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    Functional Clothing Design

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    Alduver Serna Rojas

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    29 (4. & 2OIED Functional Clothing Design From Sportswear to Spacesuits SUSAN M. WATKINS LUCY E. DUNNE Fairchild Books an Imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing, Inc. BLOOMSBURY [NEW YORK + LONDON + NEW DELI + SYDNEY Fairchild Books {An imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Ine 1385 Broadway 50 Bedford Square New York London Ny 40018 wo1s30P USA UK ‘wyne.bloomsbury.com FAIRCHILD BOOKS, BLOOMSBURY and the Dian logo, are trademarks of Bloomsbury Publishing Pic Copyright @ Susan Watkins and Lucy Dunne 2015 First edition published in hardback and paperback by fowa State University Press (February 1984) ‘Second ecition published In hardback and paperbeck by low State University Press (September 1995) ‘This edition published by Fairchild Books, an Imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing, nc. 2025 Allrights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by ary eens, electronic or mechenical, including photocopying, recording, of any information storage of retrieval system, without prior permission In writing from the publishers. No responsibil for loss caused to eny individual or organization acting on or refraining from action as a result ofthe material inthis publication can be accepted by Bloomsbury Publishing, Ine. orthe author. Library of Congress Catologing-in Publication Data Watkins, Susan M., 1943. [clothing] Functional clothing design: from sportswear to spacesuits / Susan M. Watkins, Lucy E. Dunne, pages em Rovised ecition of: Clothing. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-85785-467-4 (alk. paper) 4. Clothing and dress. 2. Fashion design. 1. Dunne, Lucy E. 1) Tile. Tre49.W3T 2015 746.9'2-de23 2014027461, ISBN: 9780857854674 ‘Typeset by Lachina Cover Design Rawshock Design ‘Cover Art Courtesy of NASA Printed and bound in the United States of America CONTENTS Preface | xi About the Illustrations | xii Introduction | xiv 1. User-Centered Design | 4 2 Providing Mobility in Clothing | 31 3 Materials | 89 4 Smart Clothing and Wearable Technology | 123 5 Thermal Protection | 159 6 Impact Protection | 225 7 Living and Working in Hazardous Environments | 273 8 Enhancing and Augmenting Body Functions | 317 9 Commercial Product Development and Production | 351 Glossary | 397 Bibliography | 407 Index | 417 EXTENDED CONTENTS Preface | xi About the Illustrations. | xii Introduction | xiv 1. User-Centered Design | 1 What Is Design? 4 ‘The Design Process 2 Conducting Research 3 Design Strategies 1.1: Who is the Client? & Defining the Problem 9 Design Strategies 1.2: The importance of a Good Definition 16 Generating Ideas 16 Developing Designs 24 Evaluating Designs 29 Conclusion 30 2 Providing Mobility in Clothing | 31. Human Body Movement 34. Sensory'Aspects of Movement 34 Mechanical Aspects of Movement 34 Describing Body Movement 35 Identifying User Needs for Movement 41. ‘Anatomy and Design 2.1: Skeletal Structure and Glove Mobility 42 Design Strategies 2.1: Participant Observation: the AGNES 44 Notating Movement 45 ‘Analyzing Movement 47 Goniometry 48 Electrogoniometry 49 Motion Capture: Camera-Based Methods 50 20 SensorBased Motion Capture 54 459877 ce Analyzing how Volume and Shape Affect Movement 53 Applying Data on Body Movement to Clothing Design 54 Examining the Behavior of the Skin during Movement 54 Examining the Expansion of Clothing during Movement 56 Analyzing Wrinkles 58 Increased Mobility in Clothing 58 Fabrics 59 Clothing Design 61. Design Solutions 2.4: Sports Bras 63 Design Strategies 2.2: Adjusting, ‘Armsoye and Crotch Curves 70 Fit and Movement 70 Sizing Systems and Fit 74 Sizing Standards 74 Methods of Creating Sizing Systems and Pattern Grading 74 Fit Testing 77 Creation of a Sizing System 78 Design Strategies 2.3: Mass Customization and Sizing 79 Analyzing the Effects of Clothing on Movement 80 Conclusion 82 Case Study 2.1 Movement in Pressurized and Positive-Pressure Garments 83 Case Study 2.2 Movement after injury 87 Materials | 89 Tontiles 89 Fibers 89 Energy Basics 3.1: Atoms, Molecules, and Energy 93 vit Extonded Contents Yams 98 Fabric Structures 98. Fabric Treatments, Finishes, and Composites 106 ‘The Structure of Other Materials Used in Apparel 143 Films 113 Foams 113 Rigid Materials 145 Responsive Fabrics 417 Inherent Material Responses 118 Energy Basics 3.2: Conservation of Energy 119 Conclusion 124 Design Solutions 3,1: Fabric Structure and Protection: Lumberjack Pants 122 4 Smart Clothing and Wearable Technology | 123 Electricity and Electrical Systems 123 Power Sources 124 Energy Basics 4.1: Electrical Energy 125 Electrical Circuits 126 Sensors 126 Actuators 128 Processors 128 Interfaces 129 Information in Wearable Technology 129 Wearable Input 130 Body Sensing 132 Design Strategies 4.1: Emotion and Intention 133 Wearable Display 139 Designing Technology for the ‘Wearable Environment 143, Garment- and Textile Integration of Sensors and Electronic Components 144 Comfort and Accuracy 149 Data, Cognition, and Context Awareness 150 ‘Smart Clothing Design 153 Conclusion 457 5 Thermal Protection | 159 Thermal Balance and the Human Body 159 Mechanisms of Heat Transfer 159 Energy Basics 5.1: Electromagnetic Energy: Thermal Radiation 161 Body Responses to the Thermal Environment 162 Exploring Thermal Needs in a Specific Situation 175 Materials for Thermal Protection 176 ‘Thermal Conductivity 176 Air as Insulation 176 Design Strategies 5.1: Principles of Thermal Protection 177 Resilience 179 Reagtions to Liquids 180 ‘Treatments for Fibers and Fabrics 180 Clothing Systems for Thermal Protection 184 Keeping Warm 185 Design Solutions 5.1: Inflation: Varying, the Depth of the Air Layer 187 Design Solutions 5.2:A Survival Suit for Pilots: 189 ‘Anatomy and Design 5.1: The Vascular System and Glove Design 195 Keeping Cool 197 Keeping Dry 204 Describing Thermal Insulation 202 ‘Thermal Testing of Clothing 203, Using Auxiliary Heating and Cooling Systems 205 Case Study 5.1 Keeping Cool: Ensembles for Firefighting 216 Case Study 5.2 Full-Cycle Research: The Oyberia Suit 222 Conclusion 224 6 Impact Protection | 225 Impact 226 Principles Governing the Effects of Impact 227 Design Solutions 6.1: Car Seats for Infants and Children 230 Energy Basics 6.1: Impulse and Injury 234 Energy Basics 6.2: Energy Exchange ‘and impact Protection 235 ‘Anatomy and Design 6.1: Body Segments and Whole Body Impact 236 Impact Theory and Clothing Design 236 Body Tolerance to Impact 237 Impact-Protective Materials 238 Foams as Impact Protectors 239 Rigid Materials as Impact Protectors 246 Textiles in Ballistics Protection 248 Impact Sensing Materials and Methods 252 Materials with Switch-Like Properties 252 Pressure Sensitive Foams 253 Sensing Strain, Bend, and Acceleration 253 Design of Impact-Protective Clothing 254 Design Criteria for Impact Protection 254 Padding for Sports and Industrial Protection 255 Keeping Coo! in Impact- Protective Garments 266 Case Study 6.1 Protective Equipment for American Football 268 Case Study 6.2 Protective Ensembles for Ordinance Disposal 274 Conclusion 272 7 Living and Working in Hazardous Environments | 273 ‘The Nature of Hazards in the Environment 273 ‘The Mechanisms of Hazard Movement 274 Pathways into the Humen Body 275 Protection from Chemical/Biological Hazards 27 Materials and Production Methods for CB Garments 277 Enerdy Basics 7.1: Diffusion 278 Garment Design for CB Protection 279 Fully Encapsulated CB Protection 283, Extended Contents Protection of Workers from Radiation Hazards 290 Radiation 201 Energy Basics 7.2: lonizing and Nonionizing Radiation 291 Energy Basics 7.3: The Results of Radioactive Decay 292 ‘The Effects of Radiation on the Human Body 294 Clothing Design for Radiation Hazards 295 Protection from Solid Particles 300 Filters 301 Protective Clothing Design for Asbestos Abatement 302 Design Strategies 7.1: Determining Filter Efficiency 303 Protective Clothing Design for Cleanrooms 304 Electricity 307 Electric Shock 307 Clothing Design for Electrical Utility Workers 308 Static Electricity 3410 Clothing Design for Problems with Static Electricity 344. Protection from Cuts and Punctures 3:11. Clothing Design for Flame and ‘Molten Metal Hazards 313 Conclusion 345 Enhancing and Augmenting Body Functions | 317 (Clothing for Sensory Perception 347 Visibility 318 Materials for High Visibility 322 Clothing Designed for High Visibility 324 Camouflage 326 Design Strategies 8.1: Meeting Conficting Criteria: Visibility for Hunters 329 Clothing for Diving and Water Safety 329 The Principles of Buoyancy 329 Designing Life Preservers 330 Exteniled Contents Design Solutions 8.1: Children's Life Preservers 333 Buoyancy and Diving 334 Speed Enhancement 336 Clothing for Physical Strength Enhancement 337 Improving Body Efficiency 338 ‘Augmenting Body Power 338 Clothing for Flight and Outer Space 340 Weightlessness 344 Designs for Special Populations 347 Designing Clothing for People with Medical Conditions and Physical Handicaps 348 Designing Clothing for Athletes 349 Designing Clothing for the Military 349 Conclusion 350, 9 Commercial Product Development. and Production | 351 Garment Production Methods 351. Stitching 354 Heat Sealing 363 Molding and Heat Shaping 363, Garment Assembly Processes 366 Cut-and-Sewn Processes 366, FullFashioned Processes 367 Fastening Systems 367 Fastening System Variables 368 Fastener Options 369 Suspension Systems 375 Location of Garment Closures for SelfDonning and Doffing 381 Anatomy and Design 9.1: The Carrying Angie of the Arm 382 Location of Closures for Assisted Donning and Doffing 386 Creation of Modules 388 ‘Accommodation of Accessories and Braces 390 Fastening Systems for Fitting and Adjustment 391. Fastening Systems for Quick, Donning and Doffing 392 Reconfiguration of Garments with Fastening Systems 394 ‘Adaptations and Combinations of Fasteners for Specific End Uses 396 Conclusion 396 Glossary | 397 Bibliography | 407 Indox | 447 PREFACE This book began as the third edition of Clothing: ‘The Portable Environment but has evolved into something much more than that. A colleague once described his attempt to create a second edition of a text as “less like adding a tier of seats at the top of a stadium than it was like raising the entire stadium and building a new base under it.” Our experience has been something like that. The base has changed in terms of the expansion of the field, the projected audience, and our approach to organizing the subject ‘matter, The original text, published by Iowa State University Press in 1984, with a second edition in 1995, was aimed at clothing design students ina university setting, We hope that this edition will be useful to a much broader group, including those in a variety of clothing-related fields and industries. We are deeply indebted to Albert Podell for his, generosity in providing a grant to fund new artwork for this text through the Comell Association of Professors Emeriti’s Podell Research and Scholarship Grant Program, The new art has significantly enriched the text and will greatly enhance understanding for many future students and those employed in protective clothing industries. We are also grateful to the University of Minnesota Imagine Fund for providing funds to support travel, graphic editing by Katie Mueller, and illustrations by Mary Ellen Berglund. We are also indebted to students in the Fall 2013 directed study group on functional clothing design at the University of Minnesota who reviewed drafts of the text and made many excellent suggestions for improvements: Mary Ellen Berglund, Crystal Compton, Kira Erickson, Karen Fiegen, Guido Gioberto, Linsey Gordon, Harini Ramaswamy, and Jordyn Reich. ‘We are especially grateful to Suzanne Reeps, US Navy Clothing and Textile Research, and Carol J. Fitzgerald, US Department of the Army, for their extensive review of the entire manuscript. We are also very grateful to Stephanie Tew for her insight and suggestions for chemical/biological protective clothing and for her review of Chapter 7. ‘Many other people contributed helpful suggestions and reviewed sections of the manuscript. We ‘would especially like to thank Susan and William ‘McKinney, Mark Mordecai at Globe Firesuits, Dale Strauf, Ben Rich, the Snyder family and the Presque Isle Yacht Club, Dr. Claire Fraser, and Mikko Malmivaara, ‘We are extremely happy that Dr. Susan P. Ashdown at Cornell University was again willing to contribute her wealth of knowledge about sizing and fit to Chapter 2. ‘The publisher would also like to thank the reviewers for their insights and guidance: Debbie Christel, West Virginia Universit Hayes, Drexel University; Su Hwang, Texas ‘Tech University; Karen L. LaBat, University of Minnesota; Ameersing Luximon, Hong Kong Polytechnic University; Jane McCann, University ‘of Wales; Rachel Obbard, Dartmouth University; Huiju Park, Comell University; Kelly Reddy-Best, San Francisco State; Sandra Tullio-Pow, Ryerson Preface University; and Paola Zeliner, Virginia Tech University. ‘This text begins with three chapters of foundation material with which some members of our interdisciplinary audience may have extensive background. We believe that design methodology, mobility, and textiles are critical areas for a designer to understand in order to design, functional clothing, However, we recognize that those who have extensive background in textile science, for example, may not want or need to study the information in Chapter 3. At the same time, individuals with no background in this area may need a primer on this topic before attempting to read the material in succeeding chapters. Thus, ‘wo have pulled basic information about the first three topics out of the rest of the chapters so it could be studied as needed. We have also created a glossary for all chapters, with glossary words in boldface at the time of first use, so that there is a reference for terminology in succeeding chapters. In addition, we created sidebars in each of the chapters that pull specific concepts out of the main text. Some of these expand on specialized areas of knowledge, such as basic physics principles, and some highlight innovative designs. Others show the critical interaction between anatomy and physiology and clothing design or demonstrate ways design methodology can be applied. In the years since the last edition was published, there have been huge strides made in the development of technology. The addition of a coauthor whose field of expertise is wearable technology has added an even greater technology dimension to the text. Both old and new technology are represented by the designs presented throughout the text, Some of the designs illustrated are no longer produced but are included beciuse they provide seeds of a design idea that can be used as inspiration for new designs. Even when the technology and materials may be old, itis often the approach to a problem that leads a designer to new ideas. Both authors are extremely grateful to colleagues ‘and students past and present, who have enriched our lives and added greatly to our knowledge in this field. As always, we are grateful to have had the support and good humor (and the comic relief!) of our families and friends as we worked on this text. ABOUT THE ILLUSTRATIONS Heldi Specht has provided the vast majority of the illustrations for this text. Many of these were produced for the 1984 edition of Clothing: The Portable Environment, when she was an undergraduate student at Cornell University. She contributed additional illustrations to a 1995 edition of that text, and we are grateful to her for continuing to create art for this text while in a demanding position as Marketing Director for West Virginia Healthcare. Frances Fawcett is a scientific illustrator and painter. We are delighted with her venture into the field of functional clothing. She contributed Figures 2.1, 2.4, 2.6, Anatomy and Design 2.1 Figure A, 4,11, 4.20, 5.1, Anatomy and Design 5.1 Figure A, 8.5, 89, 8.15, and 9.28. Mary Ellen Berglund was an undergraduate student at the University of Minnesota taking a course in functjonal clothing as the text was being developed. She contributed Figures 1.12, 2.23, 2.26, 4.7, 4.8, 4.12, 4.16, Anatomy and Design 9.1 Figures A-E, 9.24, 9,38, 0.39, and 9.46, Globe Firesuits® permitted us to use their illustrations for Case Study 5.1 Figures A-H. Except for Figure 1.2 and 1.12, the authors created all ofthe figures for Chapter 1. Dr. Dunne created all of the illustrations featured in Chapter 4 with the exception of those listed above and Figures 4.19 and 4.21 (drawn by Heidi Specht). She also created Figures 2.2, 2.48, Energy Basics 3.1 Figure A, 3.2, 3.3, 3.11, 3.18, 3.20, 3.24, 6.1, 6.17, 7.36, 8.1, 8:3, and 9.37. INTRODUCTION This is a book about how and why clothing works, Its purpose is to introduce some new ways to look at the human body, the environment, and clothing and to explore the relationships among them. Clothing ‘can form a barrier between the body and the environment, it can mediate the interaction between the body and the environment, and it can increase the ability of the body to function in a variety of environments. Although all clothing is functional, the functional clothing design approach focuses on ‘what clothing does before considering how it looks. Functional clothing design is, above all, an interdisciplinary endeavor. Renbourn’s description of what he called “the science of clothing” could also serve as an excellent description of the field of functional clothing: «an integration of the disciplines of the textiles and materials technologist, the textiles and materials biophysicst, the clothing physiologist and hygienist, the ‘master tailor the clothing and footwear designer, and the fashion student and artis in the widest sense. As such clothing science represents an important aspect of man's cultural activity; a link between the technical {and biological sciences and the social humanities. (Renboum and Rees 1972, 249) The theories on which this book is based are built on physics, physiology, and other scientific disciplines, but it contains no mathematical formulas, Designers and others seeking clothing solutions to problems in many fields should find in ita common language linking a number of disciplines through which they can explore both problems and solutions. Engineers and scientists will find an accessible introduction to the application of science to clothing design, Many of the items discussed in this work would not traditionally be called clothing. We view clothing as a portable environment, defining it based on just two criteria that itis attached to ‘or supported by the body and that it moves with it. Thus, since they are based on clothing design principles, body-related products fom helmets to watches and body-related environments from space ‘Suits to isolation garments can be viewed as part of the province of clothing designers. ‘The figures on the next few pages illustrate items that represent this definition of clothing as 2 portable environment. Figure i shows a 1960s vision of future clothing: a floating, eutomated comfort pod. In the totally encapsula‘ing shroud, a wearer is completely free from stress points, can control the temperature inside and can activate a tension-relieving vibrator. A minicomputer warns the wearer of approaching hazards (including people ‘with whom the wearer would not enjoy interacting and floats the body clear of them. FIGURE 1.4 A proposal for a totally encapsulating portable environment. (Based on a design in Body Covering 1968: 41) The tunnel suit, or “pseudopod,” shown in igure i.2 was designed for use in a germ-free isolation ward. This type of garment is used to protect those outside the garment rather than the ‘wearer inside. This tunnel suit was part of the wall ofan isolation chamber for leukemia patients. While wearing it, a nurse or doctor could move into the room and care for a patient without introducing any foreign particles to the chamber. Are the shroud and tunnel suit clothing, equipment or housing? While the terms apparel designer, productlequipment designer and housing designer are meant to connote different specialists, the lines between traditional clothing and accessories and other products that are worn often FIGURE I.2 A tunnel suit or pseudopod for use in 2 germ-free Isolation ward. (Design formerly produced by AMSCO American Sterilizer) Introduction cannot be clearly drawn. Under the definition of clothing stated above, both of the items illustrated here could be called fimctional clothing. This text on functional clothing looks at the ways clothing achieves goals such as protecting the body, increasing health and safety, improving a worker's efficiency on the job, or increasing body function, Much of its emphasis is on achieving both protection and portability in a functional clothing item. This becomes increasingly challenging as new technological developments create new hazards and allow the exploration of new frontiers. At the same time, new technological developments, including the many advances in e-extiles and wearable technology, make it possible to create ‘garments never before imagined. They not only protect and preserve normal body function but also make it possible for individuals to accomplish “superhuman” things. Ultimately, this is a book for people who find clothing—in all its forms—a fascinating subject. ‘The authors hope that those who read it will be inspired to create functional clothing that will meet the challenges of life inthe future. 41 User-Centered Design The design of functional clothing ties together science and art. The evidence-based methods and processes of engineering are combined with the creative, intuitive methods and processes of art and fashion. Most important, because all functional clothing is worn by humans, the human user is at the very center of all functional clothing, design activities. This chapter will discuss the process of design (i.e., the nature of design and the thought processes and methods designers use to develop effective design solutions). What Is Design? ‘There are as many definitions of design as there are authors to write about it. Design is used as a noun, verb, or adjective that can be applied to products as diverse as apparel, space vehicles, graphics, archi- tecture, and cities. The wide variation in end prod- ucts that are the result of design makes it difficult for many people to pinpoint the common elements that bind together the various design professions. Is design artistic or mathematical? Rational or imaginative? Systematic or chaotic? Among the many attempts to define design are the following: Design is a highly complex and sophisticated skil, It is not a mystical ability given only to those with recondite powers but a skill which, for many, must be learnt and practised rather like the playing of a sport or a musical instrument. (Lawson 1983, 6) Design is converting the actual to the preferred. It Isa conversation with the materials of a situation. (Schon 1983, 77) Design can be defined as the process of creative problem-solving: a process of creative, constructive behavior. (Koberg and Bagnall 1984, 16) [Design]... involves a highly organised mental process capable of manipulating many kinds of information, blending them all into a coherent set of ideas and finally generating some realisation of those ideas. (Lawson 1983, 6) Designers need the same skills that are those used by people in other professions to solve problems. In general, however, people who label themselves designers have been trained to trigger more quickly the process that generates creative approaches to solutions and bring them to reality. ‘A designer must be familiar with both con- tent and process. Many in the design professions believe that a good designer can design anything. ‘To the extent that one can process information in a creative way to generate design solutions, this is true. However, the content of the various design professions may be quite different, and this is primarily what creates design specialists. Con- sider, for example, the materials, scale, and use of Chapter 1 User Centered Desien products such as apparel and architecture. Even though an apparel designer might generate ideas for an innovative building and an architect might develop an innovative garment on paper, most individuals in these respective fields are not trained to use the materials (soft versus hard); work in the scale (apparel must move on the person; people ‘move within buildings); or provide the functions needed to use the other product. Designers who have trained in one specialty simply have greater facility in moving through the process of product development because they have a stored bank of knowledge about specifics in that field. They are called upon because they can take a project from the request for a solution through idea generation to production of the final product. ‘One cannot minimize the value of designers who move across to fields with which they have had less experience. Their lack of knowledge of specifics may actually help them to develop excit- ing new, untried approaches because they have no preconceptions about what cannot be done. In many instances, projects have moved along at a faster pace when both generalist and specialist | Beton ers’ versions of how they go about design- ing. These are the critical tasks that cannot be ignored in the development of effective 8 functional clothing. CONDUCTING RESEARCH ‘Men give me credit for some genius. All the genius | have lies in this; when I have a subject in hand, | study it profoundly. Day and night itis before me. My mind becomes pervaded with it. Then the effort which | have made Is what people are pleased to call the fruit of genius. It fs the fruit of labor and thought. (Alexander Hamilton) eh o™ ‘etnion = ae sero levecomer| (Chapter 4. User-Centered Design 4 very large body of information the important details that will lead to an innovative (and some- times transformative) approach to a solution. Design insight is developed through many years of learning to listen and to uncover critical factors during the research process. A large part of designers’ research is explor- atory. Exploratory research helps designers analyze and become familiar with problems. Koberg and Bagnall describe what they call the analysis phase of the design process with such phrases as “gather- ing facts and opinions” and “dissecting or decom- posing the problem" (2003, 47), ‘When designers begin with thorough research, all subsequent stages of the design process should bbe more productive. Research exposes designers to the subtle variables of the specifie problem at hand so that they can be effectively addressed and ‘manipulated when design solutions are being gen- erated, When design criteria are based on research, they form the basis for a more effective evaluation of the end product in the later stages of the design process. I the research phase, the designer's objective isto [eam as much as possible about (1) the user, (2) the task, and (3) the environment. In addition to these major areas, the designer must also learn as ‘much as possible about peripheral areas that influ- ence the user, task, and environment as well as the life cycle of the design. Peripheral areas include other stakeholders (employers, manufacturers, ind viduals related to the user), methods and processes ‘of manufacture, sales channels, and many other, clements in the ecosystem of the design. Together, these elements and the relationships between them form the problem, or landscape of the design chal- lenge. A deep understanding of the problem is fun- damental to designing a good solution, ‘There ate a variety of research methods that can provide analytical tools for designers, The following subsections will outline some of the more prevalent methods used by designers to gather information to inform a design. A designer's skill in administering any research method has a

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