CHEMICAL BONDING INTRODUCTION The Chemical behaviour of an atoms determined to a large extent by the number and the arrangement of electrons in the outermost orbit of an atom.Two atoms in a molecule (or) two oppositely charged ions in a lonic Compund. Chemical Bond is the chemical force responsible for binding ELECTRONIC THEORY OF VALENCY : Kossel and Lewis Proposed the electronic theory of valency. VALENCY : This factor represents the number of electrons present in the outermost shell of an atom. MAIN POINTS OF THIS THEORY : (1) The valency of an element is number of electrons in the outermost orbit. These electrons are called valence electrons. (2) OCTET RULE : The tendency of an element to attain 8 electrons in the valence orbit is called ET Rule. : Inert gas elements like Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe_and Rd show this octet rule. The elements having OCTET rule fee are called stable -elements.(the elements which do not react). Cade das (4) Atoms are unstable and hence Participate in aera reactions for attaining stability. The stabil- ity of an element is noticed when it attains octet configuration. There are two ways for atoms to become stable. (1) The atoms transfer one (or) more electrons. This phenomena is called Electro Valency. 2) The atoms mutually share. electons and the phenomena is called covalency. ie ELECTROVALENT (OR) IONIC BOND : (1) This type of bond is formed between two unstable elements or atoms by transfer of electrons . (2) Hence this phenomena of bond formation is called Electrovalency . (8). In this type of bond, to oppositely charged ions are formed by transfer of electron from one atom to another atom.M - a Mt Metal atom Cation A+ a oe Non metal atom Anion M (=) Naa (4) There exist a strong electrostatic force of attraction between two oppositely charged ions. Hence this bond is called Electrostatic bond. (5) This phenomena is called Electrovalency. Hence thig bond is called Electrovalent bond. (6) Electrovalent bonds are formed between an Electropositive (metal) and ari electronegative (non-metal) element. (7) The electropositive elements (like Na, K, Ca, Ba, Sr, Mg etc) give out electrons and convert into Cations, while the electronagative elements (like Oxygen, Sulphur & Halogens) take up the electron and convert into anions. i. Na + — Energy Na* + e (endothermic) (28,1) (2.8) Cation formation is favoured by low lonisation energy. cl + oe - cr + energy (exothermic) (2,8,7) (2,8,8) Anion formation is favoured. by high electron affinity. Na* FaeeCh Na*+ Cr + — energy Cation Anion Combination of cation and Anion is exothemic reaction . LATTICE ENERGY : The amount of energy released on the formation of one gram of a crystal from its gaseous ions is called Lattice energy. This LATTICE ENERGY is determined from a cycle called Born-Haber cycle. CONDITIONS FOR FORMATION OF IONIC BONDS : 1. Acation in a ionic bond is formed when the atom is large. The element having low lonisation energy form a cation. The Cation having low charge is formed easily. Cations with ns®np® configuration are more stable. ‘An Anion is formed when the size of th atom is small. ‘An element having high electron affinity form Anion easily. Tee ee i) Anion of low charge is formed easily.CHARACTERISTICS OF IONIC COMPOUNDS: 1. lonic bond is considered to be Non-directional. 2. These compounds are lonic but not molecular. 3. These are highly soluble in solvents with high dielectric constant such as water and other polar solvents. 4. These are insoluble in non polar solvents like benzene, ether etc. 5. The melting and boiling points for lonic compounds are high. 6. __ Ionic compounds conduct electricity-in metter form as well as in solution form. EXAMPLES OF IONIC COMPONDS : Nacl Kel Rbcl NaS ——Na,N, Cao. CsF NaF KF Rbl Ks NaO Bao Cs Br Nal KI AIF, Nah Mgo CsCl CsI etc. NaBr KBr MgCl, MgF, COVALENT BOND : Definition : The bond formed between two elements by mutual sharing of Electrons is called covalent bond. 1. Covalent bond is of 2 types. lee NON-POLAR COVALENT BOND: ley a A covalent bond between two elements of same electronagativty is called Non polar ©”) covalent bond. es = : oe 4 |» Cl, F,, Bry, |,,0,, N, etc. b. POLAR COVALENT BOND: A covalent bond between two elements of different electronegativity values is called polar covalent bond. = s Eg: HF, Hel, HBr, HI, H,O, NH, etc. 2. Acovalent bond ‘results in the formation of single pair of electrons (or) sharing of more than one pair of electrons. The covalent bond formed when one electfon pair is shared by two elements is called single covalent bond indicated by ‘-" Eg: H,, F,» Cl, Bra, |. The covalent bond formed by sharing of two electron pairs between two elements is called Double covalent bond indicated as ‘= Eg: O,, CO,, NO,, SO,, C,H, etc The covalent bond formed by sharing of three electron pairs between two elements is called Triple covalent bond indicated as ‘=' Eg: N,, C,H,, CN ete rot,A covalent bond is generally formed between two elements which are non-metals. The covalent bond formed between two non-metals of same electronegativity is called strong covalent bond. Eg: This strong covalent bond is observed in H,, Cl,, O., F,, Br, |,, N, etc. CHARACTERISTICS OF COVALENT COMPOUNDS: 1. These rue are molecular in nature. in bond length. ——— ioc saiereres 3. Covalent bond has loe melting and boiling points due to weak intermolecular forces. _ 4. These compounds are insoluble in water and soluble in non-polar solvents like Benzene. 5. _Insolution, these are not present as ions and hence these are bad conductors of electricity. VALENCE BONDTHEORY: — x 7 1. This theory was proposed by Hettler and London. Later it was modified by Pauling and Slater. 2 qAccoming) to this theory, a covalent ‘bond i is formed by interaction 0 of two orbitals each contain- “ing a single electron. _ 3. Greater the extent of overiap, greater is the strength of the bond. OVERLAP OF ORBITALS 3 Overlapping of orbitals is of three types. (@) S-S overlap (b) S- P overlap (0) P- P overlap This overlapping between orbitals can take place along the axis which is called axial overlap. When the overlapping takes place between orbitals laterally th the overlap i is called lateral overlap. The Extent of lateral overlap is relatively less than the extent of axial overlap. S-S OVERLAP eS = 2 = Cc 8 co P-P AXIL OVERLAP CO + P-P LATERAL OVERLAP 8 + S-P OVERLAP @) aExamples : 1. For S- S Overlap, formation of H, molectue. 2. For P-P axail overlap, F,, Cl,, Br, L, etc. 3. For P- P lateral overlap, O., N,, O,, ete. 4. For S- P overlap HF, HCl, HBr, Hl, NH,, H,O ete. SIGMA BOND : Itis indicated by letter" o " Definition : The bond formed by the overlap of orbitals lying along the internuclear axis is called ‘sigma’ bond This bond is also formed by end to end overlap of orbitals. This bond is formed in all the types of overlap. ie. S-S, $ H 1 Eg: H-H, Cl-Cl, H-Cl, H-C-H o o o | H lo lo lo 40 PIE BOND: Itis indicated by symbol * * The bond formed by side way iin (07) latertal overlap of orbitals is called Pie bond. This type is formed perpendicular to the inférnuclear a * This type of bond is formed by the P- P lateral overlap of orbitals. Eg:0=0, N=N, C=N, etc. MULTIPLE BONDS : 1. When a molecule contains more than one covalent bond then the bonds are called multiple bonds. Eg:0=0,N=N, HC=CH, HC= DIPOLE MOMENT : * tis indicated by the letter “u" * The tendency of an element to attain charges is called Dipole moment. * Dipole moment is a product of charge and Distance. usexd where e- charge of the species. d- Distance of bond. Dipole moment has Units expressed in Debye Units. 1 Debye= 10% esuEg: HCI, H,O, So,, NH, , has Dipole moment values CH,, CCI,, Co,, BCI, BF,, ete. has zero dipole moment. CO-ORDINATE COVALENT BOND : ie = a. Eg: This bond is also called Dative bond. This bond was proposed by SIDWICK. This is a special type of covelent bond in which the shared paitfof electrons is given only by one bonded atoms. The atom which donates electron pair is called DONOR’ and the atom which accepts electron pair is called ‘ACCEPTOR’ NH; -Ammonium Ion So, So, NH, BF,, AICI, K,[Fe(CN),] _ K,[Fe(CN),]. CUSO, 5H,0 HYDROGEN BOND: Hydrogen bond is a weak force of attraction between the bonded Hydrogen atom of a molecule an bonded more elecetronegative atoms such as Flourine, Oxygen and Nitrogen of the same molecul (or) another molecule. TYPES OF HYDEROGEN BONDS : AL B. INTER MOLECULAR HYDEROGEN BOND : The bond formed between partial positively charged Hydrogen atom of a molecule and parti negatively charged of the more elecronegative atom of another molecule. Ex: HF, H,0, NH, Among HF, H,0, NH, = HF possess greater Hydrogen bond strength than H,O and NH,, H-F >H-O>N-H Compounds having intermolecular hydergon bond possess higher boiling pointand are soluble polar solvents like water. ———- viens {. Acetic acid exists as Dimer because of intermolecular hydrogen bond. 2. Ethyl alcohol is soluble in water due to intermolecular hydrogen bond. INTRAMOLECULAR HYDROGEN BOND : 4. The bond formed between partial positively charged of Hydrogen atom of a molecule and p tial negatively charged electronegative atom of same molecule is called intramolecular hyd gen bond. : 2. The effect of intramolecular hydrogen bond is called CHELATION. Eg: O- Nitrophenol° N: . a 2. Salicaldehyde (O - hydroxy benzaldehyde) O-H-O an Cc -H 3. O- Chlorophenol Compounds having intramolecular hydrogen bond are no! in water bi oluble in non-polar solvents like ether, CCl, CHCl, benzene etc." HYDROGEN BOND. These compounds have low melting points and boiling point values. HYBRIDISATION : 1. Merging of orbitals of equal energy to form an orbital of higher energy is called Hybrid orbital aiid this phenomena is known as hybridisation] RULES FOR HYBRIDISATION: : a. The valence shell atomic orbitals of an atom combine linearly to give hybrid orbitals. b. The energy of the atomic orbitals involved in the hybridisation must be nearly equal. ©. The number of hybrid orbitals obtained is equal to the number of atomic orbitals participated in hybridisation process. d. The hybrid orbitals are equivalent in all respects. Eg: S4P +> SP S+P+P = SP S+P+P+P = SPs d+S+P+P+P 5 dpe TYPES OF HYBRID ORBITALS SP* HYBRID ORBITALS: k . __ In this hybrid orbital one 'S' orbital merge with 3 'P' orbitals to form|ASP¥fhybrid orbitals, b. In SP® hybrid orbital % of S character = 25% and % of P- character = 75 %. “In general the structure of molecuies having SP° hybridisation is tana d. The general bond angle is given by|109° 28' Eg: CH,, C,H, diamond, NH,, H,0, SiH,, NH; ,CHCI,, CCl, C1,0, SiCl,, NF,, NCI, ICI? BH, IC, CIO; , ClO;,C1O;. CIO- ete. » 22. SP? HYBRIDISATION: In this type one S — orbital merge with 2 'P' orbitals forming 3 SP? orbitals. In SP hybrid orbital orbital —— quer S or planer structure. The general bond angle will be 120°. Eg: BCI, BF,.C,H,, C,H, graphite, BO;*, SnCl,,NO; , SO,, SO, 3. SP HYBRIDISATION: a. b. ic In this type one S — orbital merge with one P — orbital forming two 'SP' hybrid orbitals. In SP hybrid orbital % of s=50% and % of P=50% The general structure for the molecule having this hybridisation is linear with bond angle equ to 120°. Eg: HgCl,, CO,, BeCl,, C,H, etc. VALENCE SHELL ELECTRON PAIR REPULSION THEORY(VSEPR) a. LONE PAIR : The pair of electrons which do not participate in bond are calle Ge ehh era ne lone pair z+ indicate lone pair BOND PAIR : The pair of electrons which participate in bond are called bond pair. Ht Ec Eg: 9 :N.xH ; Hx 6: re x H H X- indicate bond pair The bond pair of eletrons in a molecue is calculated by the formula P= Ats 5 V) where P = number of bond pairs A = number of atoms attached to central atom G = group number of central atom. v valency. Eg: CH, Pe ee aes ane Hence in CH, there are 4 bond pair of electrons.STRUCTURE OF NH,: a. In ammonia molecule the central atom has one lone pair and 3 bond pairs. b. In NH, nitrogen exhibits SP? hybridisation and hence it should have Tetra hedral structure. c. — But NH, is not tetrahedral, it is pyramidal because of loan pair-bond pair repulsion which is greater than bond pair-bondpair repulsion. d. Hence H- N - H bond angel is not 109° 28! but is 107°. STRUCTURE OF WATER a. -InH,O, O atom has SP® Hybridisation. b. __Itis having two lone pair of electrons and two bond pair of electrons. ¢. Due to lone pair - lone pair repulsions > lone pair - bond pai > bond pair - bond pair, the structure of H,O is not tetrahedral but it is angular with 104.5° bond angle. ELECTRON PAIRS AROUND CENTRAL ATOM AND SHAPES OF MOLECULES : TABULAR -FORM-1 Total No. Bond Lone Shape 5 Example of pairs pairs pairs 2 2 0 linear BeCl, 3 3 0 Triangular Planar BF, 3 2 1 V-shaped Sncl, 4 4 0 Tetrahedral cH, 4 3 1 Triangular pyramid NH, 4 2 2 V-shape HO 5 5 0 Triagonal bipyramidal PCl, 6 6 oO Ottahedral SF, 7 7 0 Pentagonal bipyramidal IF, ‘abular Form - I §.No| Shape of Molecule i Examples 1. | Linear Molecules 2. | Paramidal Molecules 3. | Tiagonal Planar Molecules 4. | Tetrahedral Molecules 5. | V-shape or Angular Shape Hgel,, Becl,, Co,, H,, Cl,, O,, ClO etc. NH,, H,O", PH,, Nol,, Pel, ete. Bel,, BF,, C,H, BO; , NO3, So, etc CH, C,H,, CCI,, SiH, SICI,, NH; , SO,?, PO Clo; ete. H,0, H,S, SO,, NO,, Cl,O, Cl,O- ete.YNOPSIS a.) Valence Se are the electrons present in the outermost orbit. KOSSEL AND LEWIS THEORY : b) OCTET RULE : LE : Aioms of the element elements try to get eight electrons in the outer most orbit to get the stable configuration of nearest zero group soup element by t is with th other a atoms. . IONIC BOND (electrovalent linkage) i pone formed d by the transfer of electrons from one-atom to the other. c) d) COVALENT BOND js formed by the sharing of electron pairs by the two bonded atoms each _ contributing one election. SSCS sp? sp* 3p < sp? < sp? 4. sp* < sp < sp® 15. An excellent solvent for both ionic and covalent compounds is, 1. liquid water 2. liquid ammonia acetic acid 4. benzene 16. CO, is iso-structural with 4-Hgcl, 2.Snel, 3.No, _4.So, 17. Which of the following does not have the hydrogen bond 1. Phenol 3. Liquid water 2, Liquid ammonia 4: Liquid Hel 18. The electronegativity values of N and O are 3.0 and 3.5 then the nature of the bond present in NO, +Covalent 2. lonio 3.Dative 4. None 19 The types of bonds present in blue vitriol is 1. covalent and dative bonds 2. ionic bond 3. hydrogen bond AM 20. Sodium atom cannot form Na++ ion because rae (eect eee 4l,=022. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. XN 28. 29. ts 1 fe compound having the highest boiling point is 1. CH,CI 2. CH,Br 3. CH,OH 4. CHI ‘The 8:8 type of packing is present in 1.Nacl 2.Kel 3.MgF, 4€acl The Unit cell of common salt erystal is 1. B.C.C, “2. FCC. 3. Simple cubic lattice 4. Tetrahedral The,bond angle in pyrene molecule is 4490°28' 2. 120° 3. 180° 4.170° 28) Total number of sigma bonds present in Benzenemolecule are 115 Eat 2) 3.3 4.18 The four equivalent atomic orbitals in carbon atom are produced by following type of hybridisation 1.SP 2. SP? SSP? 4. SP'd Inionic bond there éxists electrostatic attraction between 1. atom and cation 2. atom and anion 3. Atoms 4. anion and cation Hydrogen bond is formed between hydrogen atom and electronegative element of 4-Greater electronegativity 2. equal electronegativity 3. lesser electronegativity 4. none Two elements haring same electronegativities form the following type of bond. 1. lonic bond 2, Metallic bond 4. covalent bond 4.Polar covalent bond . The number of bonding electrons between carbon atoms in acetylene molecule is 8 2.3 3.4 #6 31. 32. 33, 34. 35, 36. 37. dower The boiling and melting points of covalent compounds is __ to that of Ionic compounds. 2. higher 3. equal 4. two times Intermolecular hydrogen bonding results in the following variation of boiling points in organic compounds 72. Inctease 4. All 1.Nno variation , 3. Decrease Hydrated Aluminium Chloride is Polar covalent 3. Dativex 2. Non polar covalent 4. lonic The Orbitals containing electrons orerlap to form covalent bond should have 1. same spin 2. Opposite spin 3. Spin 4. should not contain electrons Total Number of sigma and pie bonds in acetylene molecule is 1.50, 2x 3. 10, 2x 2230, 2x 4.20, 20 Sigma bond is formed 1. perpendicular to internuclear axis ~£, along the internuclear axias 3. Lateral overlap of orbitals 4, sideway overlap of orbitals Conversion of Chlorine atom to Chloride ion is 4( Exothermic process 2. Sublination 3. Endothermic process 4. Photochemical process38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 1.0 Noble gas elements possess the following electron affinity value ea 3.2 The bond angle in water is --- than Ammonia 1. Higher 2. equal -8. Lower 4. None The total number of electrons in Nitrate ion is 1.31 2.30 3.33 4.32 2. The nature of bond in Sodium hydride is 4. Dative 2. Covalent 3. electrovalent 4. Metallic When K, [Fe (Cn),] dissoloves in water the number of ions obtained into the aqueous 3 solution is 1.4 2 3.5 4.6 4. 5. tore ese e se 6 7. 8. os TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE - | 4.3 in The formation of a chemical bondis associated with . 1. a decrease in potentialenergy 2. an increase in potential energy 3. no change in potential energy 4, none of the above Nature of the bond formed when two elements react depends on 1. ionisation potential 2. Oxidation potential 3. electron affinity 4. electronegativity The valency of the elementhaving electronic configuration 1s*2s?2p°3s*3p° is 4. one 2. zero 3, two 4. eight The forces most suitable to account for the fact that atoms often combine to form molecules are 1. Nuclear forces 3. Electrical forces 2. Magnetic forces 4. polar forces Among the following molecules, which is covalent and shows expansion of octet in its formation 1.HF 2. HF, 3.CIF, 4. Bel, Covalency of Phosphiorus in its Pentachloride is 1.32.5 3.2 44 Formation of lonic compound is favoured by 1. large amount of lattice energy 2. high ionisation potential of cation 3. low E.A.of the anion 4. high charge of the cation Among NaFNaCl, NaBr and Nai the highest melting Halide is NaF because it has 1. Maximum ionic character 2, minimum ionic character 3, associated molecules 4. Least molecular weight13. Which of the following statement about ionic bond is not true ? 4. no bond is 100% ionic 2. the combining atoms must differ much in EN. values 3. low charge on the ions is favourable for its formation 4, itis a linear bond ._ In gaseous state ionic character is greatest in 4.HCI 2. HF 3.HI 4. HBr . In which of the following compound does the ratio of anion size to cation size have the lowest value 1. NaCl 2.KCI 3. MgCl, 4, NaBr . In which of the solvent should KBr be soluble at 25 ¢ 1.C,H, 2. (CH,), CO 3. CH,OH 4.ccl, The compound which has more melting point is 1. NaF 2. NaCl 3. NaBr 4. Nal . The compound which has more higher M.P 1. BaO 2. S10 3. MgO 4, CaO . Lithium chloride is soluble in organic solvents while NaCl does not because 1. lattice energy of NaCl is less than that of uicl 2. Lj" ion has higher value of hydration energy than Na* 3. _Licl is more covalent than NaCl 4. j*has lower hydration energy than NaC! }. Which of the following elements has more tendency to form covalent bonds 1Ga - a> 3.Mg 4.Sr . Which of the following is least ionic 1. AgCl 2.KCI 3. BaCl, 4. COCI, 20 at. 22. 23. 24. 25. .. The correct order of increasing covalent nature |. Which of the following has no multiple bonds of the following is 1. KCl< CaCl, < AICI, < SiC, 2. SiCl, & ts TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE - II The Hybridisation of carbon in Diamond, Graphite and Acetylene are 1. sp°, sp, sp? 2. sp, sp’, sp? S. sp®, sp’, sp 4. sp’, sp, sp® The hybridisation of the two carbon atoms marked by asterisk possess the following type, cH,-6 = 6CH, are 1. sp? 2p 3. spe 4. None The Hybridisation of 's' in SO, molecule is 1.sp 2-Sp? 3. sp? 4, None of these In a compound CH,-CH=C=CH,, the Hybridisation of carbon atoms from lett to right is 1.sp?, sp, sp, sp* 3: sp*, sp%, sp, sp? 2. sp, sp®, Sp, SP, SP 4. sp, sp*, sp, sp? Dative bond is present in the molecule of 1..NH, “2:80, 3.BF, 4. PCI, The various types of bonds present in CuSO, are 1. Electrovalent, covalent 2. Covalent, dative 3. lonic, dative 4;Electrovalent, covalent, dative The ponds present in K, [Fe(CN),] are 1. Electrovalent 2. Covalent 8. Dative All A Co-ordinate covalent bond is formed, when atoms in a molecule has 1. electric charge on it 2. All the valency electrons shared A single unshared electron % One or more unshared electron pairs10. 13. 14, 16. The molecule which has different geomentry from the rest is 1,BF, 3. NF, 2. SO, 4. BCI, Which of the following molecules will show least dipole moment Methane 3. Methyichloride 2. Chloroform 4. Ether . Which of the folloing molecules does not have a dipole moment 1. Clo, 3.No, 266, 4.So, . Which one of the bonds will be the most polar 1.N-Cl 3.C-F 2.0-F 4.N-N BeH, has zero dipole. moment where as H,0 has 1.03D of Dipole moment, because 1.H,0 isa linear molecule 21,0 is a bent ‘molecule 3, Hydrogen bonds are present in HO 4, Oxygen is more E-N element than hydrogen Which of the following compounds is non-polar in nature 1.CH,Cl 2. CH,Cl, 3. CHCl, ACC, The change developed on ‘A'in AB compound is 0.25 x10" esu. The inter Nucler distance is 4A°.. The dipole moment of the AB compound is Debye. 6025 2.25 3.25 4.0.025 The dipole moment of carbon tetrachloride is 1.2D 2. 2x10"D 3.10°D 4 Zero 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. . The strands in DNA and RNA are held by 1. Electovalent linkages “Hydrogen bonds 3. Covalent linkages 4. Vanderwaal's forces . Hydrogen Fluoride is liquid unlike other Hydrogen Halides, due to 1.Intra_ molecular Hydrogen bonds 2Antet molecular Hydrogen bonds 3. High reactivity of F, 4, Small size of F atom . Internal Hydrogen bonds present in 4. Metal Nitrophenol 2. Hydrogen chloride Ortho Hydroxy Benzaldehyde 4, HE liquid Which of the following is soluble in water +€,H,0H 2. Napthalene 3. CHCl, 4. CCl, Stronger inter molecular hydrogen bonds are present in 1.NH, 3. Ho F .C,H_OH Boiling point of CH,OH is greater than that of C,H,SH due to ¥YMolecular association 2. Lower molecular weight 3. Dissociation 4. None ‘Among the following molecules the one with the largest distance between the two adjacent carbon atoms is Ethane 3. Acetyelene 2.Ethene 4. Benzene The angle between the covalent bonds is maximum in 1.H,0 3. CH,25. Which of the following has highest bond dissociation energy 1.H-H aE 3.H-Cl 4H 26. The bond length is maximum in oN Cl 4.0, 27. The C-C bond length is minimum in 1.CH, 2.64, 3.0,H, 28. Among the C-X bonds (x=Cl, Br, |) the correct bond energy order is “4C-Cl >C-Br>C-l 2.C1>C-Cl>C-Br 3.C-Br>C-Cl>CI 4.C-I>C-Br>C-cI 29. In which of the following bond angle is the highest 1.Sp? 2. sp? 3sp'd ap The correct order of the C-C bond lengths are H, > C,H, > C,H, > CH, 2. GH, > CH, < GH, < CH, 3. GH, > C,H, < GH, < C,H, 4. C,H, > C,H, > C,H, > C,H, _8 30. 8 toe So eo eocoo EXERCISE - | TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE - 1 1. 2 Sieilibe AAL 5. 6. Te eee 9. 10. Noa 3 oe gna He a © Pe 15. a toes a oo 1G ie 18. 4 «19. 20. 21. 22, Pana 24, 25. PPA OFZ. 13. TAS VAS: 26. 1 27. 28. 1 29. 30. 46. 2 17. 18. 19. 3 20. Bieeoia2s 33, 3.) 34. 35. : 36. Bie 38. 4 39. 40. Plea "ee eo cle Sa fe 46. Pouce Ts 28. 29. 3 30. 46. 47. 48. 1 49. 50. EXERCISE - Il TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE - Il 5 2 buat. 4" 5 1s eee iB 4b Siar (5: G 7. a 4 Po. 10. usm a 8. oo untOs 44. 12. 13.2 14, 15. iter mato 13. 14. 4 16. ieutiesi73 Chet, 19% Pa ome We. Eo oeeico. 21. 22. 23. 2 24. 25. Ve 22 23. 266277 25, 26. 27. 28. 1 29. 30. Pen eoeeremn 28. 29. 4 30. Sides Samet oss 35. 36. 37. 38. 1 39. 40. 41. 42.