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Aquifer Properties

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 Subject Geology

Paper No and Title Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology

Module No and Title Aquifer Properties
Module Tag HG & EG IIIb

Principal Investigator Co-Principal Investigator Co-Principal Investigator

Prof. Talat Ahmad Prof. Devesh K Sinha Prof. P. P. Chakraborty
Vice-Chancellor Department of Geology Department of Geology
Jamia Millia Islamia University of Delhi University of Delhi
Delhi Delhi Delhi
Paper Coordinator Content Writer Reviewer

Dr. Shashank Shekhar Dr. Shashank Shekhar Dr. S. P. Rai (Scientist F)

Department of Geology Department of Geology National Institute of
University of Delhi University of Delhi Hydrogeology (NIH)
Delhi Delhi Roorkee

Paper: Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology

GEOLOGY
Module: Aquifer Properties
 Table of Content
1. Learning outcomes
2. Introduction
3. Types of Aquifer
4. Aquifer Properties
5. Summary

Paper: Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology

GEOLOGY
Module: Aquifer Properties
 1. Learning outcomes

After studying this module, you shall be able to:

 Understand about the aquifer and its different type.

 Know about the fundamental properties of a formation, which makes it an
aquifer.
 Understand about properties of the aquifer, which determine its water storage
ability like specific yield, storage coefficient, specific storage etc.
 Understand about properties of the aquifer, which determine its water
transmitting and conducting capabilities like hydraulic conductivity and
transmissivity.

2. Introduction

An aquifer refers to a geological formation, which can store and transmit

groundwater in sufficient quantity so that the water can be economically utilized
from the aquifer. For this to happen the aquifer material should have reasonably
good amount of interconnected pores. None indurated sand and gravels are example
of some excellent aquifers. Similarly, aquiclude refers to geological formations like
clay, which have good volume of pores, but they are not interconnected. Such
formations can only store water but they cannot transmit them for economic yield of
water. We also have plutonic rocks like granite, diorite etc. having interlocking
granular texture. These rocks do not have much voids/pores, thus negligible
interconnection of pores. Such formations are referred to as aquifuge, and they
neither store nor transmit water. Besides, all these we have aquitards like clayey silt,
which may have sufficient volume of pores, but limited interconnectedness of pores.
Thus, they may transmit water only in certain directions.

Now we know that the water bearing and transmitting capabilities of different
geological formations are not same. However, it is also a fact that in a region mostly
we have a group of different rocks and formations occurring together. Hence, it is
rare that for some 300 meters thickness you find only aquifer. In general, when we
study formations for considerable thicknesses, we find an aquifer could be both
Paper: Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology
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Module: Aquifer Properties
 overlain and underlain by aquiclude, aquifuge or aquitard. Such different natural
geological setting of an aquifer creates different hydrological regimes. Thus, we
categorize the aquifer in to different types.

3. Types of Aquifer

On the basis of geological settings and distinct hydrological regime, we have mainly
four types of aquifer: unconfined, confined, semi confined and perched aquifer.
They are discussed below:

3.1 Unconfined Aquifer

An unconfined aquifer is one where a single aquifer body from ground surface
is underlain by an impervious layer, which could be either an aquiclude or
aquifuge. Thus, here the aquifer can be recharged locally from the rainfall by
infiltration and percolation of the rainwater through interconnected pores
reaching up to groundwater. The aquifer system is open to surface; air and
water are in direct contact through interconnected pores to the water table. A
schematic drawing of the aquifer is shown as Fig.1. It shows a three-layer
system, where the top two layers are aquifer underlain by impervious layer. The
hydrostatic pressure manifested by water table here coincides with the top of
the saturation zone.

Fig. 1 A schematic drawing of an unconfined aquifer (after CGWB (1982),

Kruesman & De Ridder (1990)).

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 3.2 Confined Aquifer

A confined aquifer is overlain and underlain by impervious layers (Fig. 2). This
impervious layer could be an aquifuge or aquiclude. As it is overlain by
impervious layer, there is no direct local recharge to the aquifer from in situ
rainfall. It receives recharge by lateral flow of groundwater from the recharge
areas where the aquifer is exposed to surface (Fig. 3). The aquifer system is not
open to surface locally and the air and water are not in direct contact through
interconnected pores to the saturated aquifer locally. This produces a situation
that the groundwater pressure is greater than atmospheric pressure. Here the
hydrostatic pressure is manifested by an imaginary piezometric surface. The top
of the saturation zone coincides with top of the confined aquifer (Fig. 2). While
the piezometric surface is above the top of the confined aquifer or top of the
saturation zone. This also implies that the piezometric surface is also above
bottom of the top confining layer (Fig. 2).

It is to be noted that on account of overexploitation of groundwater from the

confined aquifer, the piezometric surface may declines to the level below
bottom of the top confining layer. In such cases, the pressure dynamics of the
hydrological system in the confined aquifer shows response similar to that of an
unconfined aquifer system.

Fig. 2 A schematic drawing of a confined aquifer (after CGWB (1982), Kruesman &
De Ridder (1990)).

Sometimes it is observed that because of topographic setting the piezometric

surface is above the ground surface (Fig. 3). In such cases, in the wells drilled in

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Module: Aquifer Properties
 confined aquifer water flows naturally out of the wells. Such wells are called as
artesian wells.

Fig. 3 A schematic drawing showing artesian well and recharge area of a confined
aquifer (After Dunn A (2011)).

3.3 Semi-confined Aquifer

A semi-confined aquifer is one that is either overlain or underlain by a semi

pervious material, which is mostly an aquitard. These aquifers are also referred
to as leaky confined aquifers. A schematic drawing of such aquifer is shown as
Fig. 4. In an assumed three-layer system, the top layer is semi pervious and the
bottom layer is impervious. Such leaky confined aquifers or semi confined
aquifers has provision for water movement through the top semi pervious layers
(Fig. 4).

Fig. 4 A schematic drawing of a semi confined aquifer (after CGWB (1982),

Kruesman & De Ridder (1990)).

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 3.4 Perched Aquifer

It often happens that we have a thick unconfined aquifer with some small clay
layer at shallow depths. During the process of aquifer saturation through
infiltration and percolation by local in-situ recharge, these clay layers create
local saturation at shallow depth in the vadose zone much above the water table.
Such shallow depth saturation in the vadose zone much above the real
saturation zone is often referred to as perched groundwater and the related
aquifer is referred as perched aquifer. The perched aquifer along with perched
groundwater is shown with a schematic drawing as Fig. 5. It is often seen that
shallow tube wells tap the perched aquifers. However, in professional practice it
is always advisable to have water wells through the perched aquifer tapping the
groundwater below the water table zone.

Fig. 5 A schematic drawing of perched aquifer (after Shekhar et al., 2007).

4. Aquifer Properties

We know by now that an aquifer refers to a geological formation, which can store
and transmit groundwater in sufficient quantity, so that the water can be

Paper: Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology

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Module: Aquifer Properties
 economically utilized from the aquifer. Now in this section we will be discussing
about the properties of a formation, which makes it an aquifer.

4.1 Porosity
Porosity of a formation is measure of void spaces in the formation. It is
expressed as ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume of the rock or
formation (Equation-1). Generally, it is expressed as percentage. Thus:

Vv
n= x 100 ----- Equation-1.
V

Where
n = porosity
vv = volume of voids
v = total volume of rock

A look at equation-1 reveals that porosity is ratio of two volumes and does not
have any unit, rather it is dimensionless.

An aquifer can have either primary or secondary porosity (Fig. 6). The flow
chart in Fig.6 clearly shows that the primary porosity is formed during genesis of
the rock, while secondary porosity is formed after genesis of the rock. The
porosity of loose sand is the best example of primary porosity, while porosity
imparted to hard rock because of fracturing is an example of secondary porosity.

Fig. 6 Types of porosity.

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 Primary porosity is a function of sorting, packing, shape and fabric of the grains,
while secondary porosity is a function of intensity of fracturing, degree of
solution of the hard rock etc. It must be mentioned explicitly that if all the grains
are spherical then in such case porosity is not a function of the diameter of the
sphere. Thus if you just magnify the grain size while sorting, packing etc. of the
grains remain same, and then the porosity remains same.

4.2 Effective porosity

Effective porosity of a formation refers to the fraction of porosity available for
fluid flow. It is measured as a ratio of interconnected pore space/voids available
for fluid flow to the total volume of the rock or formation (Equation-2).
Generally, it is expressed as percentage. Thus:

Vi
e= x 100 ----- Equation-2.
V

Where

e = effective porosity
vi = volume of interconnected pore space/voids
v = total volume of rock

A look at equation-2 reveals that effective porosity is ratio of two volumes and
does not have any unit, rather it is dimensionless.

4.3 Specific Yield

Specific yield of a rock or formation is measured as the ratio of volume of water
that after saturation is yielded/drained under influence of gravity to the volume
of the rock or formation (Meinzer 1923) (Equation-3).

Vw
Sy = ----- Equation-3.
V

Where
Sy = Specific yield
Vw = Volume of water drained under influence of gravity
V = total volume of rock
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Module: Aquifer Properties
 A glance at equation-3 reveals that Specific yield is ratio of two volumes and
does not have any unit, rather it is dimensionless.

It is to be noted that specific yield is also an approximate estimate of the volume

of water required to saturate an aquifer by flow under influence of gravity.

4.4 Specific Retention

Specific retention of a rock or formation is measured as the ratio of volume of
water that after saturation is retained against the force of gravity to the total
volume of the rock or formation (Meinzer 1923) (Equation-4).

Vr
Sr = ----- Equation-4.
V

Where
Sr = Specific retention
Vr = Volume of water retained against the force of gravity
V = total volume of rock

A look at equation-4 reveals that Specific retention is ratio of two volumes and
does not have any unit, rather it is dimensionless.

Here if we add specific yield and specific retention we get equation-5. In this
equation, it is clear that Vy: the volume of water yielded plus Vr: the volume of
water retained is a measure of total voids or pores in the formation. Hence, it is
clear that specific yield added with specific retention equal to porosity of the
formation.

V𝑦+V𝑟
S𝑦 + S𝑟 = = n (porosity) ----- Equation-5
𝑉

4.5 Storage Coefficient and Storativity

Storage coefficient helps in estimation of the storing capability of an aquifer.
Storage coefficient is a general term, which refers to volume of water either
taken in or released out by the aquifer per unit surface area per unit change in
hydraulic head (Equation-6).

Paper: Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology

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Module: Aquifer Properties
 Vw
Sc = A×Δh -----Equation-6

Where:
Sc refers to storage coefficient
Vw refers to the volume of water either taken in or released out by the aquifer
A refers to the surface area of the aquifer
Δh refers to change in hydraulic head

A glance at equation-6 reveals that Storage coefficient does not have any unit
and is dimensionless.

Storage coefficients for confined aquifer are also referred to as Storativity.

4.6 Specific Storage

Specific storage is defined as the volume of water that an aquifer takes in or
releases per unit volume of the aquifer per unit decline in hydraulic head
(Equation-7).
Vw
Ss = V×Δh ----Equation-7

Where:

Ss refers to specific storage

vw refers to the volume of water either taken in or released out by the aquifer
v refers to the volume of the aquifer
Δh refers to change in hydraulic head

A look at equation-6 reveals that it has unit of per meter and dimension of L-1.

In case of confined aquifers, the relationship between Storativity and Specific

storage is given by equation-8 below:

S = Ss × b -------Equation-8

Where
S is storage coefficient
Ss is specific storage
b is the saturated thickness of the aquifer
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Module: Aquifer Properties
 4.7 Hydraulic Conductivity
It refers to aquifer’s ability to transmit or conduct water. It is defined as volume
rate of water of given kinematic viscosity moving through unit cross sectional
area per unit hydraulic gradient (Equation-9). It is to be noted that the unit cross
sectional area mentioned above is at right angle to the direction of groundwater
flow.
Q
K= Δh -------Equation-9
A×
Δl
Where:
K is hydraulic conductivity
Q is the volume rate of the water
A is the cross sectional area
Δℎ
is the hydraulic gradient
Δ𝑙

It can be observed from equation-9 that the unit of hydraulic conductivity is

m/day with dimension of LT-1.

It is to be noted that hydraulic conductivity is a function of the porous media and

the fluid passing through it.

4.8 Intrinsic Permeability

Intrinsic permeability (k) is fundamental property of the aquifer, which
determines its ability to transmit any fluid through it. It is a function of media
only (equation-10).

k = C × d2 ------Equation-10
Where:
C is a constant dependent on factors like distribution of grain size, sphericity
and roundness of grains, nature of their packing etc.
d is diameter of the grains.

The dimension of intrinsic permeability is L2 and the popularly used unit is

“Darcy”, where 1 Darcy ≈ 10-8 cm2 (CGWB 1982).

The relationship between hydraulic conductivity and intrinsic permeability can

be understood with help of equation-11.

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Module: Aquifer Properties
 k × ρ ×g
K= -------Equation-11
μ

Where:
K is hydraulic conductivity
k is intrinsic permeability
ρ is density
g is acceleration due to gravity
μ is kinematic viscosity

4.9 Transmissivity
It is yet another property, which refers to aquifer’s ability to transmit or conduct
water. It is defined as volume rate of water of given kinematic viscosity
conducted under influence of unit hydraulic gradient through unit saturated
width of the aquifer at right angle to the direction of groundwater flow (After
Theis 1935) (Equation-12).
Q
T= Δh -------Equation-12
w×
Δl
Where:
T is Transmissivity
Q is the volume rate of the water
w is the saturated width of the aquifer
Δℎ
is the hydraulic gradient
Δ𝑙

It can be observed from equation-12 that the unit of transmissivity is m2/day

with dimension of L2 T-1.

As in case of hydraulic conductivity, transmissivity is also a function of the

porous media and the fluid passing through it.

4.10 Relationship between hydraulic conductivity and transmissivity

Let us examine how the two fundamental aquifer parameters concerned with
transmission of groundwater through aquifer are related by dividing equation-9
by equation-12 as shown below in equation-13:

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Module: Aquifer Properties
 𝑄
𝐾= Δℎ
𝐴×
Δ𝑙
𝑄 ---- Equation-13
𝑇= Δℎ
𝑤×
Δ𝑙

Now the area A given at numerator in equation-13 is visualized with help of a

simple schematic saturated cross section of the aquifer at right angle to the
groundwater flow direction (Fig.7).

Fig. 7 A schematic saturated cross-section of the aquifer at right angle to the

groundwater flow direction. Here ‘w’ is saturated width while ‘b’ is saturated
thickness.

The area A in Fig. 7 is saturated width ‘w’ multiplied by saturated thickness ‘b’.
We substitute this in equation-13 and we get equation -14 as given below:

T= K ×b -----Equation-14
Where:
T is Transmissivity
K is hydraulic conductivity
b is saturated thickness of the aquifer

5. Summary

 An aquifer refers to a geological formation, which can store and transmit

groundwater in sufficient amount for economic utilization.
 On the basis of their geological settings and distinct hydrological regime, we
have mainly four types of aquifer: unconfined, confined, semi confined and
perched aquifer.

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Module: Aquifer Properties
  Porosity of a formation is measure of void spaces in the formation. It is
expressed as ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume of the rock or
formation.
 Effective porosity of a formation is measured as a ratio of interconnected
pore space/voids available for fluid flow to the total volume of the rock or
formation.
 Specific yield of a rock or formation is measured as the ratio of volume of
water that after saturation is yielded/drained under influence of gravity to the
volume of the rock or formation.
 Specific retention of a rock or formation is measured as the ratio of volume
of water that after saturation is retained against the force of gravity to the
total volume of the rock or formation.
 Storage coefficient is a general term, which refers to volume of water either
taken in or released out by the aquifer per unit surface area per unit change in
hydraulic head.
 Specific storage is defined as the volume of water that an aquifer takes in or
releases per unit volume of the aquifer per unit decline in hydraulic head.
 Hydraulic conductivity is defined as volume rate of water of given kinematic
viscosity conducted under influence of unit hydraulic gradient through unit
cross sectional area at right angle to the direction of groundwater flow.
 Transmissivity is defined as volume rate of water of given kinematic
viscosity conducted under influence of unit hydraulic gradient through unit-
saturated width of the aquifer at right angle to the direction of groundwater
flow.

Multiple Choice Questions-

1. An aquifer is a geologic formation, which can

(a) Store water
(b) Transmit water
(c) Both ‘a’ and ‘b’
(d) None of the above

Ans: c
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Module: Aquifer Properties
 2. An aquifer should be
(a) Porous and permeable
(b) Porous and impermeable
(c) Granite like compact plutonic rock
(d) None of the above

Ans: a

3. An aquifuge is
(a) Highly porous and permeable
(b) Highly porous and impermeable
(c) Neither porous nor permeable
(d) None of the above

Ans: c

4. An aquiclude is
(a) Porous and permeable
(b) Porous and impermeable
(c) Granite like compact plutonic rock
(d) None of the above

Ans: b

5. In unconfined aquifers
(a) Water level coincides with the top of the saturation zone.
(b) Water level is below the top of the saturation zone.
(c) Water level is above the top of the saturation zone.
(d) None of the above.

Ans: a

6. In confined aquifers
(a) Water level coincides with the top of the saturation zone.
(b) Water level is below the top of the saturation zone.
(c) Water level is above the top of the saturation zone.
(d) None of the above.

Ans: c

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Module: Aquifer Properties
 7. In vertical subsurface cross section of unconfined aquifer perched groundwater
will be observed
(a) Above the regional water table
(b) In Vadose zone
(c) Both ‘a’ and ‘b’
(d) None of the above

Ans: c
8. Specific yield added with specific retention equals to
(a) Permeability
(b) Porosity
(c) Effective porosity
(d) Transmissivity

Ans: b

9. Storage coefficients for confined aquifer refers to

(a) Storativity
(b) Specific yield
(c) Specific retention
(d) None of the above

Ans: a

10. If all the grains are spherical and for same grain packing porosity is not a
function of
(a) Material of the grain
(b) Diameter of the grain/sphere
(c) Both a and b
(d) None of the above

Ans: c

11. The dimension of specific storage is

(a) L-2
(b) L
(c) LT-1
(d) L-1

Ans: d

Paper: Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology

GEOLOGY
Module: Aquifer Properties
 12. Storativity equals to
(a) Specific storage multiplied by permeability
(b) Specific storage multiplied by vadose zone thickness
(c) Specific storage multiplied by saturated thickness
(d) Specific storage multiplied by specific retention

Ans: c
13. Hydraulic conductivity is a function of
(a) Property of the media only
(b) Property of the fluid passing through the media only
(c) Both a and b
(d) None of the above

Ans: c
14. Intrinsic permeability is a function of
(a) Property of the media only
(b) Property of the fluid passing through the media only
(c) Both a and b
(d) None of the above

Ans: a
15. Intrinsic permeability is directly proportional to
(a) Square of the grain diameter
(b) Square root of the grain diameter
(c) Kinematic viscosity of the fluid
(d) Density of the fluid

Ans: a
16. Hydraulic conductivity is inversely proportional to
(a) Flow rate
(b) Darcy velocity
(c) Linear velocity
(d) Hydraulic gradient

Ans: d

Paper: Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology

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Module: Aquifer Properties
 17. Dimension of hydraulic conductivity is
(a) L-1
(b) L-1T-1
(c) LT-1
(d) L3T-1

Ans: c
18. Transmissivity is volume rate of water of given kinematic viscosity conducted
under influence of unit hydraulic gradient through unit-saturated width of the
aquifer
(a) At right angle to the direction of groundwater flow
(b) Parallel to the direction of groundwater flow
(c) Tangential to the direction of groundwater flow
(d) None of the above

Ans: a
19. Hydraulic conductivity is
(a) Transmissivity multiplied by saturated thickness of the aquifer
(b) Transmissivity divided by saturated thickness of the aquifer
(c) Transmissivity divided by unsaturated thickness of the aquifer
(d) All of the above

Ans: b
20. Dimension of transmissivity is
(a) L-1
(b) L2T-1
(c) LT-1
(d) L3T-1

Ans: b

Paper: Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology

GEOLOGY
Module: Aquifer Properties
 Suggested Readings:

1. CGWB. 1982. Manual on Evaluation of Aquifer parameters, Central Ground

Water Board, Ministry of Irrigation, Government of India.
2. Dunn A (2011). Artesian_Well.png: Andrew Dunn derivative work: Gregors
(talk) 14:16, 1 March 2011 (UTC) (Artesian_Well.png) [CC BY-SA 2.0.
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0)], via Wikimedia Commons.
3. Meinzer O.E. (1923), Outline of Groundwater Hydrology, with definitions.
U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 494.
4. Kruesman G. P. and de Ridder N. A. (1994), Analysis and Evaluation of
Pumping Test Data, 2nd Edition. International Institute for Land Reclamation
and Improvement, The Netherlands.
5. Shekhar S., Purohit R. and Singh P.N. (2007), Groundwater Flow in
Aquifers. Poster presented at the India International Trade Fair, 2007, Pragati
Maidan, New Delhi.
6. Theis, C. V. (1935), The relation between the lowering of the Piezometric
surface and the rate and duration of discharge of a well using ground-water
storage, Eos Trans. AGU, 16(2), 519–524, doi:10.1029/TR016i002p00519.

Paper: Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology

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Module: Aquifer Properties

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