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"Education is a liberating force, and in our

age it is also a democratising force, cutting
across the barriers of caste and class,
smoothing out inequalities imposed by birth
and other circumstances. "
- Indira Gandhi.
 • MES-047
~~Ignou
~ THE PEOPLE'S
Open and Distance
UNIVERSITY Education
Indira Gandhi
National Open University
School of Education

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Block

·2
MANAGEMENT OF MEDIA AND MATERIALS IN
DISTANCE AND OPEN LEARNING
UNITS
Basics of Course Development S

UNIT 6
Development of SLM 17
UNIT 7
Development of Media Courseware 32
EXPERT COMMITTEE
Prof. B.N. Koul Prof. Neerja Shukla
Former PVC, IGNOU NCERT
New Delhi
Prof. C.R.K. Murthy
STRIDE, IGNOU Prof. Nalini Juneja
NUEPA
Prof. Kalpana Mishra
New Delhi
Director, Planning Division, IGNOU
Dr. Sailja, Reader
Prof. G. Natesan
Dept. of Education
Head (Education), Distance Education
Delhi University, Delhi
Kamaraj University, Madurai, Tamil Nadu
Dr. Savita Kaushal
Prof. S.Y. Shah
NUEPA
Group of Adult Education
New Delhi
School of Social Sciences, JNU, New Delhi

COURSE PREPARATION TEAM

Unit Writers Unit 7: Dr. Zeba Khan, Deputy Director, EMPC,
IGNOU, New Delhi
Units 1,2 &10: Dr. Moumita Das, Asstt. Director,
Unit 8: Dr. Neeti Agrawal, Associate Professor, SOMS,
NCIDE, IGNOU, New Delhi
IGNOU, New Delhi
Unit 3: Dr. Savita Kaushal, Asstt. Professor, EMIS,
Unit 9: Dr. Hema Pant, Deputy Director, IGNOU
NUEPA, New Delhi
Regional Center, NOIDA.
Units 4, 5 & 6: Dr. Sutapa Bose, Asstt. Professor,
SOE, IGNOU, New Delhi

Content Editing
Prof. C.R.K. Murthy, STRIDE, IGNOU (Units 6-10) & Prof. P.K. Biswas, STRIDE, IGNOU (Units 1-5)

Language Editing
Dr. Sutapa Bose, Asstt. Professor, SOE, IGNOU, New Delhi

Unit Designing and Format Editing

Dr. Sutapa Bose, Asstt. Professor, SOE, IGNOU, New Delhi

Course Coordinator
Dr. Sutapa Bose, Asstt. Professor, SOE, IGNOTJ, New Delhi

PRODUCTION
Prof. Vibha Joshi Sh. S.S. Venkatachalam Smt. Sumathy Nair
Director Asstt. Registrar (Pub.) Section Officer (Pub.)
School of Education School of Education School of Education
IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi

February, 20 II
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2011
ISBN: 978-81-266-5181-8
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means,
without permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
Further information on the lndira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the
University's Office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-l IO 068
Printed and published on behalf of the Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi, by Director, School
of Education.
Laser Typeset by: Nath Graphics, 1121, Sarvapriya Vihar, New Delhi.
Printed at: Kalyan Enterprises, D-20,Sec.B-3, Tronica City (lnde.Area) Loni,G.Z.B.(U.P.)
 BLOCK2 MANAGEMENT OF MEDIA AND
MATERIALS IN DISTANCE AND OPEN
LEAIL~ING
This is the second block of this course. The first block introduced you to the concept of
ODL and functions of ODL institutions. Equipped with this knowledge you can now
understand how important functions of ODL institutions- conceptualization of educational
programmes and development of courseware for various media are carried out. Self
Learning Material (SLM) is the material that takes most of the learning experiences to
the students. An ODL institution is known by the quality of SLM it produces. Hence,
managing the production of courseware and especially of SLM necessitates that the
SLM developed is pedagogically sound and is rich in content. For this reason, you will
need an understanding of the process involved in preparing SLM and also understand
the techniques of embedding a teacher in it. Three units comprise this block. The units
are on the designing and development of courseware for various media. As mentioned
earlier, multiple media approach is prevalent in many ODL institutions of India. Hence
the units describe the production of courseware for print and non print media. The
elaborate process of course development, involving several stages, has been analysed
and stage wise description has been provided in the units. The units thus describe the
. planning, organization, coordination, supervision and other managerial functions carried-
out during the various stages involved in the production of courseware. The units
comprising this block are the following:
Unit 5: Basics of Course Development: This unit, which happens to be the first in
this block, is about the various activities comprising courseware development. It will
introduce you to the various phases of programme/course development and help you in
understanding the various processes involved in it.
Unit 6: Development of SLM: The development of self learning material as a
courseware to be offered to the learners through the print medium has been discussed
in this unit. As you read the unit, you will be acquainted with the unique features of
SLM that have been discussed in the perspective of the unique needs of distance learners.
Unit 7: Development of Media Courseware: In leT based teaching and learning
environments, it becomes imperative for educators, teachers, facilitators and
administrators to develop an understanding of the practical aspects and issues associated
with educational media. With this perspective, this Unit takes a look at various media
used and approaches to media usage in an ODL institution. Thereafter it introduces you
to the planning and development of media based courseware for institutions offering.
instructional materials for 'Multiple Media' .
 BLOCK 2 MANAGEMENT OF MEDIA AND
MATERIALS IN DISTANCE AND OPEN
LEARtl\JING
This is the second block of this course. The first block introduced you to the concept of
ODL and functions of ODL institutions. Equipped with this knowledge you can now
understand how important functions of ODL institutions- conceptualization of educational
programmes and development of courseware for various media are carried out. Self
Learning Material (SLM) is the material that takes most of the learning experiences to
the students. An ODL institution is known by the quality of SLM it produces. Hence,
managing the production of courseware and especially of SLM necessitates that the
SLM developed is pedagogically sound and is rich in content. For this reason, you will
need an understanding of the process involved in preparing SLM and also understand
the techniques of embeddinga teacher in it. Three units comprise this block. The units
are on the designing and development of courseware for various media. As mentioned
earlier, multiple media approach is prevalent in many ODL institutions of India. Hence
the units describe the production of courseware for print and non print media. The
elaborate process of course development, involving several stages, has been analysed
and stage wise description has been provided in the units. The units thus describe the
. planning, organization, coordination, supervision and other managerial functions carried
out during the various stages involved in the production of courseware. The units
comprising this block are the following:
Unit 5: Basics of Course Development: This unit, which happens to be the first in
this block, is about the various activities comprising courseware development. It will
introduce you to the various phases of programme/course development and help you in
understanding the various processes involved in it.
Unit 6: Development of SLM: The development of self learning material as a
courseware to be offered to the learners through the print medium has been discussed
in this unit. As you read the unit, you will be acquainted with the unique features of
SLM that have been discussed in the perspective of the unique needs of distance learners.
Unit 7: Development of Media Courseware: In leT based teaching and learning
environments, it becomes imperative for educators, teachers, facilitators and
administrators to develop an understanding of the practical aspects and issues associated
with educational media. With this perspective, this Unit takes a look at various media
used and approaches to media usage in an ODL institution. Thereafter it introduces you
to the planning and development of media based courseware for institutions offering.
instructional materials for 'Multiple Media' .
MES-047 : OPEN AND DISTANCE EDUCATION
Block 1: Concept and Philosophy of Open Learning and Distance Education
Unit 1 Foundations of Open Learning and Distance Education
Unit 2 Evolution of Open and Distance Education
Unit 3 Understanding Open and Distance Learning in India :
NIOS and IGNOU
Unit 4 Subsystems of Open Distance Education

Block 2: Management of Media and Materials in Distance and

Open Learning
Unit 5 Basics of Course Development
Unit 6 Development of SLM
Unit 7 Development of Media Courseware

Block 3: Management of Student Support Services

Unit 8 Management of Teaching-Learning System
Unit 9 Management of Evaluation System
Unit 10 Case Studies
· UNIT 5 BASICS OF COURSE
DEVELOPMENT
Structure
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Objectives
5.3 Development of Programme/Course
5.3.1 Need Survey
5.3.2 Preparation of Concept Paper
5.3.3 Content Development
5.3.4 Editing
5.3.5 Development of Programme Guide, Handbook, Practical Manuals
5.3.6 Printing
5.3.7 Production of Courseware for the Electronic Media
5.3.8 Evaluation of Courseware
5.3.9 Copyright
5.4 Revision of Courseware
5.5 Summary
5.6 Unit End Activities
5.7 References and Suggested Reading
5.8 Answers to Check Your Progress

5.1 INTRODUCTION
The units of the previous block acquainted you with the concept and philosophy of
open and distance learning (ODL). This block is about the management of development
of self learning materials for various media, the know-how of which is essential for
those concerned with the process of development of courseware. This unit, which
happens to be the first in this block, is about the various activities comprising course
development. Course development is an essential process in an ODL institution and
the knowledge of this process is indispensable for its management.
Before we initiate discussions on course development, we would like to clarify that
the term 'course' and 'programme' have been used conterminously in this unit. This is
because the term, 'course' used commonly is actually a 'programme' in some
institutions including, IGNOU. You are at present enrolled in an academic programme
that has certain courses: You now have access to the courseware developed for these
courses. Well, how were the courseware developed? These were developed through
the elaborate process of course development, which happens to be a long drawn one,
involving' several stages. This unit will introduce you to the various phasesof
programme/course development and help you in understanding the various processes
involved in it. Although courseware in ODL may be prepared for delivery through
various media but this unit has a bias towards the processes involved in development
of courseware meant for the print medium. This is because even in many of the
premiere ODL institutions of India and abroad, print is still the master medium,
complemented/supplemented by audio and visual media. You will also come to know
through this unit that programme/course development does not end with distribution of
courseware but it continues as its maintenance and revision are taken up.

5
 Management of Media
and Materials in Distance 5.2 OBJECTIVES
and Open Learning
After studying this Unit you should be able to:

• explain the process of course development;

• discuss the process of maintenance of a course;
• describe the method adopted for revising a course.

5.3 DEVELOPMENT OF PROGRAMME/COURSE

As mentioned in the introduction, the terms programme and course are conterminously
used but as you are a student of IGNOU, we shall use the term 'programme'. A
programme is a comprehensive term and includes a broad area of study. It includes in
its scope related areas of study called courses. The courses comprise the area covered
by the programme. The unit you are now reading is one of the several units comprising
a block. A few such blocks constitute a course, and a few courses make a programme,
like the one in which you have enrolled (see Figure 1).

I PROGRAMME I
COURSE 1 ) [ COURSE 2 I ICOURSE 3 I ICOURSE 4 1
BLOCK 1 [ BLOCK 2 1 [ BLOCK 3 1

H UNIT 1 I
H UNIT 2

H UNIT 3

Y UNIT 4 1

Figure 1: Relation among programme, courses, blocks and units

Planning, designing and developing courseware for educational programmes are the
major activities carried out by the schools of studies of an ODL institution like IGNOU.
What is the need for developing courseware? Courseware is an important means to
attain the goals and objectives of imparting education in a particular area. For instance
the course that you are studying now has been developed to attain the goals of the
programme in which you have enrolled. The goals and objectives and the educational
experiences planned to attain them are abstractions while the courseware developed
concretizes these abstractions and makes them tangible. Courseware is planned,
designed and developed keeping in view the objectives of the course. The objectives
are usually to bring about observable changes in the overt behaviour of the learners.
This makes the approach to courseware development behaviouristic whereby learning,
i.e. behavioural changes are sought through learning experiences provided through
the courseware with predetermined and fixed objectives. Objectives formulated for a
programme thus guide the strategies for imparting instructions and the development of
learning materials.
Programmes are usually designed keeping in mind the nature of the discipline or area
in which competencies (knowledge, skills and attitudes) are to be developed in learners
6 ."
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and the level at which the programme is to be pitched (like, certificate, diploma, Basics of Course
degree level). Programmes may also be tailor made to fulfill special needs of the Development
target group. For example: There is a teacher education programme only for the
graduate teachers teaching at the elementary level of a particular state of India like
IGNOU's Certificate in Elementary Teacher Education for teachers of Tripura. There
could be also be programmes based on one particular discipline such as education,
management, etc. and at the same time there can be interdisciplinary areas like a
programme on educational management. Once the area, the level and the needs of
the target group are agreed upon by a group of experts in the concerned area, the
process of programme development begins. Depending upon the structure and rules
of institutions, the process of development of academic programmes is carried out.
But we shall explain this through the concrete practices that are in vogue at IGNOU.
One or more faculty members or other officials of the University may be the programme/
course coordinators who have the overall responsibility of developing the programme
and preparing the courseware. Thus coordination is usually done by a team. At times
programme development may be done by the institution in collaboration with external
agencies involved in the concerned area (Example: collaboration between IGNOU
and Navodaya Vidyalaya Samiti (NVS) led to the professional development programme
for post graduate teachers of NVS).
But what is the need for developing programmes? Programmes may be developed
due to the following reasons:
Social demand: This is the social relevance of the programme. Programmes are
ideally to be developed only if they are socially relevant. The demand for the programme
in the society is an index of its social relevance. The potential of the programme for
employment related benefits and creating scope for higher education usually are the
two main parameters that create a demand for a programme. For instance teacher
training programmes are in demand as they lead to teacher's professional development.
Discipline based demand: This is the academic relevance of the programme.
Disciplinary value may lead to development of programmes for teaching the discipline
concerned. There are disciplines that may not attract many students but may have
discipline based value like Pali, Sanskrit.
Demand placed by the governing bodies: The governing bodies of a university,
may include university officials and experts from industries, other educational bodies,
government departments, etc. A demand for a new programme may be placed by
these governing bodies if they feel the need for it.
Demand by the government or its agencies/governing bodies of the institution:
There may be a demand for a programme for fulfIlling specific national or state level
needs. For example, at the behest of the Ministry of Human Resource Development
(MHRD) IGNOU has developed teacher training programmes for the untrained primary
teachers of the North East of India. International bodies like the Commonwealth of
Learning, UNICEF, national bodies like the corporate sector, and other agencies may
require programme aiming at capacity building in particular areas.

5.3.1 Need Survey

A need survey reveals the social relevance, i.e. demand for the programme and thereby
justifies the development of the programme. This it provides information on the cost
effectiveness of the programme. Programme development involves a lot of resources
and unless there are adequate numbers of takers for the programme, the programme
would not be cost effective. High enrolments neutralize the investment in developing
and maintaining the programme and may also be a source of revenue for the institution.
Hence, it is ascertained through a need survey whether there would be adequate
number of takers of the programme.
7
Management of Media Need survey also reveals the learner profile, necessary for developing the programme.
and Materials in Distance This tells us about the unique needs of the learner, their socio economic back ground,
and Open Learning
their educational status, whether they are in-service, their age, and other such
demographic characteristics. The learner's access to technology is also determined if
we are thinking of integrating technology in the programme. The essentials of
programme development and delivery like choice of medium, technology integration,
implementation of practical component, delivery points, modes of delivery, etc. are
decided on the basis of the data obtained.
Need study is conducted by the tools most commonly used for data collection viz.
questionnaire and interview. A sample is selected preferably randomly and with the
help of the tools a survey is carried out.

Activity
Think of an academic programme you would like to develop. Write down the rationale
for the programme. Prepare a questionnaire/interview schedule to carry out a need
survey for the programme.

5.3.2 Preparation of Concept Paper

The programme coordinators need a blueprint of the programme development and
implementation strategy. The blueprint spells out various dimensions of the programme
and mirrors the feasibility of the action plans proposed. It thus helps the university in
planning for the development and launch of the programme. It informs and convinces
the statutory bodies of the university about the rationale for the programme, its academic
and social relevance, its objectives, how the programme objectives are in sync with
the objectives of the institution and the society, medium, strategy to develop and deliver
the programme, the outline of the courses, the credits (academic input expected of a
learner in terms of hours. At IGNOU one credit requires 30 hours of academic
work), whether it is a general or a professional programme, assessment procedures,
media to be used for delivering the programme, number of hours of academic
counseling for learners, the expertise and resources available for developing the
programme, etc. (IGNOU,2003) .

Phase-wise Approval of the Proposal

The proposal for programme development has to be submitted at its various stages of
development to different statutory bodies of the university. They verify the need,
feasibility, quality and other necessary aspects of the programme. At IGNOU, the
first statutory body that considers a programme is the School Board (manned by some
members of the school and some external members). It deliberates upon the proposal
and if it is approved, the programme coordinator develops with the help of experts in
the area, the programme structure in detail and submits it to the School Board and
thereafter to the Academic Council. There is also the need for the Academic
Programme Committee and the Planning Board of IGNOU to ratify the programme.

Designing the programme structure

The programme structure is developed with the help of experts in the area. This is
basically the development of curriculum, done in the light of the objectives determined
for the programme. The scope of the programme is determined and delineated into
courses. The curriculum followed by reputed national/international institutions for a
similar programme, the emerging and obsolete concepts in the area, special needs of
the target group (if any) are mainly considered. The theory and practical components
and their corresponding weight are chalked out. Instructional strategies for the courses
and assessment pattern are also worked out. At IGN'OU the courses are then divided
into constituting blocks centering on themes and each block is constituted by units.
8
The content to be covered in each unit is then structured into sections arid subsections Basics of Course
as you have come across at the very beginning of this unit. It is seen that the course Development
content is self-sufficient so that the learners do not have to compulsorily visit libraries.
It is also ensured while designing the courses, blocks and units that there is logical
sequencing of the content so that linkages among the structured content is established.
You will need to be careful about the feasibility of the course and this is especially true
for practical component. The practical activities, project, dissertations, etc. should be
designed and implemented in such a way that distant learners are supported adequately.

5.3.3 Content Development

The model of course development usually followed in IGNOU for course development
is the course team model. In this model the programme coordinator(s) is responsible
for the overall coordination of the programme. The course and programme "coordinators
are assisted by experts who are involved in developing the course structure, writing
units, editing them, preparing audio-video materials, graphic designing, etc. These
experts, approved by the university authorities may be from within the university or
outside it. Following the approval 'of the programme structure, a time schedule is
prepared for developing the course content, getting it edited and printed. Meetings
with course writers &/editors are also organized to orient them to the nature of the
programme and to the style of writing adopted for writing self-learning materials.
Although this model of course development is quite popular but it takes a long time.
Secondly large teams may be difficult to monitor and it may be difficult to meet the
deadlines (Srivastava and Reddy, 2005). There are also other models of course
. development. We shall discuss a few of them briefly.
A programme may require content, already available in some other programme(s). It
may be adapted or used as such. At times standard suitable books may be used,
especially if the programme is to be launched within a short period of time. In such
cases books are adopted along with a wrap around text, which is developed to
provide learners with activities and necessary guidance. Sometimes workshops may
be organized in which course writers participate to prepare courseware. Editors and
graphic experts too may participate in such workshops. This model quickens the course
development process. Another model. is the Seminar model wherein seminars are
organized and the discussions and papers presented there lead to content generation.
This model is suitable when developing content (or a relatively new area on which
existing resources are scant.

5.3.4 Editing
Once the writing of the units is over, they are edited. Editing at IGNOU is of three
types. They are as follows:
Content editing: an expert in the concerned field edits the units. The authenticity of
the information provided, its relevance, adequacy, its pedagogic soundness, level of
difficulty, ease of comprehension, propriety of the content, i.e. absence of anything
that is unethical, against the national interests or would hurt the sentiments of a group,
and other relevant aspects are assessed and suggestions may be made for improvement
Language editing: The language editor ensures that the language is grammatically
correct and lucid. The choice of vocabulary, syntax, idioms, etc. is checked for its
appropriateness. The language may be enriched or simplified depending upon the
target group and the nature of the content.
Format editing: This is done to see that the constituent parts of the courses, like units
and blocks have common format as you will come across in the blocks and units of
this course. You will fmd that all the units begin with the structure, followed by the
introduction, objectives, sections, subsections and end with summary and references. 9
"'. /~.~.
Management of Media There is also uniformity as to the font of titles and subtitles in all the units.
and Materials in Distance
and Open Learning At this stage the content is ready for printing. The faculty is assisted by the publication
staff in printing. Font, size of paper, page layout, graphics, and other aspects related to
the production process are considered. After that Camera Ready Copy (CRC) is
developed for the course material. The cover designing and back page layout are
also done. If the CRC is found to be satisfactory in all aspects, printed texts in the
form of blocks are produced for learners.
Assigning code and deciding the colour scheme: A university may be having a
number of programmes and courses. Although every course has a unique title but
unique code assigned to them facilitates their identification. Therefore, a programme
and the courses comprising it are assigned unique codes, which are usually alpha
numeric in nature. They instantly convey the school offering it, theIevel of the
programme, its nature (theoretical/practical/project/etc.), whether it is fresh/revised,
etc. For example the Code MES-032 of IGNOU indicates, Masters in Educational
Studies- a PG level programme of Education; '0' indicates that it is a fresh programme.
, l' instead of 0 would indicate that the course has been revised once.
Colour scheme: At IGNOU different schools have been assigned different colours
for the cover of their printed material. For instance, School of Education has been
assigned navy blue colour. Therefore the School follows this particular colour scheme.
This helps in easy identification.

5.3.5 Development of Programme Guide, Handbook, Practical

Manuals
Documents are needed to make the distant learners aware of the rules, regulations,
major activities, schedules, etc. A programme guide orients the learner to ODL, the
university, and the programme. It also informs them of what is required of them, what
to do for the successful completion of the programme and thus build their morale. It
helps in the optimum utilization of the course content and the support system devised
for the learners enrolling in the programme by providing an overview of the courses
and other necessary information about the theoretical&1 practical aspects of the
programme. Information about the rules and regulations, the objectives of the
programme, the schedule and outline of the course content, duration of the programme,
eligibility conditions, medium of instructions, accreditation of the programme, credits,
schedule for contact programmes, schedule of term end and other examination (TEE)
, examination form, evaluation system practiced, facilities available like counseling
services, library, audio-video and teleconferencing facilities, etc., strategy for delivering
instructions, list of study centersl programme centers , addresses of various
administrative units and contact numbers and Email IDs of the concerned personnel
of the university and the school offering the programme and other such information
necessary for a distant learner may be provided in the programme guide. The
programme guide should motivate the learner and build confidence for the programme.
It has to assure the learner about the support the university intends for its learners.
This breaks the isolation of the learner.
You may also be required to develop handbooks for learners and also for resource
persons who help in delivering the programme. This is especially needed when the
prograrnrne includes components like workshops and practical activities. The handbook
informs the learner as well as the resource person about the schedule of these activities,
their objectives, credits associated with the activity(s), etc. For example, there are
handbooks for learners and resource persons associated with the workshops of B.Ed.
programme of IGNOU. Similarly for the PG Diploma in Educational Technology
programme, a manual has been developed to assist the learners in carrying out the
activities comprising the project with scaffolding for every activity.
10
Translation: this helps in widening the reach by removing linguistic barriers. At IGNOU Basics of Course
usually the content is originally developed in English and then as per the need translated Development
into Hindi. In case of few programrnes as for example Certificate in Primary
Education, the courseware 'ias been translated into several regional languages.

5.3.6 Printing
The courseware meant for the print medium needs to be printed. In many institutions
like IGNOU, printing of the courseware and the materials supporting it like manuals,
handbooks, programme guides, brochures, etc. are facilitated by the staff responsible
for publication. At this stage usually with the help of a professional artist, the cover
design of the booklets is developed. At IGNOU, the cover page is of the colour assigned
to the concerned school. Creativity and aesthetics in preparing the design for the
cover are essential.
Institutions may have their own regulations for printed material regarding the paper
size, layout, paper types, etc. IGNOU uses the 'A series' of paper size, the one you
.are reading now. The quality of paper to be used for printing is also as per the rules of
the institution. IGNOU uses 'Agro based environment friendly' papers (STRIDE
Manual, 2006). Camera Ready Copy (CRC) preparation is done with the layout design
adopted by the university. The one before you is the layout usually followed at IGNOU.
As you can see in the blocks of the different courses you are studying, the inside text
composition is also standardized. The instructions for text composition and layout are
to be provided to the text composer for page layout.
You also have to include the 'credit page' in the printed booklets. You may open the
credit page of this block. What is the importance of this page? This page is important
as it acknowledges the names of the members of the individuals and organizations that
havehelped in course development in terms of academic support, secretarial assistance,
supp-vt towards r~lblication, cover designing and other aspects related to course
development, Therefore, the experts who had prepared the structure of the courses,
written the units, carried out the various kinds of editing and those who coordinated
the course need to be acknowledged. Those involved in printing, preparing graphics
and CO'!"l '~e:;lgning, providing secretarial assistance, proof reading, publishing and
other essential tasks for the course development/revision also need to be mentioned.
The month and year of publication, copyright of the material, ISBN and other required
details of printed courseware as deemed necessary by the institution are also included
in this page.
Once the CRC is approved, the faculty is shown the 'ferro stage' by the publishers.
This is checked by the faculty for margins, page layout, (depth and width), figures
and their placements, page placements, quality of impression and broken texts (STRIDE
Manual,2006):Thereafter the final printing is carried out by the publishing firm within
the time limit stipulated by the institution.

5.3.7 Production of Courseware for the Electronic Media

Today institutions are shifting towards an instructional strategy that adopts a multimedia
approach. This approach envisages the delivery of instructions through various media.
At IGNOU, at the Electronic Media Production Center (EMPC), content in the
electronic form is produced and disseminated through various modes directly to learners
or through study centers and regional centers. Recorded content is produced, replicated
and delivered through two broad categories- the broadcast mode (radio and television)
and the non broadcast mode (audio and video cassettes and CDs that are broadcast or
played at study centers and regional centers. As mentioned earlier, in most of the
institutions of ODL in India and in many institutions abroad, the print medium happens
to be the master medium while the instructions delivered through electronic media
11
Management of Media complementing/supplementing it. At IGNOU, the electronic media supplements the
and Materials in Distance self sufficient print medium.
and Open Learning
Planning for audio and video courseware should ideally begin with the designing of the
courses of the programme. Nature of the content mostly decides the media selection.
Some content may demand more of audio-visual inputs as for example content on
surgery. Production of a programme for electronic media also begins with research to
determine the profile of the audience (learners). The programme development is done
in thelight of the objectives to be achieved through the courseware.
Production of courseware to be delivered through the electronic media is also a team
work. Content coordinator, producer, script writer, camera men, sound recorders, editors
and others form a team to produce the courseware. Following the formulation of
objectives and development of profile of the target group, a programme brief is prepared.
It includes information on objectives, target audience, a working title of the programme,
duration, content outline, etc. Thereafter an academic note is developed by the content
coordinator detailing out the information providedin the programme brief. In addition
it also includes the sequence in which the content would be presented, illustrations,
resources available, resources required, etc. Then the format of the programme namely
interview, quiz, magazine, documentary, panel discussion, etc. is decided and the script
for the programme is written. Some formats like discussions, and interviews do not
require elaborate script writing. The script includes spoken words, dialogues, sound
effects, music, etc. and if it is for a video, the accompanying visuals are also noted
down. Thus for videos a story board is prepared, which has two sides. One side includes
the details of audio, while the other side of the sheet gives the details of the corresponding
video. For instance, we may include in the side meant for visuals, a labeledpicture of
the plant parts, while in the side meant for the audio, we may mention, 'voice over'.
The voice over will explain the plant parts. The shot descriptions and details regarding
lighting, camera angles, etc. may also be detailed out.
Activities like identifying experts for script writing, creating the voice over, preparing
animations, etc., arranging the necessary resources for shooting and recording, selecting
location (if outdoor shooting is to be done), set designing, etc. are done. Then recording
the programme and its editing are carried out.

The African Medical Research Education Foundation (AMREF) wasinstrumental in setting

up a Distance Education Unit (DEU) in Uganda. The Unit was set 1!P in the Health Manpower
Development Centre and Distance Education Unit (HMDC).

The rationale for establishing the DEU was to provide continuing education or in-service
training through selflearning materials and radio programmes as an integral part of professional
development for health workers who work in government and NGO hospitals, dispensaries,
health centres and sub-dispensaries to build human resource capacity at all levels of the
health sector. .;

J11eprogramme is tailored for a wide range of workers in the field of health, and the curriculum
is suitable for their work situation. There is congruence between what health' workers do in
their workplace and what they study, Programmes offered by DEU also meet societal health
needs. The courses offered include child health, community health, immunization,
environment health, etc. The curriculum is developed in workshops by health workers who
are based in areas identified through district needs assessments.

Source: ADEA REPORT - April 2002. Distance Education and Open Learning in Sub-
Saharan Africa

5.3.8 Evaluation of Courseware

<\

Irrespective of the medium of the courseware, its evaluation is necessary for maintaining
quality. Formative evaluation may be carried out while developing the programme to
determine whether the programme has attained the desired quality or requires any Basics of Course
revision. The courseware is read! previewed by experts and a sample of the target Development
group. If it is okayed, it is replicated. The courseware for electronic media following
its production is catalogued and stored in media libraries.

5.3.9 Copyright
While preparing courseware for any medium, we need to keep in mind the copyright
laws. It has to be ensured that due acknowledgement is given to the copyright holders.
Hence, for content taken from journals, books, manuals, etc. reference is a must.. If
content from a website is used, then it is necessary that permission is sought from the
owners of the website &/or of the author(s) who has posted the content on the website.
This holds good for text as well as for graphics, audio and visuals. The main steps of
programme development discussed so far have been summarized as follows (Fig.2):

Development of
Programme/Course

, Fig.2: Steps involved in programme development

Activity
Read the copy right laws. Express your views critically on these laws in the context
of courseware development.
Management of Media
and Materials in Distance Check Your Progress 1
and Open Learning
Answer the following questions briefly:
1. Mention three reasons for development a new programme.
2. What is the significance of language editing?

5.4 REVISION OF COURSEWARE

You now have an idea of courseware development. Courseware created for educational
purposes will need to be maintained regularly and revised from time to time. Otherwise
its relevance may wane with the passage of time. In this section we shall discuss
about the maintenance of the courseware developed. Before you read this section,
try to answer the question, why is it necessary to revise courseware produced? Some
of the reasons are as follows:
To rectify errors: In spite of best efforts of the author, editor and the course coordinator,
some errors may remain and this is especially true for the courseware in the print
medium. These errors are usually typographical errors that may remain undetected in
spite of proof reading. There could also remain undetected some factual errors. The
latter are of more serious nature.
New developments: There may be developments that require the content to be
"
updated on an immediate basis. For example, Article 45 of the Indian constitution is
now about early childhood education, Right to education has become a fundamental
right.

Need for remedial/additional reading material: It may appear that particular area(s)
in a course(s) needs to be supplemented with some more text/illustrations.
Relevance of the courseware: Revision of the curriculum and the coursewares
from time to time is essential for their relevance. This is because educational is a
dynamic concept. With changes in the knowledge comprising the discipline and socio-
economic realities, a programme once developed may not remain relevant for ever.
Ensuring relevance of courseware through revisions leads to quality assurance.
Supposing after the programme has been launched, you as the programme/course
coordinator notice some errors, what will you do? The programme and the course
coordinators may in such cases need. to prepare a list of the errors (if any) and an
errata sheet may be developed and sent to the learners.
With the passage of time, as learners enroll and study the courses, feedback from
them and subject experts and other stakeholders is also collected. Collection of feedback
for undertaking revision may be facilitated if a form is developed for collecting feedback
about the concerned course and attached at the end of the study materials for that
course. You may also be required to organize meetings &/ workshops with experts in
the area to guide you in revising the courseware. r

Revision of course materials also needs all the attention and meticulousness required
for developing a new course. Revising a course also has to be done in the perspective
of the goals, which may be the same or may be altered. Therefore the process of
revision also needs the proposal to be submitted to the various statutory bodies of the
university for their approval and comments.
Thus course development, feedback collection and its revision comprise a cyclical
process as depicted in Figure 3.

14
 •

Basics of Course
Development
Course
development

Revision,

Fig.3: Course development, feedback collection and its revision- a cyclical process

Check Your Progress 2

Answer the following questions briefly:
1. Mention two reasons for revising courses.
2. State the difference between minor and major revisions.

5.5 SUMMARY
In this unit you have read that a course also known as a programme in some institutions
is developed following a need surveyor when the need to develop it is established. It
begins with formulation of broader goals for the entire programme and the courses
comprising it, while the units comprising the courses have more specific objectives.
Once the need to develop a programme has been established, it becomes necessary to
plan, design and develop a curriculum to achieve the goals of the educational programme
to be developed. On the basis of the objectives of the courses, learning experiences
are determined and organized and thus the curriculum is chalked out. The content is
thereafter developed.
The first step following need assessment is the preparation of a concept paper for the
programme. The concept paper states briefly but clearly the need for the programme,
its demand among learners, its academic and social relevance, its objectives, target
group, level i.e. whether it is meant to be an undergraduate/ post graduate programme
and whether it would be a certificate/ diploma/advance diploma/degree level programme
, the duration of the programmes, whether there would be semesters/ modules,
objectives of the programme, how the programme objectives are in sync with the
objectives of the institution, strategy to develop and deliver the programme and other
such relevant information about the programme. The development of the programme
requires approval of the statutory bodies of the University at different phases of its
development.
There are various models of course development but the course team approach is the
most common one. In this model the course and programme coordinators are assisted
by experts from within the institution and outside it. Different groups of experts are
actively involved in developing the course structure, writing units, editing them, preparing
audio-video materials, graphic designing, etc. Thereafter the course content is edited
for the content, language and format. The course content is then printed. Meanwhile
programme guide, practical manuals, audio and video CDslDVDs may also be produced
in the way they are needed.
The programme/course developed needs regular maintenance. Following the launch,
typographical and factual errors that come to the notice are listed and an errata sheet
if required is prepared and sent to learners. Any additional reading material if required
is also developed and sent to the learners. The programme developed also needs to ll. 15
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------~
Management of Media be revised periodically so that it remains relevant. The revision undertaken may be
and Materials in Distance
minor or major, whereby small changes or major changes are brought about respectively
and Open Learning
in the programme. Revision may entail new objectives as per changing needs emerging
from emergence of new knowledge, obsolescence of ideas and new social needs.
Therefore, besides, the incorporation of new developments, updating information,
rectifying errors, content overload or dearth may be addressed. The curriculum, its
presentation, credits, media mix, and other things may be altered during revision.
Revision is thus a systematic and planned process and begins with collection of feedback
from the various stakeholders of the programme and especially from learners and
experts. On the basis of the data collected from a carefully chosen and preferably
random sample, and its analysis and interpretation, actual revision is carried out.

5.6 UNIT END ACTIVITIES

• Critically assess the units of this ceurse for content adequacy, comprehensibility,
difficulty arid any other points you feel are necessary for assessment and provide
feedback by mail/letter to the coordinator of the programme.
• Think of new model of course development and explain how it is an improvement
over those suggested in this unit.

5.7 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING

Associatiorr for the Development of Education in Africa (ADEA) REPORT ( April
2002.). Distance Education and Open Learning in Sub-Saharan Africa. A
Literature Survey On Policy And Practice; Sponsored by The Commonwealth of
Learning

Manual for Programme and Course Coordinators, STRIDE, IGNOU, 2006.

, Srivastava, M. and Reddy, v.v. (2005).Quantity and quality of open learning materials:
A study of IGNOU's Practices. Paper presented at ICDE Conference, New Delhi,
2005.
Srivastava, M. and Reddy, v.v. (2005). Quality Interaction and Independence: Review
of the course development practices of IGNOU. University News,43 (43), 2005).
Design and development of self learning print materials, ES312, STRIDE, IGNOU,
2000.
STRIDE Handbook 6 Editing in Distance Education, STRIDE, IGNOU, 2003.

5.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 1

1. Social needs, value of the discipline and need to preserve it
2. To ensure lucidity and use of proper syntax

Check Your Progress 2

1. Changes emerging in know ledge in the concerned field, changing social needs in
the area.
2. Minor revision involves minor changes in the courseware while major revision
involves developing the programme afresh with major changes.

16
UNIT 6 DEVELOPMENT OF SLM
Structure
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Objectives
6.3 Learning and its implications for SLM
6.3.1 Factors affecting Learning
6.3.2 Theories of Learning
6.3.3 Adult Learners
6.3.4 Communicating Effectively

6.4 Self Instructional/Learning Material

6.4.1 Characteristics of SLM
6.5 Unit Writing
6.5.1 Beginning the Unit
6.5.2 Middle Part of the Unit
6.5.3 End Part of the Unit

6.6 Summary
6.7 Unit End Activities
6.8 References and Suggested Reading
6.9 Answers to Check Your Progress

6.1
c·
INTRODUCTION
The earlier unit acquainted you with the process of development of courses in open
and distance education. We have also mentioned that print is the master medium in
many distance education institutions even now. In this unit we shall discuss the
development of self learning material as a courseware to be offered to the learners
through the print medium. As you have read in the units of the first block, open and
distance learning (ODL) reaches out to distance learners, who are independent and
empowered enough to choose their place and pace of learning. Distance learners
study with the help of materials that are designed to be self instructing. This implies
that a tutor happens to be embedded in the study material, which is meant for self
directed learning by the adult and independent distance learner. The emphasis however,
is on self directed learning rather than teaching and instructing. Hence, the study
materials are rightly called self learning materials (SLM) rather than self instructional
materials (SIM).
Style of writing adopted for educational content depends to a great extent on the
nature and requirements of the target group. Books meant for young children are
written in particular way. Text books are written in a particular way. Similarly self
learning materials meant for distance learners are also written in a certain way about
which we shall discuss in this unit. As you read the unit, which also happens to be
SLM, you will be acquainted with the unique features of SLM that have been discussed
in the perspective of the unique needs of distance learners.
SLM is the material that takes the learning experiences as well as the embedded
teacher to the students. An ODL institution is known by the quality of SLM it produces.
The Commonwealth of Learning bestows award of excellence for the distance education
materials produced by ODL institutions and IGNOU has been the recipient of such an
17
Management of Media award. Hence, managing the production of courseware and especially of SLM is
and Materials in Distance necessary. You will have to ensure that the SLM developed is pedagogic ally sound
and Open Learning
and is rich in content. Hence, you will need an understanding of the process involved
in preparing SLM. This requires not only the subject knowledge but also the knowledge
of pedagogy. Hence, we shall first introduce you to the major theories of learning.
Thereafter we will discuss the nature of SLM and finally we shall describe how to
write SLM, i.e. a unit for a course.

6.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit you should be able to:
• explain the process of learning;
• discuss the implications of learning theories in development of SLM;
• describe the nature of SLM; and
• develop SLM for print medium for distance learners.

6.3 LEARNING AND ITS IMPLICATIONS FOR SLM

For designing and developing materials to facilitate learning, you need to understand
the process of learning. We have discussed briefly the concept of learning at the very
beginning of this unit. Learning is an active process which requires the mental &/
physical involvement of the learner. The learner should have a goal to be attained
through the learning process. For instance some one may want to learn a particular
language, which becomes his/her goal. Learning is thus a purposeful activity. Therefore,
the programme in which you have enrolled has goals and the courses and units you
are reading as a part of this programme have certain specific objectives. The attainment
ofthe objectives leads to the attainment of the broader and long term goals. Learning
brings about relatively permanent changes in our behaviour. For instance, following
learning we may become capable of performing activities requiring knowledge/ skills/
attitudes not possessed by us earlier. Learning can be transferred from one situation
to another similar situation. For instance, one able to type on a typewriter can use the
key board of a computer easily.

6.3.1 Factors Affecting Learning

There are certain factors that affect learning. Some of the major ones are as follows:
• Nature of the Learning Material: The nature of learning material influences
learning. If the content is difficult to understand, learning becomes difficult. On
the other hand, it is easier to learn content, which has been stated clearly and
logically and relates to what is already known and thereby enhances familiarity.
This is the reason why in the introduction to a unit itself we draw linkage to what
the learner has learnt earlier.
• The content should be meaningful to learners. If you are using terms in the
SLM that may be unfamiliar to learners, a glossary can enhance its clarity. To
enhance familiarity you may cite examples from daily life of Iearner.: and of
things with which they are well versed. For instance, for a student from rural
India, you may give the example of chapatti than pizza. It is better to write for
distance learners using simple language.
• Interest and Motivation: Level of interest and motivation to learn greatly
affect learning. You need to build interest when you introduce the unit and sustain
it till the summary. Illustrations, lucidity in language, use of first and second person
(I, you, we) help in sustaining interest oflearners. Linking to previous knowledge
18
 builds familiarity and motivates learners. Feedback for the questions you ask Development of SLM
sustains motivation. Therefore, we have added the section 'answers to check
your progresses' to this unit.
• Practice: It is important to practice for retaining and strengthening learning.
Especially, skills improve with practice. Hence the content we develop need to
include scope for practice through exercises with questions.
• Learning is an active process: As against rote learning, the content should
incite thinking. What can you do to make learners think? You may intersperse in '"
the content questions that induce thought and reflection.
• Characteristics of the learner: Why is it important to have an idea of the
learners' profile for course development? You have read in the previous unit that
learners' age, abilities, aspirations, anxieties, interests, resources available have
a significant effect on learning. For instance, medium of instruction may be the
regional language because the learner profile demands it. Knowing your target
group is a must. In children's books you may have seen that examples given are
in the context of things children like as for instance, candies', toys and the like.
Similarly you may give the example of roti to target group from rural places
instead of pizza because the target group is familiar with it.

6.3.2 Theories of Learning

We shall discuss the major theories of learning briefly. Learning theories describe the
conditions under which learning takes place as well as the consequences of learning.
It is important to understand learning theories because they explain and predict the
ways in which relevant factors affect learning. Two main categories oflearning theories
are: behaviouristic and cognitive.

Behaviouristic .theories of learning

The behaviorist view defines learning as association or bonding between stimulus (S)
and response(R), i.e. through S-R relationships. According to this view learning leads
to a new association or connection between a stimulus and response. For instance, to
the symbols of alphabets, numbers, messages, i.e. (S) we learn to attach the message
conveyed(R). For example when you see your friend (S), you attach her name, i.e.
response (R). For red signal (S) we attach the message 'stop' (R). Think of some
more examples of such S-R bonding involved in learning. These theories are of the
view that learning leads to perceptible change in behaviour, i.e. ability to respond to a
stimulus acquired can be observed. Let us now discuss some major learning theories,
which are based on S-R connections.

Thorndike's Trial and Error Theory

E.L. Thorndike (1874-1939) propounded the theory of "learning by trial and error with
accidental success". For instance, the cat in his experiment tried to come out of a trap
and after a few unsuccessful attempts makes the right attempt and succeeds. The
\.
successful attempt that was not based on insight (understanding of the whole situation
and grasping the relation among the variables), but on chance is selected by the cat
and fixed as the right response.
Thorndike proposed three laws of learning which are as follows:
• Law of Readiness: Can you teach third year courses to a first year student?
When any conduction unit is ready to conduct (an individual ready to learn
something), for it to do so is satisfying. When any conduction unit is not in
readiness to conduct, for it to conduct is difficult. It implies that since readiness
emerges from interest, need, age, maturity, previous learning, experiences, etc.,
we need to be attentive to the learner profile.
19
Management of Media • Law of Exercise: This law is further divided in two sub-laws: (a) law of use,
and Materials in Distance and (b) law of disuse. Exercising i.e. practicing a response strengthens its
and Open Learning
connection with the stimulus and disuse weakens it. For instance the poem you
have stopped reciting is likely to be forgotten.
• Law of Effect: Responses leading to satisfaction becomes associated with that
situation. So, we learn things that we enjoy, better.

Pavlov's Classical Conditioning Theory

Classical Conditioning theory was developed by Ivan P. Pavlov (1884-1936) . He,
noted in his experiment that saliva secretion (Unconditioned Response, UCR), a reflex
reaction elicited in a dog at the sight of food (Unconditioned Stimulus, USC) can be
elicited by neutral stimuli, the sound of a bell (Conditioned Stimulus, CS) that preceded
the food. This type of response to a neutral stimulus is conditioned response (CR).
Pavlovian conditioning is called classical conditioning. It is also known as respondent
conditioning because the organism passively responds and the respondent behaviour
is controlled by a particular stimulus. Even human beings are conditioned to respond in
a particular way to a stimulus. Some children start crying (CR) at the sight of a doctor
(CS) as s/he may remind her of the painful injection (UCS) on an earlier occasion.

Basic Conditioning Phenomena

There are a few interesting phenomena which are inherent in conditioning:
• Acquisition: It is acquiring the connection or association between the
unconditioned stimulus and the conditioned stimulus. When conditioned response
follows the presentation of conditioned stimulus, even in the absence of
unconditioned stimulus it implies conditioning.
• Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery: Once the conditioning has taken place,
if you continue presenting CS alone over a number of trials, the learned response
(CR) gradually becomes weaker and gradually disappears. This is known as
extinction. However, this extinction is not just like simple erasure but there can
1

be spontaneous recovery. It suggests that even after extinction phase, there I

remains some learning. ~
• Generalization and Discrimination: Generalization simply refers to responding 1
in the similar ways to stimuli that resemble each other. For example a child who
fears mathematics may also fear physics. However, discrimination learning is
1
also significant. If an organism responds only to a specific stimulus and not to
1
others, it means it has discriminated between originally learned experience and
l
the others. For instance, a child learns to discriminate a bus from other automobiles. •j

Skinner's Operant Conditioning Theory ~

~
In classical conditioning paradigm, the behaviour (salivation by the dog) in Pavlov's
experiment was elicited by the smell of food and later only through the bell. On the
other hand, making the correct attempt to escape by the cat in Thorndike's experiment
was an emitted behaviour - performed deliberately by the cat. So, unlike Pavlov's
theory that considers learning as a relatively passive act, emitted behaviour &-:.1 its
fixation (over other unsuccessful ones- i.e. attempts not leading to success) ._.:i•es
learning a more active and voluntary process. This type of learning is known as
instrumental conditioning because the act or behaviour is instrumental in obtaining a
satisfactory experience or reward, which in the case of the cat was food or as
ope rant conditioning (because the organism operates on its environment).
Thorndike (1874-1949) had opined that effect (reward) influenced learning. B. F.
Skinner (1904 - 1990) says that learning, a behavioural change is brought about by
operant conditioning. As per this view an organism interacts with its environment and
20 a stimulus (reinforcing stimulus) may be provided to reinforce a desired response
(operant) to strengthen it. Or a response may be provided with negative reinforcement Development of St.:M
to weaken it. For instance, praise elicits good behaviour repeatedly while punishment
is supposed to stop an undesirable behaviour. Out of a series of behaviours exhibited
by an organism, we need to select and condition through reward the desirable behaviour.
B. F. Skinner is credited for his concept of reinforcement (as for e.g., food given to an
animal, gift or praise to a person, etc.), which after being paired with any particular
desirable behaviour increases the chances of the behaviour. For example if a child is
praised for her handwriting, she makes good handwriting a habit. Skinner postulated
that if the response is immediately followed by a reinforcing stimulus, (reward like gift,
praise, smile, etc.) the organism tends to strengthen this S-R relationship and increases
the probability of that behaviour. So behaviour is shaped by its immediate consequences.
Positive reinforcement strengthens the behaviour while negative reinforcement weakens
it (disapproval can weaken a behaviour). For instance, a performance applauded makes
an orator perform in a similar fashion.

Educational Implications of Stimulus - Response Theory

The S-R approach to learning has immense implications for education and development
of SLM. Some of them are as follows:
• Learners should be active: "Learning by doing" is the best technique for
effective learning. Hence there is need to include exercises, activities that make
learners 'do' things.
• We need to provide a supportive environment to facilitate learning with
intelligently manipulated reinforcements. As mentioned earlier clues to questions
asked are hence provided. Access devices of a unit (discussed later) also help in
this regard.
• Practice leads to perfection: To acquire any skill, frequent repetition, or practice
is a must. Activities, exercises, etc. are hence required in SLM.
• Appropriate reinforcement should be there: Clues and model answers at
the end of the units provide feedback and reinforce responses.
• Satisfaction facilitates learning: Learning experiences if rewarding, facilitate
learning. Hence, we need to see that the learner does not have to struggle to
understand the concepts, terms and vocabulary used in SLM. It should explain
well the concepts taken up.
• Readiness helps learning: Design and develop SLM as per the level of your
learners. The difficulty level of the content and language need to be considered
as per the level of learners.
S-R theories are criticized because they consider \earning as a mechanical process
devoid of insight and understanding. Besides not all behavioural change like covert
ones including attitudes and values can be assessed.
c.L. Hull's (1884 - 1952) drive reduction theory said that between the Sand the R is
an 0 leading to S-O-R connection. The 0 is the drive within the individual that leads
to R, i.e. learning. The drive emerges from the need to learn and is required to sustain
learning. You have read time and again in the previous unit and in this one about the
need to assess learner's need before developing courseware as it is this need that will
sustain efforts to learn. Hence need survey is needed before course development.

Cognitive Theory of Learning

This theory emphasizes the role of cognition or thought processes (attention, perception,
memory, imagery, language, and reasoning) in learning. Its proponents like Wolfgang
Kohler, Koffka, Wertheimer, and others, learning is not a mechanical but an insightful
process. Insight refers to a sudden understanding of the basic nature of a solution to
21
Management of Media any problem through internal thought processes that takes into consideration the gestalt,
and Materials in Distance which means the 'whole'. Hence they are also called gestalt theories. For instance,
and Open Learning
while solving a problem, we may not resort to random trial and error but consider all
the variables involved, study their relation and then come to a solution. For example,
to reach out to a thing kept on a high shelf, a child estimates the height, brings an
appropriate stool, climbs on it and may use a stick to reach the thing. Later social
constructivists like Lev Vygotsky, Jerome Bruner, and others said that learning takes
place in a social setting. Hence, there is need for discussions and interactions while
learning. We internalize what we observe and understand in social settings like in the
company of peers and teachers.

Educational Implications o! Cognitive Theory

• The arrangement of a problem situation affects insight: It has been observed
that the perception of relationships among the variables of a situation leads to a
solution. The learners should be provided with structured learning problem, so
that the relationships among its constituent parts are perceived clearly. Hence,
we have a structure at the beginning of the unit.
• Encouraging learning with understanding: Rote learning is soon forgotten
but learning through understanding lasts longer.
• Goal setting: Why do we have objectives at the beginning of a unit? This is
because goal setting directs efforts for learning.
•. Social setting: We may include activities that require group work so that learners
interact, discuss and thereby learn.

Activity
• Visit the library and read the theories on learning discussed in any book on
educational psychology. Critically assess the utility of the theories for developing
SLM.
• Study the design of a text book. Note the differences between a text book and
SLM.

6.3.3 Adult Learners

Pedagogy is the art and science of teaching children. When adults are to be taught,
the art and science of teaching is called andragogy. Although factors affecting learning
like meaningfulness of the content, logical organization of content, need for previous
experience to root new learning, interest of learner and the like are common to both
but certain basic differences are also there between pedagogy and andragogy. Adults
have a mature personality, are self motivated and can be better mangers of their
learning. They are more responsible and show greater readiness for learning. Being
mature, they can also bring into play their past experiences better. They can take
better decisions and have better insights into factors that lead to success. So it is.
crucial to understand through need survey, the adult learners' needs and aspirations.
We also need to be careful to ensure the usefulness and appropriateness of the learning
material. It is also better to have a democratic set up where they can participate in a
learning process that values their inputs. Therefore, you may include activities requiring
learners to plan, organize and evaluate learning. For instance you may ask them to
organize a brainstorming session or a debate on an issue and prepare a report of it as
a part of their assignment.
Adults are aware of. their concrete and immediate needs. Hence, practical problems
and their solutions are required. The content has to be more task or problem-centered
and above all need based. When we design learning materials for adults we need to
keep in mind these things. Adults are also capable of self evaluation. Hence self Development of SLM ••
check exercises with feedback are necessary.

6.3.4 Communicating Effectively

For teaching we need to communicate with our learners. Communication process
should be such that 'noise', i.e. problems coming in the way of receipt of message
from source (SLM) and recipient (Learner) is minimum. In other words SLM should
be such that barriers to communication, which impede the flow of message from the
source to the recipient is minimum. In SLM (to be offered through the print medium),
writing skills are therefore necessary. While writing, we need to ensure that the SLM
conveys the message with clarity and there are no linguistic or semantic barriers. We
also need to ascertain if it is verbose with superfluous repetitions or too few words are
not communicating the meaning. We need to take care of grammar, language, choice
of vocabulary as per the profile of the learners. We may read the SLM after writing it
to check if there are jumps or breaks in the writing which need to be bridged. Has one
concept been explained in totality before moving on to another concept? Practice is
required to bring a flow or spontaneity in writing.

Check Your Progress 1

Answer the following questions.
1. What is meant by learning?
2. Discuss how satisfaction lead: to better learning
3. In your view which is more effective: learning by association or learning by
rote? Why?

6.4 SELFINSTRUCTIONALILEARNING MATERIAL

Self instructional material is today known as self learning material (SLM) as the
emphasis is on learning rather than teacher dominated instructions. This is because in
distance education, distant learners are empowered with the freedom to choose their
place, pace and style of learning. This kind of learning material is used for education
imparted at a distance. Not only for academic programmes but also for informal learning
we may use SLM. For example, manuals of several products like washing machine,
car and the like instruct and teach us to operate them.
As you read this unit, you will find that the content has been divided into small sections
and subsections interspersed with self check questions and feedback. Is there any
theoretical basis for this? In the previous section you have read about Skinner's
operant conditioning. Based on this was developed the concept of programmed learning,
widely used for developing SLM. The content as you see even in this unit is divided
into frames (small chunks of content) followed by exercise to assess learning. Feedback
(clues to check your progress) reinforces the right responses and leads to stepwise
learning.

6.4.1 Characteristics of SLM

SLM needs to embed a teacher in it and hence perform the functions a teacher does
in the face to face situation. What are these functions? Some of them are as follows:
• Learner-Based Approach: Unlike a text book, which is meant for both learners
as well as teachers, SLM is meant for learners. Hence, it has to be developed
taking into consideration their previous knowledge, present demands, their
readiness, etc.
23
Management of Media • Self explaining and self contained: SLM needs to be written lucidly with relevant
and Materials in Distance examples, illustrations, case studies so that distant learners find it easy to
and Open LEarning
understand and does not have to depend much on external sources of information.
Unlike a text book to understand which, a teacher may be needed, SLM should
be self explanatory. A glossary added to a unit may substitute a dictionary/
encyclopedia. We must also ensure the authenticity and utility of the information.
• Organization of materials: The content should be structured into sections with
relevant headings and subheadings to highlight the structuring of the text. It is
important to organize the content logically, starting with the learners' past
experiences and ending with a recapitulation of what has been taught.
• Self directing and self motivating: The study material should embed a teacher
to provide necessary instructions and guidance in the form of directions,
suggestions, hints and clues as and when required. Easy explanations, lucid
language, sequential organization, illustrations, learning activities, glossary, etc.
make the content self directing. SLM should also motivate learners. Providing
feedback for self check exercises is one way of motivating learning. The
mechanism of feedback works on the following grounds that it not only indicates
to the learners the wrong and right answers but also how they could reach right
answers and improves learning. It enables self-evaluation and self-assessment
of performance. Thus feedback and positive reinforcement motivate self-directed
learning.
• Objectives are stated: Unlike in many textbooks, SLM has clearly stated
objectives so that learning is focused and assessable.
• Moderate in size: Units in IGNOU are usually neither too long nor too short but
moderate in size of about 5000 -6000 words. However, at times if required the
number of words may be more or less than this limit.
• Mentions time needed for learning: Credits may be associated with SLM.
To earn one credit in IGNOU you need to put in 30 hours of academic work. If
a course is of 6 credits and has 10 units, each unit will require about 18 hours of
study. Study includes that undertaken through various media and modes viz. print,
audio and video media, teleconferencing, assigmnents, face to face sessions, etc.
• Structured: Units on a theme comprise blocks. Usually 3-5 blocks in an area
comprise a course. Courses comprise an academic programme. A unit is further
divided into sections and subsections.
• Interesting: SLM is supposed to arouse and sustain interest of learners and
hence need to be written as such.
• Access devices: Access devices help learners in accessing the content i.e. in
finding their way through the SLM and in understanding it better. Cover page
and the title of the course, block and the unit give an idea about the content.
Hence choosing the right title and suitable cover page design is important. The
list of content in every block, the unit structure help in navigation. Besides,
objectives, illustrations, summary, glossary of terms, and thelike help as access
devices.
• Self assessment: Self check exercises and feedback are included in SLM.
These exercises make the learner stop to think, write and do and thus review and
consolidate learning before proceeding to the next section ..
• Interactive: Dialogues, questions, answers, feedback make the SLM interactive.
Merely reading the unit is often not enough. The learner needs to learn by reflecting
and doing. Hence, we need to directly engage learners through activities and
exercises that make them apply and test theory. Providing wide margins is an
indirect way to encourage note making while reading. Reading followed by writing
helps in better comprehension. Questions interspersed in the text make learners
24
 pause to think. Questions should be such that they not only make learners recall Development of SLM
previous learning but also make them apply it to solve problems. Questions and
problems may also be incorporated that make learners 'do', i.e. practice for
instance skills. For example, this unit is an SLM that teaches how to write SLM.
• Personal touch: Use of first and second person -I, we, you in SLM text provide
a personal touch to learners.
The characteristics of SLM, discussed above are presented in Figure 1.

Fig 1: Characteristics of SLM

6.5 UNIT WRITING

Now that you know about the characteristics of SLM, let us discuss how a unit for
SLM in the print medium may be written. There may be many models of writing units,
but we shall discuss the one usually followed at IGNOU.

6.5.1 Beginning the Unit

Check the units of this block. What are the features present at the beginning of a unit?
A unit begins with the serial number of the unit and the unit title. Every unit of a
course has a unique serial number and a title. They help in locating the unit easily. It is
followed by thestructure of the unit. It gives an outline of the concepts included, the
relationship among them and their placement in the unit. You also find that even sections'
and subsections are numbered. Why? It helps in navigation.
Unit structure is somewhat like a concept map. It is a way of structuring information,
of arranging important aspects of a concept or topic into a pattern so that as David
Ausubel (1918-2008), the American psychologist had required, learners get introductory 25
Management of Media material presented "in advance of the learning material itself'. This helps the learner
and Materials in Distance in getting familiar at a glance with the content included in the unit. The numbering
and Open Learning
clarifies the main themes and the sub themes and highlight relationships among ideas
that will be presented and reminds the learners of relevant information s/he already
has. Ausubel's theory of meaningful verbal learning advocates expository teaching
(presenting, explaining, and discussing content) which entails reception of information
required, for reception and learning to be meaningful, learning to be related to
knowledge already possessed by the learner. The organizer provides the link between
the new material to be learnt and the learner's cognitive structure and helps the learner
see where new information fits in relation to what he or she already knows. Ausubel
was influenced by Piaget's views that the mind arranges and stores information in an
orderly fashion and that new information is filed into an existing framework of
information called schemas. Therefore unit structures, although are not advance
organisers in true sense but provide support for new information by reminding learner
of prior knowledge. The structure also functions as a framework on which to attach
new knowledge. The objective is to set in motion the process of thinking by learners.
The learner reads the structure and his/her existing relevant concepts are mobilized
ands/he starts discriminating between old and new concepts in the learning situations.
For instance, we have said at the very beginning that in the previous unit we have
discussed the process of development of courses and in this unit we shall discuss the
development of SLM.
Jerome Bruner the American psychologist had suggested the need for "scaffolding"
in learning. The teacher starts by providing the external structure (the scaffold), which
the learner considers as the framework within which the learner can build their
learning. It thus structures the process of learning and keeps it focused. Unit structure
thus can be used as a scaffold besides being a tool for navigation within the unit.
The structure is followed by an introduction to the unit. What are its functions? A
well written introduction can serve several functions. It motivates, arouses curiosity,
links with earlier learning, makes SLM self directing, provides an overview of the unit,
spells out the special requirements (if any) of the unit. Introduction not only introduces
the content but may also depict structural linkages with other units, provide thematic
overview with information on what the unit is about and its relevance. It also includes
a study guidance in case certain knowledge, skills, equipments are needed like a tool
kit, audio/video material, etc. or some practical information is needed (for example
about place needed for study of the unit, say a hospital, lab of a school, etc.). The
overview in the introduction may function as a kind of advanced organizer, reinforcing
this role of the structure. This is also based on Piaget's theory of how learning takes
place by assimilation and accommodation of new information into that already existing
schemas (existing mental framework to which new information is attached). The
introduction thus draws the learner into a situation or a scenario and contextualizes
learning.

Next we write objectives. Objectives are short term goals, intent or aim of teaching.
You have read earlier in this unit that learning is considered to be a change in behaviour
by the behaviouristic school of learning. Objectives spell out the intended learning
outcomes in terms of behavioural changes. These are statements of intent (what the
learner should be able to do as a result of learning). Therefore, objectives of a unit
specify what learners are supposed to dollearn following a study of the unit. Their
specificity differentiates them from goals, which are general. For instance, the goal
may be to gain competencies necessary for a distance teacher. Vh_ e-- r- ~ile many
objectives would then be ability to prepare SLM for the print medium.

Why do we need objectives?

For teachers objectives help to:
26
• Clarify educational intentions to learners; Development of SLM

• Design suitable educational experiences, for example selection of content and its
organization;
• Decide on most appropriate media (in case of multi-media materials);
• Develop appropriate instructional strategy in terms of media, techniques, activities,
pacing of the instruction, content load, assessment plans, etc.
• Objectives are the foundation for assessment. They help in evaluation by
assessment ofleaming (output) and also of the instructional inputs, the instructional
process. Hence, assessment of learners as well as institution, programme may
be facilitated by objectives. Hence, they help to evaluate the effectiveness of
materials, teachers and students; providing feedback; scaffolding in the form of
remedial teaching
• Keep teaching and learning focused;
For learners objectives help to:
• Indicate what would be covered in the unit and expectations from them (concepts
to be learned, skills to be mastered)
• Keep learner and learning focused;
• Prepare learners for the challenges ahead and standards to be attained;
• Enable self evaluation;
• Prepare learners for assessment.
For managers objectives help to:
• build accountability,
• depict effectiveness of programme, instructional inputs and learning attainments
and thus facilitate programme evaluation

Formulating instructional objectives

For formulating instructional objectives Bloom's Taxonomy of objectives is often used.
Objectives are written using 'actions verbs' as per the domain of learning. The three
domains of Bloom's taxonomy are cognitive (thinking and knowledge), psychomotor
(skill) and affective (attitude). We shall discuss in detail only the first domain, as this is
the one, which is used the most by teachers. At this point you may read the objectives
of some of the units of this course.
Objectives for cognitive domain and examples of corresponding action verbs are as
follows:
Cognitive Domain: There are six levels under this domain. They are:
• Knowledge: (ExampLes of Action verbs: Choose, define, find, label, list, match,
name, recall, relate, select, spell, tell, etc.).Example of objective: Learners will
be able to list the functions of Distance Education Council.
• Understanding/Comprehension: (ExampLes of Action verbs: organize, compare,
translate, interpret, describe, distinguish, etc.).Example of objective: Learners
will be able to discuss the reLevance of distance education.
• Application: - the learner solves problems by applying knowledge, facts, techniques
and rules; (ExampLes of Action verbs: apply, develop, experiment with, identify,
make use of, model, organize, plan, solve, calculate, modify, demonstrate, etc.).
Example of objective: Learners ~ill be able to calculate compound interest
using the given formula.
• Analysis: examine and break down information into its constituent parts; making
inferences and finding evidence to support generalizations (ExampLes of Action
27
Management of Media verbs: analyze, categorize, classify, compare, contrast, discover, distinguish, divide,
and Materials in Distance examine, inspect, simplify, test for; arrange, organise, infer, etc.). Example of
and Open Learning
objective: 'Learners will be able to classify information given under the heads
specified.
• Synthesis: compile information or combine the constituent elements. (Examples
of Action verbs: develop, prepare, build, combine, compile, compose, construct,
create, design, develop, elaborate, estimate, formulate, propose, etc.). Example
of objective: Learners will be able to develop a research proposal for the
research intended.
• Evaluation: making judgments (Examples of Action verbs: evaluate, assess,
judge, choose, criticize, decide, deduct, defend, determine, estimate,judge,justify,
mark, rate, rank, grade, recommend, rule on, perceive, prioritize, select, etc.
Example of objective: Learners will be able to rank the propositions in
accordance with their merit.
Psychomotor Domain: It is the skills based domain.It consists of the following five
levels.
Imitation: Observing and patterning behavior after someone else or something.
Example: Copying a painting.
Manipulation: Performing certain actions by following instructions and practising.
Example: Creating something following instructions received.
Precision: Refining for attaining precision or exactness. Example: Working and
reworking on something.
Articulation: Coordinating a series of actions, achieving harmony and internal
consistency in them. Example: coordinating musicians of an orchestra.
Naturalization: high level performance becomes natural, without one even thinking
about it. Examples: a sitar maestro plays sitar.
Affective domain: includes our attitudes and emotions like feelings, values,
appreciation, motivations, etc. It is difficult to ensure the attainment of objectives of
this domain. The five major categories of behaviour within this domain are as follows:
• Receiving Phenomena: Awareness, willingness to hear for instance a lecture
on values for democracy.
• Responding to Phenomena: Active participation by learners for instance in a
discussion in a classroom.
• Valuing: It is based on the internalization of values and demonstration of such
values for instance team spirit.
• Organization: Organizes values into priorities by comparing and contrasting
values, and creating a value system. For example, be aware of the need for
balancing freedom with responsible behavior.
• Internalizing values (characterization): Learner develops a value system that
controls his/her behavior. Such behavior is pervasive and consistent and
characterizes the learner. For instance some people are known as honest, some
as sincere.
Anderson & Krathwohl (2001), revised Bloom's taxonomy (Figure 2). Six major
categories were changed from noun to their verb forms. The lowest level- knowledge
was renamed as remembering. Comprehension and synthesis bacame understanding
and evaluation respectively. Creating was placed at the highest levc..

28
 Development of SLM

Old Vef'Slon New Version

Figure 2 : Bloom's Taxonomy and its revised version

Source: wikipedia-<http://www.odu.eduJeducnIschultlblooms_taxonomy.htm>

How to write objectives?

Objectives should be outcome based, i.e. the objective states what the learner should
be able to do after the instruction has been delivered (in case of SLM, after studying
it). It should indicate the learner behaviour (in terms of knowledge, skills/attitudes to
be developed/changed), at the end of the unit.
Objectives should be:
• Specific- should describe precisely what the learner is expected to do
• Measurable- describe learning outcomes that can be quantified, i.e. measured
• Achievable- realistic and not too ambitious
• Simple, clear and precise;
• Few in number, not too many
• Describing student's performance not teacher's. Hence we need to avoid
statements like following teaching through programmed learning ... /following
teaching for one semester, and the like.
There are three characteristics that help communicate the intent when writing an
objective: Performance (a learner is expected to do), Conditions (describes the
conditions under which a student is able to do, i.e. perform the task. For example,
When provided with a standard set of tools, the learner will be able to demonstrate .... ;
Without the aid of a calculator, the learner will be able to compute ... ), and Criterion
(how well the student must perform the task, for the performance to be acceptable).

6.5.2 Middle part of unit

In this part there are logically sequenced content sections and subsections interspersed
with activities and self check exercises. You are presently in the middle part of this
unit.

6.5.3 End Part of the Unit

This part comprises usually the following:

• Summary of the content- it helps in recapitulation and hence while reading it

there is also revision and practice.
• Unit End Exercises-It has questions &/activities that the learners can think and
do.
• Possible/model answers or clues/possible answers to check progress to provide
feedback necessary for self evaluation
• Glossary of terms in case there are technical or other kinds of terms in the unit
that need explanation.
29
Management of Media References and list of suggested reading: references include citations for the source
and Materials in Distance of information referred to in the unit. This is in accordance with copyright laws. For
and Open Learning
citations, we need to follow internationally accepted styles like APA, MLA, Harvard
Chicago Manual, etc. In one unit it is better to follow one particular style. A list of
books/websites/journalsmay be suggested to supplement the otherwise self contained
unit.

• Case studies: You may include relevant case studies if required.

Activity
Study how to give references for anyone style listed in the unit for single/two/more
author(s) when source of information is a book, journal, newspaper and website.
Note one example of each.

Case Study: Course production in Uganda

Production and delivery of study materials in Uganda is the responsibility of the
Institute of Adult and Continuing Education (lACE). The Material Development
Section of the Department of Distance Education within lACE is responsible for
the development of study materials. It arranges writing workshops where writers
are trained to write distance education study materials, including unit objectives,
lecture objectives, lecture content and lecture summaries. A course unit consists of
15 to 20 lectures corresponding to the course content description.
The finished manuscript is given to a reviewer on a diskette and then returned to
the writer with comments. The writer incorporates the reviewer's comments and
the revised manuscript is passed to an editor for typesetting and formatting. The
editor is also responsible for sending the manuscript to the printer. The Material
Development Section is also in charge of deli vering study units to the learner. Limited
resources hamper the material production process at Makerere University and as a
result students cannot be offered study material for their own keeping. Instead,
study materials are lent out to all incoming learners to ensure some materials are
always available.
Source: ADEA REPORT - April 2002. Distance Education and Open Learning
in Sub-Saharan Africa

Check Your Progress 2

Answer the following questions briefly.
1. State two characteristics of SLM that differ- iate it from a text book?
2. How can you make SLM interactive? .
3. Write an instructional objective for each of the three domains-cognitive,
psychomotor and affective.

6.6 SUMMARY
In this unit we have discussed how to prepare SLM for tllf' print medium. We started
the discussions by description of the process of learning and the various factors that
affect it. We have also introduced you to the theories of lear, 'ing, both behaviouristic
and cognitive and their implications for developing SLM. Adult learning has also been
discussed in this unit. We have said that adults being self motivated and mature can
exert better control over their learning. Hence, SLM needs to take care of requirements
of adult learner's needs and experiences. The need for communicating effectively for
30 teaching has been mentioned, The communication skills required by the author of
SLM for print medium viz. clarity in writing, need for spontaneity, lucidity, etc. have Development of SLM
been highlighted. Basing on the nature of learning, learning by adult learners, process
of communication, the characteristics of SLM have been spelt out. Finally we have
discussed how to write a unit for SLM. The beginning, middle and end part of a unit
have been discussed in detail.

6.7 UNIT END ACTIVITIES

1. Select any topic suitable for undergraduate level distant learners. Prepare SLM
on the topic chosen.
2. Request your peers to read the unit you have written for the previous activity and
tell them to assess it critically.

6.8 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING

Association for the Development of Education in Africa (AD EA) REPORT ( April
2002.). Distance Education and Open Learning in Sub-Saharan Africa. A
Literature Survey On Policy And Practice; Sponsored by The Commonwealth of
Learning

Design and development of self learning print materials, ES312, STRIDE, IGNOU,
2000.
Manual for Programme and Course Coordinators, STRIDE, IGNOU, 2006.
STRIDE Handbook 6 Editing in Distance Education, STRIDE, IGNOU, 2003.
Srivastava, M. and Reddy, V.V.(2005).Quantity and quality of open learning materials:
A study of IGNOU's Practices. Paper presented at ICDE Conference, 2005, New
Delhi.
Srivastava, M. and Reddy, v.v. (2005). Quality Interaction and Independence:
Review of the course development practices of IGNOU. University News, 43 (43),
2005).

6.9 ANSEWRS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 1

1. Change of behaviour according to some, gaining insight according to others
2. Satisfaction arises from the sense of goal fulfillrnent and reward. It motivates
learning.
3. Both are important. We learn our mother tongue, reading, writing, manners,
etiquettes by association and conditioning, while we learn to solve problems by
being insightful.

Check Your Progress 2

1. Learner centered; Interactive
2. By incorporating dialogues, activities, questions, their answers, etc.
3. Cognitive-learner will explain the nature of SLM
Psychomotor- learner will draw the map of India
Affective- learners will display, team spirit

31
 UNIT 7 DEVEI ..OPMENT OF MEDIA
COURSEWARE
Structure
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Objectives
7.3 Media support in ODL
7.3.1 Media Selection
7.4 Approaches to Media use in ODL Institutions
7.5 Planning for Multiple Media Courseware
7.6 Development of Multiple Media Courseware
7.7 Planning and Development of Two-way Media
. 7.7.1 VideoTeleconferencing
7.7.2 Radio Counselling
7.8 Computer and Web based Media Courseware
7.8.1 Nature of Online Learning and Teaching
7.8.2 Online Course Development Process
7.8.3 Modified Role of Teacher in Online Learning
7.8.4 Learning Management Systems (LMS)
7.9 Interactive Multimedia
7.9.1 Storyboard Development
7.9.2 Prototype of Multimedia
7.9.3 Evaluation of Multimedia
7.9.4 Multimedia Development Tools
7.9.5 Authoring Tools
7.9.6 Choosing Multimedia software
7.10 Summary
7.11 UnitEndActivities
7.12 References and Suggested Reading
7.13 Answers to Check your Progress

7. 1 INTRODUCTION
The previous Unit was about the process involved in the development of print based
Self-Learning Materials (SLMs). Apart from SLM, ODL (Open and Distance
Learning) institutions also try to ensure that their students get additional support for
learning through ICT (Information and Communication Technology). The ICT based
media offer audio and video programmes, radio and TV broadcast, interactive radio
counselling, teleconferencing, interactive multimedia and the more recent addition of
online support. The Indira Gandhi National Open University JGNOU) is using all
these media to provide a holistic learning experience to its students. Knowledge of
the media used and the way they are used for teaching and learning is essential to
managing teaching and learning in distance education.
" ~-,
In ICT based teaching and learning environments of today, it becomes imperative for
32 educators, teachers, facilitators and administrators to develop an understanding of the
practical aspects and issues associated with educational. media and be able to make Development of Media
well informed choices. With this perspective, this Unit takes a .look at various media Courseware
used and approaches to media usage that an ODL institution may adopt. Then it
introduces you to the planning and development of media based courseware for
institutions offering "Multiple Media" instructional materials.

7.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this Unit, you should be able to:
• discuss different media options, their attributes and approaches to media use in
Open and Distance Learning context;
• describe the steps involved in the systematic planning and development of media
courseware ;
• identify tools of multimedia designing and packaging and make informed choices
while selecting them for a project; and.
• explain the process involved in preparing computer and web based courseware.

7.3 MEDIA SUPPORT IN ODL

Over and above SLMs, ODL institutions today use one or the other form of media
support to strengthen their instructional delivery system (fig. 1).

INTERACTIVE
MULTIMEDIA

RADIO
COUNSELI..ING
VIDEO
t ONLINE
LEARNING

CONFERENCIN
G

and
VIDEO

TV
-: t
AUDIO
and
RADIO

I SLM (Print)

Fig.1 Media Support for ODL Learner

We see in this figure that many i.e. multiple media are used for imparting instruction.
(This is different from 'Multimedia', whereby the content may be present as text,
voice over, video, still &/animated images and may be accessed through CDs/online).
In fact, 'use of media' or ICr sets ODL institutions apart from a correspondence
based distance learning institution of the first generation (see unit 2). Some ODL
institutions may use one or two media whereas others may use many. Different media
have their merits as well as demerits which should be kept in view while choosing
33
Management of Media them to fulfil the teaching and learning objectives. For instance, audio and video CDs
and Materials in Distance
enrich and reinforce the content in SLM, but they have the limitation of being "one-
and Open Learning
way" media. Therefore if the objective is to facilitate "two-way" sharing of information
and interaction, then use of radio counselling and teleconferencing would be a better
media option. In some ODL institutions, old media (e.g. radio, television) co-exist with
the new ones (e.g. multimedia, online learning) whereas in others, old ones are being
replaced by the new media. .
Online education is fast on its way to become the preferred mode of 'teaching and
learning' because of its inbuilt flexibility. Getting information on administrative matters
like admissions, exam, results, deadlines, etc. through SMS is quite popular with the
students nowadays. Some ODL institutions are experimenting with mobile phone
technology for course delivery also. With increasing media options (in terms of quality
and variety) to serve the learner better, ODL has come a long way from its old days
when it was an alternative form of education to a premier form of education.

7.3.1 Media Selection

A medium has unique characteristics, which are the basis of its appropriateness for an
ODL institution. One of the factors is the access to the medium. A medium like radio
may be considered as it is highly accessible. Cost is another factor. Radio is affordable
for most of us. Pedagogical appropriateness of the medium is another factor. For
example, video has an inherent presentation quality. It is good for providing a vicarious
(learning by watching) experience to the viewer by taking himlher to an archeological
site without having to step out of home. These are some of the key factors that play a
crucial role in adopting a multiple media instructional materials approach.
The pedagogic criterion for media selection involves assessing the strengths of a medium.
Take TV for instance, there has been a tendency to overuse it. Sometimes, after
watching a video programme one is left wondering whether use of video was justified
or the same content could have been communicated more effectively in an audio
programme or through print. These are relevant questions that need to be answered
before choosing a medium for a specific "content presentation". For instance, an
interview based television programme comprising 'talking heads' can be effectively
produced as an audio programme. We should also keep in mind that TV, because of its
transitory nature (images and their impression are fleeting in nature) is not an ideal
medium to put in much hard core data and details, same is true for radio. Such content
should preferably be covered in print based SLM due to its stability. Moreover learner
can go back and forth while reading the printed text.
Radio/audio being an aural medium does not require reading or writing skills and
therefore can be effectively used in a wide variety oflearning contexts including those
with children and adults lacking such skills. Using interesting formats such as music,
drama, talk, quizzes, etc. it enables listeners to create their own mental images.
However, radio may not be very good at illustrating abstractions or things not known
or seen by learner. Another limitation of radio of its being one-way medium can now
be overcome by using phone-in programmes or audio conferencing which provides
ample opportunities for interaction. At IGNOU, teachers are using radio counseling
facility to interact with the learners on a regular basis. Similarly, video teleconferencing
is being used by IGNOU through which students can sec their teachers, live
demonstrations, experiments, etc. talk to them through phone or send their questions
through fax during the teleconferencing session. Yet another medium which has great
potential for individualized learning due to its interactivity and cv.-:-,,1 f"~:!turesis
interactive multimedia programme which can be made very attractive and entertaining
with different media ingredients such as animation, pictures, music, sound effects and
text. Online learning is the new buzz word in the world of education today. It offers
learners the kind of flexibility and independence that did not exist earlier in the distance
34
education scenario. Now ODL institutions are open to enrollment from across the Development of Media
world, learners are also more mobile today and demand learning at their place and Courseware
pace. Hence, online teaching works best for them.
We may not ignore the logistics of an institution while selecting media. The resources
have to be spent in accordance with the objectives and budgetary allowance of an
institution. ODL institutions like conventional institutions could be Government funded
or privately owned. Even the government funded institutions are now expected to
generate their own revenues and become self-reliant in the years to come. Therefore
media selection can not be made in isolation of the resources available. However the
effort should be to judiciously choose a medium and optimally capitalize on its strengths
working well within the parameters provided by an institution.

7.4 APPROACHES TO MEDIA USE IN ODL

INSTITUTIONS
Approach of using media varies from institution to institution and also within an institution
for various programmes. Many institutions are providing same courseware to their
students through multiple channels, for instance delivering SLMs to the students by
post as well as uploading the same materials on the web for easy access on anywhere
and any time basis. IGNOU's course materials available in print form are also available
in the repository, e- Gyankosh. Similarly, programmes that are offered through broadcast
and telecast are also webcast. IGNOU, has a 24 hour TV channel Gyan Darshan
which is simultaneously webcast through IGNOU's web site for worldwide access.
Nevertheless, the following media approaches are generally being practised in ODL
institutions:
Complementary media approach: In some institutions electronic media present the
course component which is not covered in SLM in the print medium. In such cases the
scheduling of broadcast/telecast should be so planned that SLMs (print) reach the
learner well in advance and the learner has gone through them before she/he listens/
watches the related radio broadcast/ telecast. Using media with a complementary
approach requires, assured availability of broadcast/telecast or teleconferencing slot
and learner's easy access to media being used by the system and the learners.
Integrated media approach: Here, not only that media is complementing the print
but also the two are integrated such that the cross references are included in both.
Let's say, in p~nt you come across," before moving to the next section in the text,
please listen to the audio programme titled "children with special needs". Now, at the
end, audio programme includes a reference for print, such as " go to section 3 on page
20 of the Unit and answer the questions based on the case studies discussed in the
audio programme". In a similar way, other media could be used to complement SLMs
in an integrated manner. As you can see, with the cross references involved, the
integrated media approach would require a systematic planning and its implementation .
in course preparation on the part of institution.
Supplementary media approach: The media perform a supplementary role in
instructional system by representing and reinforcing the content which has already
been covered in the print materials. For instance, the print covers all required information
about RTI (Right to Information) Act. Now a real success story of a person who
could finally succeed in obtaining information to help him fight hislher case is presented
through a video programme. This will be considered as supplementary approach of
using media. The programme is not providing additional knowledge, however it is
presenting a case study to the learner to analyse. The supplementary approach of
using media hence enriches the quality of information provided in the print. At the
same time, learners who do not have access to media are not deprived of the 'core
35
Management of Media content', which the print provides. IGNOU's- policy is to use supplementary media
and Materials in Distance approach.
and Open Learning
Independent media approach: This is yet another approach of media usage for
ODL. In this case, the audio/radio broadcast, video/ television or even the interactive
multimedia may become the main learning resource for the learners. Many literacy
projects and non-formal education schemes (for example, radio rural forums and SITE
experiment, India) are the examples of using media as an independent learning source
through a series of lessons especially in situations where learners are not literate.
With the increasing popularity of web-based learning, many programmes and course
are successfully being offered solely in an "on-line" mode.

7.5 PLANNING FOR MULTIPLE MEDIA

COURSEWARE
Planning for media based instructional materials needs to be worked out in detail along
with the planning of print based materials for their effective delivery and utilization at
the learning end. You have read in the previous two units how a curriculum is designed
for a course. Considering the institution's policy and resources, an expert committee
decides which components in the curriculum need media support. What "Media Mix"
, i.e. which media and how much of it will be used, is a matter of deliberation that
must begin as soon as the planning starts for print based SLMs. Ideally, a media
expert should be included as a member in the Curriculum Development Committee to
help in planning the media mix. ODL institutions may have their own media centres or
educational technology departments which advise them in identification of the course
components requiring media support and provide further assistance in production of
the materials. IGNOU, has Electronic Media Production Centre (EMPC) which
provides media support as well as media expertise.
As print-based curriculum details are worked out, simultaneously the audio/ video/
multimedia software are planned and number of sessions of radio counselling and
teleconferencing is planned. If there are plans to include web as one of the options for
programme delivery, whether synchronous or asynchronous mode will be used or a
combination of both, are kind of questions that need to be decided in advance for' good
curriculum planning and proper implementation. Thus a media mix is decided prescribing
the number of audios, videos, radio and teleconferencing sessions, multimedia, and
online component. The Programme Coordinator must have a blueprint of the media
plans, as shown below in fig. 2. This would also help in making adequate budget
provision for the media activities.

Media Course/ Unit Topic Instructional *Hours per week!

Block Objectives month! year (may
apply. to radio
counselling/video
teleconferencing/
online support)

Audio
Video
Multimedia
* Radio Counselling
*Video teleconferencing -
*Online Support
Fig.2 Blueprint for Media Support for a Programme of Study
36
 Development of Media
Check Your Progress 1 Courseware
Answer the following questions:
1. Briefly describe the approaches institutions adopt for use of media.
2. For a topic that requires learners to understand processes, which medium will
you use and why?

7.6 DEVELOPMENT OF MULTIPLE MEDIA

COURSEWARE
Producing media courseware is a specialized job of a Media Producer/Developer
who works in consultation with the subject matter expert (SME). It is teamwork
between the SME and the Media Producer which has to go a long way till the completion
of the media courseware. Following are the steps which are common to a large extent
in development of media based instructional materials.
Step 1: Research, instructional objectives, Programme Brief and Academic Note
Be it an audio, video or an interactive multimedia programme, the instructional objectives
of a programme and the content to be covered are first decided. Apart from interacting
with the SME, the Producer has to do herlhis own research using web sources,
books, journals, magazines, videos and films, and interact with experts in the area.
The instructional objectives for the proposed program must be clearly outlined. An
instructional objective (see unit 6), as you know very well, is a statement of what the
learner will be able to achieve when she/he has successfully completed the learning
task (as mentioned in the beginning of this unit. For example after watching the video
you should be able to explain the process of extraction of iron ore). Instructional
objectives keep the SME and Programme Producer focussed on the desired outcome
of the intended program.But we should.not become overambitious and plan too many
instructional objectives for a single programme. It is important to remember that no
matter how interesting an audio or video programme is, it may not hold learner's
attention beyond a certain point (an audio programme should be ideally aimed at 15 to
20 minutes, a video programme for 20 to 25 minutes).
Once instructional objectives are clear, Programme Outline or Programme Brief (see
fig. 3) is prepared which includes basic information about the programme such as
course, title, language, target audience, duration, and instructional objectives of the
programme. Then it must contain an outline of the content of the programme and the
type of the format (documentary, studio based demonstration, animation etc.).
Programme of Study I Course

Title:

Target audience:

Duration:

Completion Thrget:

Instructional Objectives:

Outline (content to be covered)

Fig. 3 ProgrammeBrief

The next job for the SME is to prepare an Academic Note based on the basis of
Programme Brief. In .other words, the Academic Note is an expansion (about 8-10
page long) of the programme brief. It must comprise a logical flow of subject matter,
the illustrations, experts, references etc. should all be included. It must also give clear 37
------~~----------------------~~
Management of Media idea of the content being presented in the 1 _ rted SLM and the approach that is being
and Materials in Distance
followed for the programme (complen.cntary, supplementary, integrated or
and Open Learning
independent). This basic ground work will now lead to script development.

Video Audio

Title Music
Narration: XXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX

Fig.4 Video Script

Step 2: Script Development

Audio, video and multimedia programmes need scripting. Different kinds of programmes
require different scripting approaches. Some scripts (e.g. drama, a documentary film)
are very detailed-whereas some are merely outlines (for instance a radio interview),
listing the talent i~v~lved and some tentative questions; script for a multimedia
programme may be in the form of a story board. Despite their diversity, all scripts are
meant to establish the programme's format and content, and organise important
production information, which is most useful during planning, rehearsal, and production.
Getting Academic Note transformed into Script is the Producer's responsibility. Many
Producers themselves write the script or engage a professional scriptwriter. A video
script contains the spoken word, or dialogue, sound and music information. An A4 size
sheet of paper is divided into two halves for Video and Audio (fig. 4). It may run into
several pages in the same format.
In comparison, a radio script is fairly simple and runs like a printed text since it does
not have the complexity of visual elements. For an interactive multimedia, one needs
to prepare a story board which we will discuss in the section dealing with multimedia.

Step 3: Production
Unlike a video production, that of a radio programme does not involve many resources,
however, a video programme involves efforts of many individuals with expertise in
different areas such as camera, sound, scenic design, graphics, and editing. This process
is accomplished with the help of equipment and techniques which may vary from
simple to the most sophisticated ones. With the finalisation of the' script, the producer
carries out the following activities in case of a video programme (some of these activities
are carried out for audio production also):

• Making budget proposals

• Identifying participants, experts and locations
• Getting permissions from institutions for recording
• Collecting archival materials if required
• Finalising recording dates for StudiolLocation
• Arranging computer Graphics/Animation/illustrations

38 • Editing
The SME's involvement in this teamwork will be required from time to time in activities Development of Media
Courseware
such as identifying experts, illustration work, editing, etc.
Step 4: Formative and Summative Evaluation
The final stage of production is editing. An edited programme is however not a finished
product. This is called a "rough cut" and is prepared with the purpose to get feedback
on it from target audience, iiuough formative evaluation (see unit 9). Any modifications
required can be easily done at this stage. The Producer and SME should consolidate
inputs for revision of the programme and incorporate feasible changes.
The programme is then given a finished look by using visual effects, mixing of sound
tracks, credits etc. Several copies for the completed programme are made for
distribution. From cassette, we have moved on to CDs which occupy less space and
have longer shelf life. The programme may be telecast as per the fixed point chart and
telecast schedule of a channel. Once a programme has been telecast or has become
a part of the multiple media learning package, its summative evaluation is carried out.
Summative evaluation is used to assess the effectiveness or the impact of the
programme. The summative evaluation of a programme is helpful in providing
information for use (at the needs assessment stage) in another programme for the
target audience or in future projects 01' similar nature.

7.7 PLANNINGANDDEVELOPMENTOFTWO-WAY
MEDIA
We have so far discussed the planning and development of one-way media that is
audio/radio and video/ television. However, in case of ODL, there always have been
felt a strong need for interaction. Radio conferencing or counselling and teleconferencing
make possible the much needed interaction between the learners and teacher.

7.7.1 Video Teleconferencing

Video teleconferencing is an important tool for enabling interactive learning. Many
ODL institutions are heavily relying on teleconferencing to get connected to their
learners. IGNOU has a two-way audio and one-way video teleconferencing for holding
interactive teleteaching, telecounselling and teletraining sessions for its students. The
teleteaching involves curriculum oriented lectures by the teaching faculty and by the
subject experts drawn from other academic institutions as well as from industry
followed by interaction with the students. For instance, a teleteaching session for a
programme in nursing may include the lecture delivered by the subject experts workin ~
in major hospitals. This gives students all over the country, an opportunity to see and
interact with their teachers and the experts in the area of their interest. '
The objective of teleconferencing is to provide good quality education with ample
opportunities of interaction. This requires choosing time slots which are suitable to the
students and by enriching the presentations with visuals, graphics, practical
demonstrations, role playing, and learner-friendly formats. The bottom line is that a
student will make efforts to attend a teleconferencing session only when s/he feels
that by not attending s/he will miss out on important thing(s). Students should be informed
of teleconferencing schedules much in advanceso that they can plan and attend them.

7.7.2 Radio Counselling

Radio counselling is another audio-based two-way platform that encourages dialogue
between the teacher and students. At IGNOU, students from all over the country ask
questions which are answered by the concerned subject teachers. Radio counselling
is a powerful and cost effective medium aimed at : -rifying doubts, concerns and
queries of students.
39
Management of Media The need of advance planning is crucial for organizing teleconferencing and radio
and Materials in Distance
counselling as much as it is in the case of other media. A Programme Coordinator
and Open Learning
should have definite information regarding how much teleconferencing time/sessions
may be allocated for the programme/course so as to help the Curriculum Development
Committee decide which course components will be addressed through these media,
during an academic session.

Check Your Progress 2

Answer the following questions:
1. Why should we avoid too many instructional objectives in an audio or video
programme?
2. In what way is the script for a video programme different from that of an audio
programme?
3. What is the significance of formati ve evaluation in programme production?
4. Suppose learners face difficulty in understanding from SLMs and have doubts
that need clarification. Choose a medium to immediately address this problem.

7.8 COMPUTERANDWEBBASEDMEDIA
COURSEWARE
In this section, we will discuss computer based digital technologies such as online
learning and interactive multimedia. Many learners now have desktop or laptops and
use multimedia CDs and DVDs. Web access is also widening and young learners are
very comfortable using these technologies. Several terrninologies have been used
interchangeably for online learning, such as e-learning, virtual learning, web based
learning, networked learning and so on. But they all imply that the learner is at a
distance from the teacher, and uses some form of networked technology to access the
learning materials, to interact with the teacher and! with fellow learners. Thiscould
either be achieved in real time, known as "synchronous mode" (example -chat,
telephonic conversation with simultaneous interchange of messages) received or on a
delayed basis known as "asynchronous" mode (receipt and sending of messages not
simultaneous like email).

7.8.1 Nature of Online Learning and Teaching

The basic development and design principles for onl i -e courseware are same as that
of courses to be delivered conventionally. However, like any other medium, online
delivery of courses has certain unique requirements. Hence, nature and implications
of online learning need to be understood for its effective utilisation. One can enrol and
complete online courses without having to leave one's work place or home. Online
teaching is equally democratic for the teacher as well, as it can be done at anytime
and from anywhere. In contrast to print materials which require much time in updating
and distribution, an online teacher has advantage of updating the content more easily
in the web based text. Also learners are immediately able to see, analyse and discuss
new developments online. A teacher can guide the learners to appropriate web links
for additional information pertaining to the topic, monitor the progress of a student,
provide quick feedback and help the student to navigate. On ..ne learning produces
optimum results when learners participate on an equitable basis. This requires teachers
to meet the challenges of online pedagogy. Needless to mention that it is the
responsibility of concerned institutions to provide a strong training and support
infrastructure for the faculty to enhance their capabilities and confidence in going
online.
40
 Development of Media
7.8.2 Online Course Development Process
Courseware
A good quality online course is accomplished by a team of individuals with expertise in
their respective fields. Beside an SME, the core team for development of online learning
materials comprise a graphic designer, Web Developer, and Programmer who work in
coordination at different stages of course development process.

Web Developer
Web Developers are technically skilled in developing online materials. They· assist
SME by illustrating the various kinds of options available for presentation of content.
They also train SMEs or online teachers in the web based production of the course
and in using the tools needed to create the web pages. A Web Developer also provides
inputs for the aesthetics of the online course, works with Graphic Designer in creating
design story boards, conceptualization of the text screens, backgrounds, window frames
and other elements of the course. S/he also serves as Technical Supervisor in maintaining
the online course and in trouble shooting.

Programmer
The Programmer facilitates the smooth delivery of an online course with the help of
specialized software tools. The programmer also familiarizes and explains the course
development team members, the kinds of programming tools, their capabilities and
their uses so that they can make informed decisions of what to acquire.

Graphic Designer
Graphic designers enhance the quality of online courses by creating technical drawings,
illustrations, graphics, photographs, video clips, or navigational icons.

7.8.3 Modified Role of Teacher in Online Learning

The conventional classroom teaching involves presentation of material by the teacher,
while students receive it. This methodology does not work well in online teaching as
the teacher must adapt the role of a facilitator for the students. There may be well
specified roles for team members, but we usually do not work under ideal conditions.
SME or the online teacher may have to juggle the roles of an Instructional Designer,
Web Developer and so on. However changing computer technology brings easily
manageable software tools which enable an online teacher to carry out several jobs
interchangeably. A very useful development in this regard is the increasing use of
Learning Management Systems (LMSs) which serve as key support systems for the
installation and sustenance of online courses. We shall discuss it in the next subsection.

7.8.4 Learning Management Systems

Learning Management Systems (LMSs) are considered as a major development in
managing today's e-learning environment. LMSs can be technically defined as "
electronic environments that enable the delivery, management, and administration of a
range oflearning activities, services, content and data"(Naidu, 2003, p. 15). In simple
terms, LMS typically offers a wide variety of tools to improve the speed and
effectiveness of a course by: easy uploading and sharing of materials, holding online
discussions and chats, collecting and reviewing assignments, assessment and recording
grades. LMSs are basically tools for teachers to facilitate their work by taking advantage
of the intemet. There has been a steady rise in the use of LMS for education and
training over the last few years, especially due to availability of open source LMSs on
the web, like Moodle.

41
Management of Media
and Materials in Distance Check Your Progress 3
and Open Learning
Answer the following questions:
1. What is the significance of a web developer in an online course?
2. What is meant by "modified role" of a teacher in on line learning?
3. In what ways Learning Management Systems help the online teacher?

7.9 INTERACTIVE MULTIMEDIA

Interactive Multimedia is a combination of various elements such as text, graphics,
sound, animation, and video that is delivered by computer and allows users to actively
participate. The web based delivery of multimedia has brought a revolution in ODL.
You may know that multimedia files are usually large in size and hence, downloading
them from the net may often be slow. Therefore while planning for a web. based
delivery for multimedia, one should not be overambitious in terms of fancy effects and
frills, rather concentrate on its educational effectiveness, use low resolution images
and sound (Reddi & Mishra, 2003). Multimedia content is also accessible through
CD-ROM or DVD. Many teachers have taken keen interest in developing instructional
multimedia programmes for their respective courses. Interestingly, multimedia
development does not require one to be a software engineer or high-end programmer.
The team structure has already been discussed with reference to online learning in the
earlier sections in this Unit. Carefully articulating instructional objectives, selecting
content and media options are some of the prerequisites for a good quality "multimedia".
For instance, " lightning and thunder" is a topic for which the instructional objective
may be to illustrate what causes lightning and how it is caused. This can be very well
taught by an interactive multimedia with the help of animation, a video clip of it actually
happening in the sky, sound effects and some text. This requires the development of a
storyboard.

7.9.1 Storyboard Development

What is a storyboard? A storyboard is an expression of 'what' will be contained in
the program - what menu screens will look like, what pictures (still and moving) will be
seen when and for how long, what audio and text will accompany the images, either
synchronously or hyperlinked. A well prepared storyboard indicates, everything that
can be seen or heard or experienced by the end-user of the multimedia program.
Interactive multimedia can incorporate text, visuals (video and/or graphics) animation
and an interactive component 'navigation'. Navigation is the feature which enables
the user to move from one screen of the multimedia to next screen. Some key navigation __
buttons are start, end, next, previous !back, home, etc. Therefore the story board
should include all the five components in its layout, on a page or card. As you can see
in Fig.5., five components are layered or stacked one on another to represent a single
screen. This indicates that multimedia is a hypermedia based system, that is, it provides
links between text, sound, video and graphics which provides the means to change
back and forth or to combine them as per requirement. Thus for each screen shot you
need to prepare five cards with adequate information on each one of them, these
cards comprise- Text, Audio, Visual, Animation, and Navigation.

42
 Development of Media
I visuals I Inavigation Courseware

I audio I I animation I .

text navigation

lightning and thunder

Fig. 5: Screen shot of multimedia prototype

7.9.2 Prototype of Multimedia

The Prototype is a working model of the multimedia program to test whether it will
work or not, before going into full fledged production. This way, one can ensure that
all possible efforts has been made to identify problems before the final production
takes place. Prototype testing helps in getting suggestions and critical feedback to
improve the design of the programme in terms of interactivity and instructional design.

7.9.3 Evaluation of Multimedia

Evaluation (formative and summative evaluation) applies to multimedia also. Here we
will focus only on formative evaluation or validation of multimedia which is time
consuming but an essential part of the total quality assurance process. It aims to
check if the program meets its specified objectives. In-house testing or 'debugging' is
about checking a program's functionality to ensure that all the buttons and effects
operate as designed, the flow and navigation are smooth and the like. It will also cover
performance testing under different hardware and operating system configurations.
This is followed by trialling or field testing which refers to testing the program's learning
objectives in a simulated or real environment. The process of testing, trialling and
revision is cyclical in nature. Revised prototype again goes through debugging process
and field testing.

7.9.4 Multimedia Development Tools

While presentation and packaging media ingredients in a multimedia programme, their
effects on learning and effects on aesthetic sensibilities of the learners should be kept
43
Management of Media in mind. Wf; need different software tools for incorporating and enhancing different
and Materials in Distance media components in a multimedia. Text can be animated using a programme like
and Open Learning
Macromedia's Director which have built in tools to animate text. For sound editing,
Cool Edit, is often used which is a low cost software and fairly easy to use. Video files
occupy too much space and large bandwidth as compared to audio and graphic file
formats, and therefore create problems such as not getting downloaded or running in
case of online multimedia or making computer very slow when used as CD-ROM or
DVD. It is preferable to keep the video file size to absolute minimum. One popular
software for video editing is Adobe Premiere.
Graphics are the most commonly used elements of multimedia. Some of the commonly
used graphic formats are GIP (Graphics Interchange Format). They are very small in
size and thus load faster than other formats. JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group)
is another category of graphic format which is good for photographic images due to it
richness of colours. Animation is of immense instructional value in demonstrating
processes, functions, and abstract objects. Software used for animation determines
the quality of computer animation produced. Some very popular animation software
packages are 3D Studio Max, Adobe Premiere, Softlmage, Animator Studio, Flash, etc.

7.9.5 Authoring Tools

Various components or elements of a multimedia exist as separate entities till they all
are integrated in a composite form. This is accomplished by authoring tools. Multimedia
authoring tools organize, edit, and integrate multimedia ingredients to make a single
presentation and create user interface of multimedia. They are capable of handling
different media involved in a multimedia. Authoring tools can be classified as:
Card - & Page - based tools - These tools as the name indicates arrange elements
as pages in a book or stack of cards and are suitable when multimedia content comprises
of elements that can be viewed independently. These authoring tools enable the linking
of pages or cards into organised sequences. Tool book, Visual Basic, HyperCard etc.
are some of the commonly used packages of this category.
Icon based authoring tools - Icon based tools organize multimedia ingredients as
opjects by providing a structural framework for interaction cues or events. These
softwaretools are particularly helpful in developing multimedia with complex navigation .
structures. Authorware and IconAuthor are some examples of this category of tools.
I

Time-based authoring tools - These tools organize multimedia elements along a

time-line with very high resolutions. These tools enable the play back of sequential1y
organized graphic frames at a speed set by the user. Time-based systems are especially
appropriate for applications that involve storytelling or a message with a beginning and
an end. Some examples of time-based systems include, Macromedia Director,
Macromedia Flash.
Object Oriented tools ,-These tools organize the multimedia elements in a hierarchical
order as objects bearing relationships, which accordingly acquire attributes and abilities.
Object-oriented tools are employed for complex games and for simulating real-life
situations, events etc. Media Forge is an example of object oriented tools.

7.9.6 Choosing Multimedia Software

There are so many software tools that can be used for designing and integrating
multimedia package. Computer technology is a rapidly changing phenomenon, what is
latest today becomes obsolete tomorrow. Therefore, when you arc .'1 ",:,'.to develop
multimedia, look on the web for software and tools that are available as " open
source", i.e. available free on the web and those available in the market. Consult a
web professional, if you are working single-handedly, about the ones that are the most
appropriate tools. If you are working in a team, it will be taken care of by the web
44
developer and graphic designer. The most important consideration should be the Development of "Media
multimedia project that you are working on, what are its specific requirements, what Courseware
learning goals we want to accomplish through multimedia. A particular tool could be
evaluated and chosen on the basis of its editing and organizing features, programming,
interactivity and delivery features. In fact, now we have software, which are extremely
user-friendly and any motivated person with some computer skills can use it to great
advantage.

Check Xour Progress 4

Answer the following questions:
1. What is navigation?
2. What purpose 'prototype' serves in multimedia development?
3. Specify five media elements that are used in a multimedia presentation?
4. What problem could be faced in using long video clippings, and how to overcome
them?
5. What is the function of authoring tools in multimedia? Name some categories.

7.10 SUMMARY
Beside providing self-learning print materials, ODL institutions extend "Multiple Media"
learning materials to students to enrich their knowledge and skill. Some media are
one-way in nature (audio, video, radio, television) whereas the others have capability
of two-way communication with the learner (teleconferencing and online learning).
Several factors need to be kept in mind while selecting media for a programme of
study. Different institutions use different approaches to media use which are;
complementary, integrated, supplementary and independent media approach.
A good quality media courseware requires comprehensive and systematic planning
and overall management on the part of institution. The development of media
courseware should be done along with the development of print materials so that it
can be made available to the learner as a cohesive learning package. The production
of videofTV involves more time and resources as compared an audio/radio programme.
Clearly articulated instructional objectives on the basis of learner needs and content
help in preparing a good programme brief. This serves as the basis of a concrete
script that finally leads to an effective audio or video programme. Formative evaluation
of media courseware is crucial for its proper utilisation at the learning end.
The long overdue promises made by ODL, that is, provision of flexibility of time and
space for the learners, in a true sense can be fulfilled by online learning if we understand
its features and incorporate them carefully while planning, designing and implementing
online courses. Developing on line course ware is a teamwork in which each member
contributes as per herlhis area of speciality but in a unified and integrated way working
towards a common goal of making online experience for the learner wholesome and
enriching.
Learning through Multimedia is considered as an interesting and interactive activity,
its delivery could be either in CD-ROM or DVD mode or be online. It should be
ensured before planning and preparing a multimedia that it does not give operability
problem to the learner, hardware and software specifications should be considered in
realistic terms. There are different categories of designing and authoring tools as
described in the sections above, and we can make informed choices while selecting
software by understanding their distinct features in line with our requirements. The
most important thing is to have a positive mindset for using new technologies and face
new challenges to contribute in your ODL context.
45
Management of Media
and Materials in Distance 7.10 UNITENDACTIVITIES
and Open Learning
1. Note down the names of some ODL institutions in India and other countries.
Find out what media approach they have adopted. What are the various media
that their multiple media learning package comprise of?
2. Check on the web, the online courses that various ODL institutions are offering.
Look at online course materials on the web, note whether it looks like as print
materials simply uploaded on the web (as has been the practice in many institutions)
or they are really developed for the web based online learning, observe the
presentation style, layout, course, assignments, synchronous and non-synchronous
components of the course etc.
3. Get hold of an interactive multimedia or search for a web based interactive
multimedia on the topic of your interest, try to learn with it and analyse it for the
elements discussed in this Unit, interactivity, navigation features, smooth operation,
clarity etc.

7.11 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING

Ally, M. (2002, August). Designing and managing successful online distance
education courses. Workshop presented at the 2002 World Computer Congress,
Montreal, Canada
Anderson, T., & Garrison, D. R. (1998). Learning in a networked world: New roles
and responsibilities. In C. Gibson (Ed.), Distance learners in higher education (pp.
7-112). Madison, WI: Atwood Publishing.
Bates, A.W (1984) (ed.): The role oftechnology in distance education, Croom Helm,
New York.
Beveridge,J.(1975). Script writing for short films, UNESCO Report and Papers on
mass Communicatio, No.57. Paris
Caplan, D. (2004).The development of online courses ..In T. Anderson & F. Elloumi
(Ed.), Theory and practice of online learning (pp. 1-16).Athabasca University,
Retrieved on July 11,2007, from <http://cde.athabascau.ca/online book/ch7.html>
Flagg,B. (1990), Formative Evaluation of Educational Technologies, Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates, London.
Hilliard L. Rober (1985):An introduction to the Sounc rredium, Longman, N. York and
London.
Holmberg, B (1988) Guided didactic conversation in distance education. In D.Sewart,
D. Keegan, & E. Holmberg (eds.), Distance Education: International perspectives.
New York: Routledge.
Millerson, G.(1999): Television Production, 13nth Edition, Focal Press, Oxford.
Naidu, S. (2003). E- Learning, A guidebook of principles, procedures and
practices.New Delhi: CEMCA.
Reddi, U.v. & Mishra, S. (2003). Educational Multimedia 1\ ;:; ndbouk for Teacher-
Developers. New Delhi: CEMCA
Salmon,G. (2000).E-Moderating: The key to teaching and learning online. London:
Kogan page.
Vaughan, T (1993): Making it work, McGraw-Hill.New York
Zettle , H ( 2000) : Television Production Handbook, T" Editor, Words worth Thomas
Leaning , San Fransisco.
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 Development of Media
7.12 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Courseware

Check your Progress 1

1. ODL institutions usually practice one of the following approaches to media:
Complementary media aoproach - in which media complement the print by
presenting the course component which is not covered in the print. In integrated
approach, media and print are integrated such that cross references are given
linking each other. In case of supplementary media approach, media perform a
supplementary role in instructional system by representing and reinforcing the
content which has already been covered in print. In independent media approach,
any single medium may carry the entire courseware independent of other media.
2. If the content has a lot of data, facts, figures and details to remember, it is better
to put it in print based SLM, print has 'stability' of text, also the reader can go
back and forth to read it over and over again. On the other hand, TV and radio
have transitory or fleeting nature meaning, the picture or sound is not to stay, and
therefore are not ideal media to convey such content.

Check your Progress 2

1. If you plan many instructional objectives for a single program, more content will
be put in the program, consequently the programme length would increase. And
one should keep in mind that no matter how interesting an audio or video programme
is, it may not hold learner's attention beyond a certain point, an audio programme
should be ideally aimed at 15 to 20 minutes, and a video programme must not
exceed 20 to 25 minutes.
2. A video script contains the visuals, spoken word, sound and music information (
a sample shown in fig. 4). A4 size paper sheet is divided into two halves, Visual
and Audio and details are provided in the form of visuals or their description. In
comparison, a radio script is fairly simple and runs like a printed text since it does
not have the complexity of visual elements.
3. The purpose of formative evaluation is to get feedback on the programme when
it is still under production. At this stage, there is scope for revision of the
programme and incorporate feasible changes. Once the programme is given a
finished look, any changes will require more expenditure in terms of editing,
mixing and adding special effects.
4. In such as situation if you want to help learners with their difficulties in SLMs,
the best medium to use would be a video teleconferencing (planning a proper
video programme or multimedia will be time consuming, more expensive and
may still not solve the problem of each and every individual). You can plan a
teleconference, with a detailed telelecture, illustrations, graphics and any other
teaching aids that you feell would help in making the content more comprehensible
and more importantly provide ample time and opportunity for student-teacher
interaction. Thus students would be able to discuss their difficulties with the
teacher and clarify any doubts that they have.

Check your Progress 3

1. A Web Developer is a person with experience of developing online materials,
she/he provides assistance to SME by illustrating the options available for
presentation of content, trains online teachers in the web based production of
the course. A Web Developer suggests ideas for aesthetics of the online course,
works with Graphic Designer in creating storyboards, conceptualization of the
text screens, backgrounds and other elements of th. course. She/ he also serves
as Technical Supervisor in maintaining the online conr::r and in trouble shooting.
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Management of Media 2.
and Materials in Distance
and Open Learning
3.
Usually teaching involves presentation of material in which teacher has a
commanding role. However, in an online teaching situation, the teacher must
adapt the role of a facilitator for the students. A teacher can guide the learners to
appropriate weblinks for additional information pertaining to the topic, monitor
the progress of a student, provide quick feedback and help the student to navigate
etc. At times, when the online course development team is small, online teacher
may have to serve as Web Developer, Graphic Designer and so on. This is how
we can explain the modified role of teacher in online learning context.
Learning Management Systems (LMSs) are basically intemet based tools and
facilitate online teacher's work by scheduling, organization and delivery of online
courses, doing student enrolment, administration and record management, tracking
and reporting student progress, learner assessment and reporting of achievement
and result declaration.

Check your Progress 4

1. Navigation is the feature which enables the user to move from one screen of the
multimedia to next screen. The navigation plan can be designed through hyperlink
from words or graphics or through navigation buttons.
2. The Prototype is a working model of the program developed for testing the product
and ensuring that problems have been identified and taken care of before final
production: Prototype testing helps in getting suggestions and critical feedback to
improve the design of the programme in terms of interactivity and instructional
design.
3. Text, audio, video, graphics and animation.
4. Video files occupy too much space and large bandwidth as compared to audio
and graphic file formats, and therefore create problems such as of not getting
downloaded or running in case of on line multimedia, or making computer very
slow when used as CD-ROM or DVD. The safest rule is to keep the video file
size to absolute minimum. Compressing the file size also takes care of this problem.
It is better to use very brief video clippings, for a minute or two and use highly
compressed video files.
5. Multimedia authoring tools organize, edit, and integrate multimedia ingredients to
make a single presentation and create user interface of multimedia. Some of the
categories are: Card - & Page - based authoring tools, Icon based, Time-based,
and Object Oriented authoring tools

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