. However, ASHRAE defines a technical evaluation
The CIE Standard [94] of lighting determines the requirements
standard for thermal performance of the buildings in computer
for a daylighting system, which is considered for an interior space,
programs, there is no standard for daylight simulation software.
an outdoor environment or its surrounding area. In fact, this
Thus, in this area there is a requirement for being cautious [104].
standard aims to provide the desired quality and quantity. In ad-
Furthermore, during the last fifteen years there have been some
dition, some essential recommendations are made for a proper
studies on validation of the internal brightness intensity. Radiance
lighting. This European standard specifies the required equipment
for interior working space that offer visual comfort and high effi- Table 5
ciency to the users while the entire visual activities are presumed Profusion of studies operated with various research methods and lighting specific soft-
in this standard [102]. This standard targets the security and ware on the field of daylight in the urban scale during the last few years (1993–2015).
Fig. 3. Profusion of the recent research methods in authentic worldwide resources during the last few years (1993–2015).
is used systematically during the last decade as a daylight simu- [126] and Radiance [127]. In an article in 2010, the hot climate of
lation software [105]. California is investigated [108]. This research needs more studies
Table 4 shows a collection of software and their simulation on cold climates by focusing on internal comfort conditions and
processing in the field of daylight in interior spaces and urban reduction of energy consumption. A conducted research by
environments. Numerous articles have studied independent vari- Tagliabue in 2012 [109] in which visual comfort parameters are
ables like building height, ratio of a building height to street's studied by modeling of an office space using the Ecotect software
width, SVF, roof shape, building façade, building elevation, mate- [128]. Subsequently, the results are used as outputs in Radiance
rials reflectivity, streets orientation, urban blocks and their im- [127], Evalglare [129], and Daysim [130]. The Radiance software
pacts on dependent variables, brightness amount, daylight factor, calculates illuminance [131] and daylight factor [132]. Evalglare
visual comfort and energy consumption. While conducting such [129] examines the data in the case of Daylight Glare Probability
studies, simulations software of daylight and brightness have been (DGP)5 [133], Daylight Glare Index (DGI)6 [134] and Unified Glare
used on both interior and urban scale [24,31,36,40,44,47,49, 106]. Rating (UGR)7 [135]. Daysim software is used to simulate Day-
Table 5 indicates a summary of the articles and authentic lighting Autonomy (DA)8 [136] and Useful Daylighting Index
worldwide resources that have been published during the last few (UDI)9 [5]. Daysim creates visual pictures of daylight autonomy
years regarding urban daylight. In order to give a better under- and distribution of interior sectors, where daylight on the surfaces
standing of this table, profusion of every research method utilized is likely to be usable [109]. The articles [137,138] have explored
in the article is shown in Fig. 3. As it is obtained from the figure, the urban light by exploitation of appropriate tools.
method of field measurement is the most frequent used method
while the Radiance software holds the second place. In 2004, Relux
software [82] as a brightness simulation software, increased its 6. Energy consumption
popularity and its rendered results prove that this software is able
to accurately model the illuminance of interior daylight for various In the recent years, the interest in bright buildings has in-
sky conditions, type of geometry and room configuration. Ad- creased. In fact, after spatial and visual quality and aesthetical
ditionally, Relux supports a wide range of data, such as reflections, aspects of architecture, daylight plays an important role in mini-
transmittances of real layers and materials, outputs like 3D displays, mization of electrical energy consumption [27]. An important step
isolux curves and evaluation, brightness distribution, output of the towards reduction of the energy requirements of buildings is to
tables and also 3D sun path diagram of height and brightness of the make them smart. A proper lighting design is meant by an ap-
sun. This advanced brightness simulation software is also used for propriate utilization of daylight, efficient and optimized usage of
analyzing the behavior of light in a building. The main users of this lamps and accurate control of light in the buildings. Daylighting is
tool are energy consultants, engineers, brightness designers, ar- a passive strategy that lessens the load of electricity consumption
chitects and researchers. According to their comments, there are
some complications and insufficient documents in the field [82].
5
This stands in the third rank of Fig. 3. In fact, this issue can be due to Daylight Glare Probability.
6
Daylight Glare Index.
the capabilities and proper responsiveness of these research tools. 7
Unified Glare Rating.
The results of numerical simulations in these articles indicate 8
Daylighting Autonomy.
that daylight is measured by softwares like Does [125], Radlink 9
Useful Daylighting Index.
868 N. Nasrollahi, E. Shokri / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 66 (2016) 861–874
Fig. 5. The geometric definition (left) [91] and cosine-weighted (right) definition of Sky View Factor (the right diagram is redrawn according to [90].
Fig. 6. Fish-eye photographs from the three different built-up urban environments (a) urban dense, (b) multi-family, (c) single houses. A fish-eye photograph, (d) from a
station which represents an ‘open’ area is also shown [92].
After the industrial revolution, the use of fossil fuels for pro-
viding a comfortable ambient temperature increased. Cities
Fig. 7. The relationship between façade area (0.2bSkyEFb0.4) per unit floor area
around the world consume large amounts of energy and are the
and building height [91].
main source of producing more than 70% of the released carbon
dioxide in the world [158–162]. As a result, the usage of energy in
without the shading system, the amount of brightness may be cities is growing while a considerable amount of sunlight in cities
excessive, causing inconvenience. can reduce this negative growth effectively. The amount of sun-
shine, daylight and brightness on vertical building's surface spe-
7.2.3. Width and orientation of the street cifically in urban areas can be assumed as vital factors in reduction
Van Esch in his article in 2012 [29] took advantage of TRNSYS of energy consumption in buildings. Fig. 10 shows a diagram of
software [157]. In this article, the impact of urban design para- influential factors in energy consumption on urban scale. The role
meters such as building's width, orientation and design (roof of urban contexts is taken into consideration here.
shape and design of the building development) are studied based
on the amount of daylight achieved by residential buildings. This 7.3.1. Geometry of urban canyons
study highlights that street width has an increasing impact on the Energy consumption in urban blocks is studied by Strømann-
radiation reached to the building's facades. A 5-m increase causes Andersen and is published in an article in 2011 [33]. According to
870 N. Nasrollahi, E. Shokri / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 66 (2016) 861–874
Fig. 8. Influence of street direction and season. Percentage of street surface that is directly irradiated when the street direction is east–west direction (left) and north–south
(right) for the reference canyon (gable roofs and street width of 15 m) [29].
Fig. 9. Influence of roof shape. Percentage of street surface that is directly irradiated when the street direction is east–west (left) and north–south (right) at the 21st of March,
for different roof shapes (street width of 15 m) [29].
Fig. 10. The contribution of five factors in energy usage of buildings; according to Ratti et al. [152].
Figs. 11 and 12, this article shows that geometry of urban canyons 7.4. External shading devices
(height to width ratio of buildings) has a 30% impact on reduction
of energy consumption in office buildings. This impact is 10% on Yao [139] has published an article in 2014, focusing on a study
residential units. In office buildings, the amount of energy usage about solar shading devices. In this article, it is stated that utili-
varies from 2% to 30% whereas this amount is between 2–19% in zation of these solar shading devices can reduce the passage of
residential buildings. This fundamental understanding reveals that light up to 8%. In addition, these shading devices offer a balance
the amount and diversity of energy consumption in various between the amounts of brightness required by the inhabitants
building types is greater than residential buildings. and daylight. The usage of these shadings on a building's facades
N. Nasrollahi, E. Shokri / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 66 (2016) 861–874 871
Fig. 11. Relative deviation (%) of energy consumption for a 5-storey office building as a function of urban density compared to free horizon [33].
Fig. 12. Relative deviation (%) of energy consumption for a 5-storey housing building as a function of urban density compared to free horizon [33].
8. Conclusion
(footnote continued)
11
A law which states that the energy emitted in any direction by a radiating emission and a perpendicular line extending from the same surface. Also called
surface is proportional to the cosine of the angle formed between the direction of lambert's law, or cosine emission law.
872 N. Nasrollahi, E. Shokri / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 66 (2016) 861–874
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