Axial Load CHAPTER OBJECTIVES th Chapter 1, we developed the method for finding the normal stress in axially loaded members. in this chapter we will discuss how to determine the deformation of these members, and we will also develop a method for finding the support reactions when these reactions cannot be determined strictly from the equations of equilibrium. An analysis of the effects of thermal stress, stress concentrations, inelastic deformations, and residual stress will also be discussed. 4.1 Saint-Venant’s Principle In the previous chapters, we have developed the concept of siress as a means of measuring the force distribution within a body and smain as a means of measuring a body’s deformation. We have also shown that the mathematical relationship between stress and strain slepends on the type of material from which the body is made. In particular, if the material behaves in a linear elastic manner, then Hoke’s law applies, aid there is a propartional relationship between stress and steaia., 119120 CHAPTER a Axia loan Lowa distrts lines Joeated netirhoad t Lines located away Iran the land aad auippoit remain sraight Load distorts lines Tete er suppor wy Using this idea, consider the manner in whieh a rectangular bar will deform elastically when the bar is subjected to a fore Papplied along its centroidal axis Fig. (1a. Here the bar is fixed connected at one end. with the force applied thraugh a hole at its other end. Due to the loading, the bar deforms as indicated by the once horizontal and vertical grid ines drawn on the bar. Notice haw the localized deformation that occurs at each end tends to even out and become uniform throughout the midsection of the bar, If the material remains elastic then the strains caused by: this deformation are directly related to the stress in the bar. As a result, the stress will be distributed more uniformly throughout the cross-sectional area When the section is taken farther and farther from the point where any external load is applied. For example, consider a profile of the Variation of the stress distribution acting at seetions a-a, b-b, and e-c cach of which is shown in Fig. 41h. By comparison, the stress tends to reach a uniform value al section cc, which is sufficiently remaved from the endl since the localized deformation caused by P vanishes. The minimum distance from the bar's end whete this occurs can be determined using a mathematical analysis based on the theory of elasticity. It has been found that this distance should at least be equal to the largest dimension of the loaded erass section, Hence, section c-c should be located ata distance at least equal to the width {not the thickness) of the bar.* When cection ric sl aan = ME et. the theory a elasticity predicts the maximum stressta beaa ection aa section ob section wo Fig. (com) In the same way, the stress distribution at the support will also even out and become uniform over the cross section located the same distance away from the support ‘The fact that stress and deformation behave in this manner is referred to as Saint-Venanr's principle, since it was first noticed by the French scientist Barré de Saint-Venant in 1855, Essentially it states that the stress and strain produced at points in a body sufficiently removed from the region of oad application will be the same ax the stress and strain produced by any applied loadings that have the same statically equivalent result, anil are applied to she body within the sane region. For example, if two symmetrically applied forees P/2 act on the bar, Fig. 4c, the stress distribution at section ¢-c will be uniform and therefore equivalent to ayy = PAasin Fig, 41, [Notice how the lines om this rubber membrane distort after it is stretched, The loealsyed distortions at the grips smooth out as stated by SainteVenants principle. SAIVE-VENANT'S PRNCHLE section 1 © 121122 ChaprER a Axia loap n of an Axially Loaded Member Using Hooke’s law and the definitions of stress and strain, we will now develop an equation that can be used to determine the elastic displacement of a member subjected to axial loads. To generalize the development, consider the bar shown in Fig. 4-20, which has a cross sectional area that gradually varies along its length [The bar is subjected to concentrated loads at its ends and a Variable external load distributed along its length. This distributed fuad could, for example, represent the Weight of the bar if it does not remain horizontal, or friction forces acting on the bar's surface. Here we wish to find the relative displacement 5 (delta) of one end of the bar with respect to the other end as caused by this loading, We will neglect the lovalized defurmations that avcur at points of concentrated loading and where the cross section suddenly changes, From Saint-Venant's principle, these effects occur within small regions of the bar's Fength and will therefore have only a slight effect oa the final result, For the most part, the bar will deform uniformly, so the normal stress will be uniformly distributed over the cross section, Using the method of sections, a differential element (or water) of lengthy de and cross-sectional area A(x) is isolated from the bar at the arbitrary position a. The free-boxly diagram of this clement is shown in Fig. +-2b. ‘The resultant internal axial force will be a function of x since the external distributed loading will cause it to vary along the length of the har. This oad, #2), will deform the element into the shape indicated by the dashed outline, and therefore the displacement of one end of the element with respect to the other end isdé, The stress and strain in the element are P(x) a5 aay ene Provided the stress does not exceed the proportional limit, we ean apply Hooke’s law; ie. w= Ee Pls) of a6 Ale) “(Z) Plax) da GE it 6)4.2 Elasmie DEtoaMAnON GF aN Amaliy Lonnie MEME 123 For the entire length L of the bar, we must integrate this expression to find 8. This yields eee ig AWE GA) where = displacement af one point on the bar relative to the other paint L = original tength of bar P(x} = internal asial force at the section, lacated a distance x from one end cross-sectional atea of the bar, expressed as. function of + y for the material = modulus of elastic Constant Load and Cross-Sectional Area. In many cases the bar will have a constant eross-sectional area A:and the material witl be homogeneous, so E is constant, Furthermore, if a constant external force is applied at each end, Fig. 4-3, then the internal force P throughout the length of the bar is also constant. As a result, Eq. 4-1 can be integrated to yield ass AE Ifthe baris subjected to several different axial forces along its length, oF the cross-sectional area or modulus of elasticity changes abruptly from I displacement at the top of these one region of the bar to the next, the above equation can be applied building columns depsnsis upon the loading to each segment of the bar where these quantities remain constunt. The ee ee noceattiones displacement of one end of the bar with respect to the other is then found " from the algebraic addition of the relative displacements of the ends of cach segment. For this general case. PL ee 3 6 aE a)124 CuarrER A Awiay Loap ae H ‘a Pasitive sign convention for Pand 6 [i ae Sign Convention. In order to apply Eq. 4-3, we must develop a sign convention for the internal axial force and the displacement of one end of the bar with respect to the ether end. To do so, we will consider both the force and displacement to be positive if they cause tension and elongation, respectively. Fig. 44: whereas a negative foree and displacement will cause compression and contraction, respectively. For example, consider the bar shown in Fig. 4-Sa. The invernal axial forces “P.” are determined by the methox! of sections far each segment, Fig. 48h. They are Pay = +5KN. Pyc = ~3KN, Pep = —7 KN. This, variation in axial load is shown an the axial or riormal force déagrans for the bar, Fig. 4-Sc. Sine we now know how the iaternal force varies ttroughout the bar's length, the displacement of end A relative to end D is determined from Bap = SPE = SkN Iban, CBN DLC | (TKN) Leo ae AE AE AE AE If the other data are substituted and a positive answer is calculated, it means that end A will move away from end D (the bar elongates). Whereas a negative result would indicate that end A moves toward end D (the bar shortens). The double subscript notation is used to indicate this relative displacement (5, )); hoWeVer, if the displacement is to be determined relative to a fixed point, then only a single subscript will be used, For example, if D is located at a fixed support. then the displacement will be denoted as simply 5. SiN PKS) Fig. d-S