UNIT 1 : Linear Classifier and Generalizations

LECTURE 2 : Linear Classifier and Perceptron

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Lec # 2 : Linear Classifier and Perceptron 2.L
F Review d Basic Corrcepta
Asts stq.rt flnr's {ec{ure by bvfef ly revlsing concepts $va,m prevtcnts Lech,r.re
) feature rrector : X
-l6v each and ercvy case tl'tqt v\'e ['uad , we Lr-ad sorne properltes {hot \^}e he
tnhel^ent 1;rr tl''€ cose. Like fo'eg . E rerq rnovie +lmt v.re krad eo.rlier had
a ge nre , Irndb rottng , buc{gek, casb ebc '
We for our purposes roardbed to pvedhh ,sonreHnr'ng orr bosis { *ln-ese feoturea
Hence for eocl.r- eqse r^re choge ' d ' ]eattrres {zqt hrere chovactevxlic o/
and ,gtacKed {nen u in a uecLor hrtUtu eacl'u entzy beinT
{ tltot cose(beccr.r,tse
; ,rrr",ber {hots t4;hat m-ocldnsa un-derrsbarrrl)
-Ipuis
rnectoi {or the i+}.1 rnovie/cqse was colled *l'r" feaLure uect-or.
fl)
(i) x;
X € ed (C1",ur"rlg, )
4!t
;
x5' dx1

xi, # {eahtra + i&, coae

) Lch-eL
( i.l

{r^rs voas $E *h"ivt'1 {taoL h}e w qnbecl }o pvedich .

I,oe ove taLk[ng oboub aupeYvi*ec\ {eo.rninq- h"eve, , vshich" wteotil tv\re

wrLL how Labelted dqto" . (At least *'raivt. datd wtll be Lobelled)
{o eoch cqse $rov* *he trqiyl, data, hre NilL ha,,e q. J,abel ossoc(ated
& for eoch. co.se ttr, the test daba h!€. r-oovr,t tD predtct -tlae LabeL.
{or Lhe rvtovie example h)e ar€ studyin2' each r..ector couU hsrne o'ne
ot the *: to.l<',
(t )
: inclfcottng v(enry would watcVu it]r" movle
v _ : indicaH^a vfewey wo-utdn't rcatch i{n" rnowe
1

il. Agairu
{+s lh" *e\ "l zxomples ttot rue ieed our otgcrifrtvn in ordev 1o trairr.gnod
ovE dotng -suge vvised
Leorn i^t nylrulctu meqnA the tvaininq clotq 6,re
hor,e wttl be Labell ed. nd hlg l^tc tt ln-q\€, t4- exo rnples +o {eed
(ne.e,fore mathemattcol$ t,rle rnriLe

3n = t(^n,,J,t,), i=1,2,2,....n1
V gel eJ otl paivs ( feature lrector [ , tqbel t ) fo, o[ y1 €oses
 z.z
) Clossif ier : l'u()
ltis ;trngty a functron o, ryppin3 {rm ?( ; [,e the sPace C fu.+"re raectur:
+o {lre spa.e laloeLs. 6v *he howe exomple h}e had
"l
L" , -R' F+ t-1,+1l
Itae idea wos ,strvrple

hxrL hnre jur,r,cuovt h( ) th,.t hltll *oke os in-put fny {eat.re rneclor
a
^)e oat a coTY€sPonding label +1 ot -1 ' lw srnclev to do
X anC Br'\^e ug "X
to tratn *he rnodel . lnis Juvrchon h( ) vrre 6orc
tl^at ,^re wtri ir.t rgeed
wttL irufacb depend ; payometer g (v'hreh con- rce rnutttdirnerrgionol) ,4n-d
uatng the broining dobo., hle wliLL esttmabe er's b {tnd on'optirrraL h( )
fne-^*^tftpredicb'labelst-.si;^?*lar'sogttmolh()'
)Tva[rn i Erro" gn ( h)
In ovdez to see hor,.r ourc clossi$ier pevfovmed r^rrt tvairuin2 dut& , nre needed
Aorvle sovt o{ rnettic , {he ideo hte l,-od rttos pr€+! -sirnple : f,ust Jooi(q,b
rnrhat fvactcon d polvtts tt,r" 4he 'traintvtg A ek afe rvr.r'sato,*r-fted by irt I
Ao we introduCed *he double bracket not-a*tcn't

I expresstcrr.r ]l 1 if Express(on is Tvrre

o i{ ExPresston is False

If f- ++l" "r{^ cose iw tvatr,n tng dota

h(xcir; * ,tir : then h cammited an eYroT
h(xtill = ,cit '. tnen I'u did nok corrrmilan eYtat
Ao trn, ordeY 4o {tnd the frackon "l eyr6r comynitfed \^)e ho,!€
n
(h) =
e"
* Ii=1 Ir"(xtir)*Ytir]
7 Tes+, Etvor End Ae* SeL

}f,ow we knou,c ae* let is .7t ia 4he Se 4 e>cornp)u UL c-saea [or

trutr"ab 4yte
rnvhfch- \^]e ruavtt lo Tredtcl )he lthelg . (ne fecrture Mector,6 are c* dtgcuxec{
eoxLie'r .gnl5 o" ?yo?ev\ leharucLeris+ic o[ the exornples / eases slone A+ doos
nob mor,ffet v,&te4laev -lhe exarnple ,trorw t^rdtn Se4 ]':esl Aet ,,g,ru
)L w
exompte t,n.ttlt olutroys l'rore a ,jec.luve, wctor .

{t* tabef ia +l\e tricky pavt

 2-.3
tJp unttL nornr, nre h,ow, o,s-rurned 44aY *he tes.t dqbq h,e t'r,al€ jS utnlqbelted
JY",st4oy or maY Yr,oE be true
U*ua\ y.7hat 6rs clo hrhiLe trainin2; modil* i* *omethinS ,Like-thi(
r+ Xte hnue a fot { LABE LLED dofa'
-) tde sPtit it, into two parts RANDo}ILY
Bo 7- is tae tesb daba
[aualtY ,i ?. ls *?rc tzain dakl
hE tratrn"the' modeL
-, hIltt Jla'is 2b"h tratrudaba- )-brat|/ted
rnodeL per{otm:' on -lhe test data"
+ Theru Ure cl,ueck ho,^: ouY
Herc. r'oe ho"e {1alo -tldngs io'
o case in *he Tr's{ SET

{q X(i) iw {is1 SET

Tvre pvedicled labeL : h ( X (j) )
(j:
fvte trut{'L a
Y

+ Ne eon thevt comPoY€ -Lhese *rruo vo*Lues +o {*^d av\ eyrcrl. , xiwriliaz
bo outr 'lroivting EYYOT
m
6 (h) 1
f
fest tvror n1" [t(xtjr) * J'i,]
j=r

x(jl , jth jec.lure \^ec+oy in -lEsr Ser

m : t6to.L ccrses in Tesr SEr
,jr : LqbeL "J ith cose in {est Ser
v

Now NoTE .thot *'his hli,ll ontg be posstble to caLculate nyluen t,rle hoyrg
acfucrt {obels for )he coseg ivr, U.re aesr Data sET, r"Ylarch nt^J nok
alrnloys be twe case

2 Set "J Ctoss(fiers ;\

Tvtis h,as 4he sek oJ cholces we ltad for our {uvtchon h t l. ie I, e >1,

we sow 'that {fis mov€ cholces rde ol.tovued $ov h( ) , -the )et* generatrzed the
rnodeL becorne. 'le atlhou6ln hle got pel"fecb clo,s.r,iJrers 4w the tmin s,et wcg^,
tn(h)=0 ; {hey f"il€d nntsevabty when applied 1o tes+, dota,.
VG olso vevlse the Xeovwetvic i.h^* rue had iw wr.,n d t^ln i le doin6-
oll"'+hig
 2.4
eornetn'c Prcture
ln, ordev lp ar.ralys€ "rha.U h-oppetned fqlrnelri"&V, uoe took

fr= 4 exantptes tn tvaining ze|*

2' dimensto'ral
Xe Rz re +he Jeofurne rectov tr'cos
yrir s t+f ar -11
This is a scatter plot
of the training set

Classifier divided the space

into two separate regions

But the real problem was

classifying new feature vectors
 2,5
V /-trynx Clo"xtfier*
Now let rne rernind ylu someh^t {Lthough ran, how totked q lot qbouL l'r-ons v.re
plovt to closstf y oy pveclict the Lobels , v\re h-q\€n/,[ Vet proposed any. mathe-
-vnaftcaL form for {he {unction h-t I +hat rs ouY clossi{ier. {n otrv lecfure
now , h)€ plan to do eXact{y *h.ak, ond rare witl stavt rax{h the ximplestJarnily
called {he }trleav cto,s,ri$er. g, t in order *o cteorLy un-devsbqnd. *hern , h}e
wilL need a vrnatlnewrattcol corrcepb calLed hyperplarte 3o:

X4THTMATi cAL fNTER.LuDE H:pr<PtANE

> Lebs begiw wet,t,r, a rirnpte cqae

,LO r<..axis

\nle hare a *trat6ht li"l. above calLecl o xr axts . Arld t"re lto.ue Boryre poinb at xo
N0rat ts t*re equatton d +l"ir point !
ItraK a. vatlaer +iLLy luestton taut t$ r"rc 'l^"aue to oruroev it , *he equa*ccra,
wou[d be %4 x-o
=
Norttoke rndtat {l.r"ts potnt, ,tA doing ttrs divicling *iue X1 axis or tiyr.e
trnto two regtorrs . 4 fe

Re1;on 7 z <o *he vtght 'l e(.o

Regrorr 2 .. ao '*te teft )t-o
"{
x '. potnK*o{hert3ht, d x.
.
o : poinK {o tre fe{t a{ 2(o
Xo X1 OXIS

Qood rtohc te}s v!4o\€ on, {D the ra,ext cose

o. .tittte
Xr oxi,s Nor^c hle ?ro.ue trxo axes 2cr and xz
le rap hqw o 2d plarra
w€ also ?r.are a -[ivte it^.ad pal^es throgh
tnis plane
lr{e a6crtn ask 'the lues*toru, n*rat jL

aa axtS
be elua{/.on o/ +Lrfr Lile
 2,e
9le axis h)e alvreody knotnl +hat *he equattorn, { o.

-Line looks like

)(z = lYL2(r -t' C

unrhere ^rv1, ;A sl6\'

c is <ntevcePk

2(1OXts hle caru taYrite +his qa

9(r+ YY19t1-C - O

But rde o.2o.in waVe ct palteYrt irere {vr. P\r e lrne diwdeg *he 2d plane
ivrto tra:o tre g.iorus

R%ror^ 1 {Uoue the ltne

Betow 4ne j*ne
Reqron 9-

?(1 oXlS
x x,Po ivtts abolne the }tvte
x o : points tcetow the li'te
o
x

Note that *laeve. witt olso be poivr6

x
o x
x exactty o!1, the 1i4e rn:htch "ok^{Y
2(1axk
*te eluatovt d the liqe
o o
o

Qood
yLot/lc tets rrao\€ or4 lD the next caae

7 \eVs c"ompUc.ate tt,is a h{He rnore

?Q AXtg Nornl nre lno.rne 3 axes hev€ 2(r, xr & cCg
j,t,is is whot rare calL o Bd Plane
YJe o,lso lTorae o' plane(in btrre;

{na nrc agatra, can'

olk 'tln'e lueskoa
,,nrhat is the elua*Lo't oJ +hja Plone

4" ntc.thenrahccr'[ geru'uses h]e

a
# --- X2 axis aLvectdy knoro {hat *he equah'oa
oJ

a
plone t! oJ {orrYt
o)Lr * bxn* CXg = d
con again ree '[he.
.{nd v.r
D(t oxls potfevn con*tnued he're
 2.7
Jine plone agatn diWdes *he 3d ,=#on into tr,oo Pot(K
:
Re6ia't 1 Abovre the Plane PoinK
Regron 2: Belor^r the Plone Points

9Cg axri
x: potnts o,loove the plane

x x o: potnts be loto llne ptarr-e,

Y
x
be potnt(
Ndt/e *ha,- *hevl- ruitl also
x that {re exactty oru the plorte
x
x & tlltq sa*isj3 planer eluattan,

*--
r'\ /l
\r/' xLaxrs
r'.)

o
o

l(r axrk o

visuallyr
) Ao nord \^)e cartt go ony {uv{ffev
Because -lheve/s rro Nay hle con dravo
a 4d plok' Bub nrecqn vuathemailcall)r
+roE le(s look ok the 1^)e
trqnsl.,oLe -Prts rdecr fovrcovd . EeJore dory ^tmiUaviLies
l.uod Jor otrr R exarnPles' obore
Equa*dorr, d
9C1 r xo = o
frtvtt tn ldirrrenstavrr: C =O
Ltne in zdimenrisnr: Xx-IflXr-
[w Exgtbxl+ cXt - c[ :- o
plone Zcltmenrtcnt:

can say -thsf tf we hnrne d diraaenslonoL sPace irn' genera[ ,, 'the

,6o rarc
equatdon vue ore looking {ov
ts "J {#tu fovvm-
gdxd + oo = O
0,21 + Drxz+ grxg + "'''''+

{1so note the fotto^a^t

ln I dfrnensior.u : dimens
"1 potnt is O
tfl\
ln 2 ddrnenstcrru : di-er,ston -l-twe is i'
lru 3 dirnensiozr : ctlrvrensiorr "1
,# p\ane ts 2
h, if ^)e o-ne -(yr & d dtr,,tevr,si,srtal spo,ce hee wt[t haue the abo\€
elnbovl crs a ' d- I ' divnen*lora,al -il$ry lobject,
 L.B
Xou.l a f.*L +lun6 *o noVe A
wrstte:r hr?ucl't dlmel'rsiorn d r h)€ choose , ++18 e{rua*ccna hre ,,*ole
^C
before di,vides the d dtmenstorrtoL space ivtto IWo sepevoLe re?^oru
-thir obiect thAt sahs{y -the e1u akwt
4F +h"r'e cry€ olso goivtfs thob tie ovr, we
ecr.v[ey te, Orx, * 0z %z+.... .+'gdrQ + Oo = o
,rrvobe

vJe oxe nohc *odJ to un-devstovrd {ire crrrcq.b o{ :

{ hypevplane trt 'r1" dtmenst,rn6 "rL a n-1 dimevr:Lonal subspa,ce .

4 hypezplavre *epevates the Space into *rpo sides

lne equatton { o. \F.rPtaYLe n

Oo + OtXrt9zX2+O72<g+"'"" + Ort2CrT' = O

Oo : is ao.lled lhe oJ{sek teYrr't

Line,orc algebra pyovides u-s o neob rco14 lo rnrribe {he eluoltsru
tf v,)e toke
0r Xt
g O2 &x -\y

9n
rrxl x rL nxt
Chen r^,e ccln use the doV grocluct ( eTx or O.x) {o urihe the
efuatton ,J hyper plane aE

Bo + g.X o

Novo +w )tt^t ,J *itis we^) {wrnutaL.r ., lets lcrkat otrz old examples
poiwtinld Z %t-2(o =o i t0o=O +
Or?tr Or=1 , go= -?Co
tine lrru 9.d i*t- hxr - e = O ;022t2+9rXr*Oo = O + 91=-trt, 0:-=1, Oo=-C
gtone [ra tsd
3x3*bxz+cxr -d=o )
glxl* O1eC2 *91etr+ 0o = o

ie 91 gz=b t 9a= A O"=-d

=C, )

}G^ be.fuve r^re ev\A *+tLU "frp,. orae lost +V;ny

 2.q
Lets fivsk *ee the co.se ol line in 2d
ctz qk ol Jrne A
+he egua*r an
Or2Cr + 9z%r* ez =O
here cLr-=o
Ao *, = -9o /91 ON v

'A|["rc'
o axts

herre, xz =o
*o 2(r=-e /et

Now torla oi Ab vlsc+or

Oo/9r
(0,-e)
lll =l
o
-\
Ab =[
A
So
g" I -Oo/Oz

o
b
9(1 a)<lS U v.)e f^d *he dok Pvoduct d
9 -l
ue'toz lrrgl'lln AB vtE, gek

( -0o rO
srl
Or ) In, Oo./9 r
0o -0o = O
_ g,/oz

rdl^ct" wleor\a or&y r€c+oY ll4aK atmS

O wctoT.
z3inr.ittaxly ftv *lae ose d plavre i vt tsd hre. harre
xV gr2cr * 0r?Cz*03X3+Do =O
r"rrilten ar
Arny rec+ar qru lhe plone e-an be
., (o,,o'-g) .A
V l,r
.-l
il + IrcA
J 0o/gr
(. & , o) BA
D
vo/e
Sr" -oo/oe
r xa
t o "7

o
r'j,"J=I
go/OrJ f-0o/er
o

a -l 1

:
CA o
=
t \ ,-r-n" ar) I s{e ,7
r J L-3,,,, \
Nor,onol6 g.A =O = B,d
\e,
9c1
Tneve-Io,e 9'i = o ie g wci6t' i3 putpendiculox
[o at{Y t'lne
wctDr ort P\one '
 2. 1o

lr.rereJore vnte can conclude

$o, o' hyperplane tm rt dimer'rx.isrna wt+fi eluatora,
Oo+ 0rX1 +Qz9(zf "''{9nX6=Q
OR Oo+O'X -O
{,,e rnector O r^}tll be or-thogonoL {6 ury vector ,lhot ties sn thia
per plavr,e , ie hes tn *he auPsPa-ce de{ined by the
kr-gperplane '
l.uy

Le$ ta"oh) qo\^e oru -lo *he lecfuvrg

F Ltneor Classifierx
Ok ,now hle qr€ ready to *tudy our frvsl c\ossi{ier rnodruemabtcoltry,. 4nd {he
problerr.t hle hod tvt vyrind is the rnwte r€coymrnender, nrh*.ve I rnov{e Jrorn
test doba .get t^till be oa*igaed eitttev +1 or -1 lo.be[.
VJe oLready knoru r^rhot a closst{tez does $r *^r problern. A+ divides -l}re
Spqce r,tvhere x € R,d -tirre into tr^lo regrons. (For eur example r h)€ hod"tt€
btle veBtor, oytd the r"rltite regroa-).
But the :tudy of l"r-yperplol,Les eorlier , veveoled {r-ot Lt {roo does the Aqme
flnqg. 4 hyperptone in m dinrerrar'ans rrs a n-1 oJirnenstcrnal subsporce *irak
divi"des .the n dlmerutsn aL Spoce info *,'co reg,iona .

F os. oux dossrftev, nrhy dor{+_ r^}e ,^*u the l,r-etp o{ a f.,lk"pfarle
tn srder tp$Crst,fCnct out closstftei h C f ?
r{d h}e h}tlt [nde ed d o exactty .ttr,at , Ide rarill norc tackte the rnorrie v€cornrne-
-ndev problem r usin6 qprplanet L*lp in .f-or minq o cto,lriJrer.
-t Gr": nobe that a
hyperplo.ne is oetua\ 1-,rrt, a lwte, r^Je alce in
{ dtrnensiol.ral s ^rheyt
Pace
Xe dec{ded eorLr'ey +rc keeg *}ri ,sirnple, {trat
e f*"fu re \nector ^gA
foy ith rnor&: X(il hr-rll hore *raro {eefuves fq Xtil e &z
Ao our hyperplone will be a li4e in our exawrgle.
{he wtat*revraatfcql
$rntula*oru .t]rot nle uottl r,r*e or" cleyir e rarttt be
)tor,'relre,r
appricc''bte '{or cLnJ pvoblem ol
t^ro - ctqss ctorarJrcokon , u.{tiu a ganeraI
fe"ture wctor X e-Rd
v{e rnoy nob be obte +o vis\rotixe it nrhert d >3 but *lae. mdd^t*ztattcaL
ideas hrtll revnain,
the aome

So buckle up, leG do it

 2.tL
> {r,," (dea
hJe hovre atil 6 Strz. le the f eoture recbrs aye 2 dimenrtonaL . ,Ao rne need {o
divide l,lne IB2 plorne in 2- re6rozrr, *'"8 a.
2(2 DC.

divide the
fr1 plone

into hoo
reAi.or/ts
ustng a
ldne
*.1
x

Now *he general eluatioru o] a line is

$tXr+ 02Xrtgo = O
lirle is aatled
Tl,r'= l.uere Decr . Cti *he*arm yrnacldne lut+ni
sroN BouuoaeY
fr
peopla use. Are yar o. rrnochivte ,te,axniag people ? at yes .flrr.n r.r,se .tfija terrtr-
In generol d divrnenstons . {ne hyperplane wtll be cqlled -lhe decisisn barnrd"ry.
ok vtota {,n ordev *o corrg on"etgxra Jorr^rard , hre hrrtt Jr"*t *inagl(5 *he
vrarrHa a hit
" h)e yrnll -let {ne dec(si# boundqry , pqss *hrotrgh *tS*
We nrtlt lal,ey *ee the getnevot cose *.2-
but f*rst tebs see *tt[s one \
tf t rat [s {he cas e the n poivrb
(o,o) rhartd :attsJy +he equatcon
ie 0,.0+0r.0 *0o=0
+ O6=O
J>o +he o{eet tevrn O o .t,c O
(n" el*otton o] livle becomeg

9rrCr+ 9z%z = O

Decisio4 laoundat1 pc*z;u.g *hrougf, *;?rn

Noto {eK h^o\^e or sbep {urther
 2.12
Now rue wont *o {ook of the r'rector I
hre krrow *h.at r'ectuc g iL orthogonaL
,t't
As
t,

to tLe lT-g[:evPlone (ltrre here')

Jhe real dirc.ckon al e wttL become cleor t (a
ochratlg kvroral *tT e numerica'l
rrrt{nen ntC .. o{t,
votues ol its cornponenlG . But {ov
non hle hove ttrro choices
hre con ei*hev c.hooge optton A cr t
oPt* B. \,oe choose optccrn A ( r^!e cpr.rld,
hale \ ery vrrcll choosen B, it doser/t malter) *l

8u* nohe +h6t these two directo.rs atr the

onty chotc€s hle hcrrre as these qre *he
o[r*v dtvredtqls orthggonal {ro the -Itne

(r)
X
t g g
I
/ olr d.g

./<- *
-
;(a) t
)lr 1

I
x(2)
I
I
ua
x (+)
Here hle see {rco w c*oys that Jie arr.
Regton By deffi oJ do! procluct Here tnre Aee w,ctors ta.ob tre
*r,^lo on
Reg.{"orru By def 'n oJ dor product
0" x = ll e ll llxll Cos(L bw Jhe -t'",o) 0' X= ll9 ll ll x ll Cos ( 4 bro *he {r,oo)
o. x = llo ll llx(tl Cos d t
g. x(=) ilOllI X(3)ll Ccs o(r
O,X = llgil [ l'11 Cos o(z =
O. x(4) = llel llx(4)[ Cos 4+
+ long os *he o x lies in fegbn
A* Iong qa +1e vectoy X Jiee iwQegion2-
fyre ongte betrueen wtll be betuoeen
o 10 T / 2- flaerc, $o.e Tvre angte betrrleerr , hltlt be betr,oeeh
tI/Z Lo rr
g.x >o for^ttX inR2ranl
0. X ( o {ar al,L X ivt R21on 2-
 2.12

tro norJ hle I'uqv1s o neru inst8lut

We hsd -the dectstcrrr lcoundovg O. X = O possing thvougl"u origr"rn,
4]"d uUe knoy,l thaE
it diwdes tne sPoce imlo taro rc'gron*,
T-lue rrec+oys thot -l,ie oyr *lre sic{e loua.lovc{s ur}uicln-
g poinFs t rctt l'uorc
a posi*trre dot pvoduCb ie O. X >o tov X elong g/s :ide
Tyre. vecboys that -lie oyr the side opposite {o rro}Trckl o pornls \"rtll ho..ve
a vreqe^ttrre clot pvoduct ie O. X<o {ov X epposite to O's divre(kcrra..
\^lttfr this tr,tsight h)e can deuetope a c\qssifter os follor,os
-+ uoe heed a ctosslf ier t guch *hat
h. JRz F--> t+ r, -11
^ + te it should givre ou$uk +t or -1
-+ r,ohg dorrL hle just to,ke 'the -etgn cll ff" iravrerprcducb O'X for
a r,nectoy X {ying in tr
h(xi 9) = A€^ (o'x)
-+ {Ihrs u eluivalent b .^toyilg thot IL doz,,ri$es all rreclurx ira,
R?* 1 aa +1 and Re6*orr 9- a^ -1
9<2.

,.\
q/ d>

,\

s X1

Ao to coneLrde

Decistovt BoundorcY O 'X = O

Cto,ser'fier : h(x I e) = ,& i6rt ( g'X)

,x(6r^l tere r+e rnill ree 3 degrce oJ {reedout 'th"t r"re .still har,re. .

fnr:s r^rtlL loLey fuUp tx

 2,4
> 4 o{ freedorn un u,sed
degree
Norac look of the exlcressicrr oJ {*-l. deeisian boundavy
O.X: [9, gzl %t 9t?C1t 9:?(z : O
x2 J=
\nvhot l.r-appens il i ct'uonge g to so! z5g r Let6 see
s'X : feser 25021
[ilil =
"5(er2(r*0zxr):o
u:hich eons' rhe e.quaron
^
4nd t?rk rs not t^r;';;;
{ 03,",ljl';.T,;;rl
g
n+ur fl," same
Joy 2E bur aty c o r,^yheve e erR
{vtu Poi^t here is as long aa g {s repraced
decdsiorr bourrdary y€ranoirzrs-+h"
by aome rnut+tpte eJ €r, the
aqme .

{v"f ts otso *rue {he clo,*si{ter

fcn

ry c ls soyyre reol posittve r,-urnber then

'["tX3cO) - ]€^(c0'x ) = ,A,Bn(e.x) =l-L(x3s)

/o oll hzr.qil^ev\^.oh,cat {or*latton , h]e Aotnl +tU nouJ r,oornl get c{{e&d
t,T hle use O oY cO r,there c.Ge-
lnis is a degree e/ Jneedowu rce Vrqrre, ie \de or€ f".ee *o choose elv\d:
posihlre, uzr"ulttpte qg , arr,d oux decrston botrnd*J anl. cto,r.li$'er ,,&t[
the -sqta4.g
reyrrto[yt
Dut ttote *hat if I ,A reptaced by cO . Ttre vroym o{ rrec*or change
ie tle ll = 9,1 + Do"

llcell = cag,'+cLs1 = lcl lloll

,8o the odditto^q.L dEree of {reedorrr r^re ho.rne letotes lo the, ^oyvyL *
the O vector , urlrr'ch rarc h-arer,t'l {fxed utp untill hon).
hCe r,"ill Jotez aee in L-ecfure 3 that tla-is norm hltll hutp us tp totwr,
ra:hat ore c0lted lorge rnorgtn cLoss'$ets . Bub that,s Joker"

Srsb 'tet( leneralise f* +hu case ,livte ond noL juat &1u
posstn5 -throu6[,u *W* .
"J "ry
 2.75
)Tne generol cqse 0o # o
C$ gou dorr,t wol,rno be bothered t"'d+iL .lome tedtotrs cqlcularkoa yatr can
:ktp
be :'inatuar!9r
*,tis pozt ahd, qssume youvset{ +lrot-the clossiJrer ![or't*uis e,sewtll
delined but i{ you qre curtous heres h}hati ho'ppeninX
> Trre equa*t'oe { .trne ts
er 2(r * 9: Xr-* 9o -- O

h el orfgrv,r, to lhe 1i4e

distcnce
> hre dyaw q wc*or stoz{t4g *r*, ortgirt
and eradtng at the ltne , orthogonaL
{o *he {tvte
o
> 3.f its orbogorraL to *he .Lirue tttis cqn
b e r^.:villerr os lts
) Jo A oY -r' = ld wh"re A e R,
Poi,n*
> anis hleons [-e = Ad = f2o, aerlT
> 1f polnt A l,'es oy,r the }'ne tnen it rnust sattsJl its eluattcnn,
there$re gr (1e,) + Oz (Aer) * eo = o
9o

)Jo *lne perpendicular ddsternce of

Hr.
origin(o,o)frorr, -t_iy,re is
ll oill = ila6il : ildil = leot
Udtt
) Now nobe clue to our( construcksra, oo is lteEatrre
becouSe rd
.crrn
onll be arong d ,s diraectcoa if xf I posittve r otheyu*e
it wttl be {o ltre oppo"}te dtve"t . end rroe found
-,
1: -Oo =+
oo ts negalcve-
[6 il"
Notrc e\^ey
V 'thtng -r"ls raeady - Lets fcck at
-1,
J
$. X +9o
we knou,c d"i -- [d[ lrirr cog c( , ao abor,,e eqqo+i"cn Le,r-es
Ud n Ui il Coso{ * 0o ! LeB {o.lce n-"e n outside
tdu (r,Xucosx + ,ff, )
VOe olgo krnornc Oo b ne3atue due {o our construcftoa Ao hle cr.n ,r'v"ite't ar -lgol
 2-,!6
7 ,lso d "i * 9o $vlally become8
v
cosc(
lr o il U* tt I

ITEII
ool

)
.c
/o {his is
,q
il?ilcos< : Prol'ec*corr oJ arly rcctar,X +
oto.tg d rs diracte on
r
tgol : Perpendiculan disfance ol llxllCos*
ll9ll 'lo {he ltvte
g,,tr'6ura-

dertred beJorle q @
v
.6F
q9\
Gr any rre,c-tor X t'vt R.e6ron I
J
tnereforre x.b^ (6.x.*oo) > o
st or,y rreclov x ir,r, Re2'ton 2-

ilVrere-fore hle caro generalrse aqy cla,xift er

Dect,ttot %aundarl- O,X + 9o - O

Ctaut[iev I,u(x.] gr oo) = xt6n ( O.x +go )

,rlt*, rare ho\€, our first clar,r.rfier , Conyat,.l^aho*a IIL

F Corrstvatr,r* strr( clossifter

"f cqrL clq'&fy pYopev[
fl"tthough \^re |ucpe o. c\a"trifieYr*ltts c\oes laoF rfleorLhle
-l{rat we vrnoc\e 3urt now
nlhat t wteon {o Ao) iS , +he Lineor e\aur{ter
'\/n 9-d . VUhy woutd it , so\w e\reIy problent'
iS ,r,r.o{htng n4oy€ -\t ran a ttle
-tlruot we. -thvour at i+ ?
+,^ro -.,r:+"gory c-\oxi$tco*tc,?t
"J
fie po']\t here ia there is a srnoll cotegory oj . P"oblerns Jhat
',Livteov ctosstfiev ab ole cotrld tockle gropetL;
ou7
ou}t *rotvting doba -fher€'S ,,.o gt^o"o.rn'fnt +i'\ok cl.tL
{.f ,oe ,Dtorre ,
Aee +hr^ vtsu"l*
,yauld be clu.lt$ ed-yrry\y. Lets
fr,*'e
 2.t7
?LA
Here rnre h-ow aome *roinirrg daka,
+ t hJe see there can be vnolty lrvtes
+ + +huough origrn, *tnnt coYt c\o'*ifY
\ +
Qcrch poivtt properl;l
"11
,Aorne ore drahYt4,

+
+ +'+ Herre, hle -,\ee Eome {taining data,
++ +
we see +here cqvl be no line {hrough
+ ovr.gun, rihot corv'ec\ cta,s,l,.L{rer
otl the potvtts,
\ Bub *herae altll con be rrT any irnes
[e ltrzreerrt ClqrAit u, 'thot con do
or-rx job
Some CI.ve dravoar'

belouc ' lde Yu^ in'to o' problern he'te

NouO took at {he exantp\e
No MATTER horc haxd \^)e *'U
hlilL ne\€Y be obte {o {tnd
)l'2 o"
\^!e
+ li4e ie a cJo,r^rfieY , that
cta,u,iftes jll +lne &atrting
+
pouvtts corre.tty. 4nd hle a'^e i*t
u9irt6 4 e:YoY^t4ples tn L dimerwiot,l
9t{ here, .

E*ry line r,ue *rY {atts ' t*'s ltot

*1
\ gossible
us {o 4le toH'
{nd this brings
.{ineax eepovob[U, d a *et
oJ

{hqt rue wilt :fudy r.ext

.fni I +
I \ Xr
ts
{s
 2,LO

tr Ljneolc Seperafio4"
Jo hle -rqu, eayJier( ,tla-ct in ar.der to Jtna o ctossilier.'{il.*d,, h UNEAR,
ifie polrafa in trotnrng reL correctty r v\.]€. vttll need ,aorne conditcoa
and cto,g,r,t$er ALL
to loe xattsfied ond {rtror co rr-ditan is folto r"xng i

Lebs undevshand tais properf

$I)€-t t-rndevsLqnd this teyrn- a
yti' c6 *ril a 6 ,)

Z,O ,(ee 4 calr?-L

Herc. hre coyt
{hat h}LlL co\^eY aII orrrt
1.G) lnequire YltenLg

h,r,stde the ctrcles arte llae

+.e aciraL tabets ol *}',. vectors
2.o Lel6 see +hern- one
by owe

Jnis is{he fine

A .'\
g.x + oo

1, O : tr:'tnen fafure wctor *,t'+h +1

/.\
label lies orr *he opposite stde
"l decisian bounclavy v.rrt I vrgch.r
(i) ,\
lnun : =+1 D.x (t -l Oo
)
v .)
= nqalir^e
{v,ere{ure: y,i) (6-e6ti1 +Eo) :
<o MISCLAS(IFIED

2.O uyhen feofurre wctoy hlt+h -1 tobel -lies cnr *he

opposilesicte
ql ehcistsrr boundovy wrt 0 \^gc+o-r
-1 : 6.xtil*oo=nqohve
(l )
{wen v
{.","$,e : y(l) (4. *til * oo) > O : CORRECTLY CLASSIFIED
 2,1q

5. @ : hrhen feoture rnector

^)t+h
+1 .lobeL , JoW on t0re .6om€ xide S:
deciston boundoz,6, t^rrt 0 rrectoY
"*

In.n:. y(it:+1 ; 6.*til+6o = Posihrne

lrnerefore: ytil ( $.x<il *6"1 > O : CoRREqTLY cr-qsdrieU

4. O : r,uhen *he feature hnth -1

rnectov -lobeL , Jortrr o4 tln-e .&c(vzte xide {
dec{sCon houndarl r,..srt 6 uectrr

Traerefrre: ytil (6.rti)+6o) < o : MrsclissieiEp

,Ao \^)e {.^"ttry 8"k tp see *he f"ttor"rir-X-

whenarnectov.ta MrscuassirieD : ytil 1$.xi)+6r) <o
ulhen o. rnectrr is CoeqEc{uy Cr,qssirrlp , ytir (0. x(i)+ 6rl > O

k Whr,l" in, '{ifie de{trr,tltorn { .l.trlearc }epilob^Li"+t rrre ra.[d.

ytil 1$.x(i)+6") >o {orolt i=!,L,%....n'
vus are just s.tr^& {hat *te .Lin€
(ov h'6pevfl'ane) cta*ifias oll {he PrtrK
[ra, the traivttng' correct{g Jo *he defti,titon ?,anbe botled do,,rn to I
^nt
Def i.

4 Set Sn = t (x(i), y(it) , i= !,LF....nJ ctre lineonly :e.perable if

tde cayt {ivtd O and go ie porometer vectot and oi{se'[ pavometer +ha1.
Aeyzr.,le {hem . ie if {^}e cern find a -[tn€
#not seperates "t[ Point's correcl(y

T\"r.t is vedundaYtt

Ahd 't$ lout< at tt ctoselr , tt absotute!;r aays nothing at all. {+

^*
soys Yor{ corr covvec{y .t*Jy cr.tt poirtts using a l-tneax cta,*ifter
JusV

U* con fd,"cl -tineaY eto,l*ifer *lnat cqn ao +{rat

,$ ct

Out +his d{inilton is rneeded jcrr{fte ney* aLgoriU.m 'lh-o+ h}e q}^e oborrb
to ,uee c^orLled the perceptron . rryhich rrelies on {he foct +fia}
o" .&rlb.thwy,^ltll be {ound lor A rre,ctoy avtd oo e}!*et pa'tavneXer
ontg if Sn is ktnecr.hT beperable. But {trs{ let( cafculat'e traintng errna in,tfuscare.
 2.,2o

y Traintng Error Jor Uneor Ctossif ier

Ne eorUev defrned {rainfng eyyq^ as the izac*tcrr poinld i,r, *h"
"J
troininq set -tltaL welr mtschssi{iecl . Here jo, t}'," cose t Aneorc
clos si$ier ltre carL sqy that

htx(i)) : g.x(i)+9o
h)e otso fq"vrdout that (vrespecltve "l *h. lobel t+t * -rt if
,til 19. x(i) *go ) > o 1laen point ts cott€c+lyr elu*'i{."d
ts
,til (g,. )c,i) + 0o ) <o *he potn* vnis ctossi$ied
lvrere is o cose rnyhen &*fute uectar wtll lie on *he hJperplane [line
here ) irn -thott cose
o.)c(i)+0o -o E+ y(i,(9"1ri)+go) -o
y0e r*ft[ a\so consider 'th,r's co.se qs an qryc( , heccruse xnr^eotly
donrt Knoltr hovo 1o ctosst{y it
.If you rernembev ltre If. n double bracl<et rroha]ton r h.]€ hod

LExpresstonX= 1i{ Expressirr,lrue

o if Expvessirn fo\se

.Yov 01J- e.YT srs

y (it (0. xtil * Oo ) < O wlll be *rue

{vle.e {o* t^re cc^n, tarite

n
L r" (lt) trt[e, 1= 1 I I yt[l 1o,xti'+ so) / 0 ]|
= e.
11.
L=1
=

Noto t^r€ t^'tlt ftnolty see l.he PercepLran Atgori*ftrn , *hot Snds d
li4eor cto,ur{ter , iJ {hene exisK ore .

tt t,tlttt ftnd a ctasstfter if the tratning se| Srt +f^-at hle

I,r-qve iA Unearly aepevable. wtlt rtoL be a unilue cLc"ui{ie< a* there
fru's
ynq! be movL! o'tirev t-irrr Ean daui{r'et that con aceomftslt, hn job

Let's see i+,

 2.21

F FERCEPTRoN
tnsteod o$ Lqytng the algorithrn onyou,yug tocmld rather aee fuot '&comes us
Seometrtea.lly . Now hoEe t{ac.t !r1re oY€ here, in seo.rcla- "J q- Une ,lcuE it 6 +futtJ
clectded , ohce vue l.uqrve tlae rrectoy 9.
{so nobe {nab r vtre voctl see lfie cqse oJ {lne possing )htou{* mLgtn , i*t fox.
,sintplici*3 .
{so in ordey Jor t}us atgorithln- lo be ruccessfuL , r^re need ltneartg aeperable daka,
fe rue tnxtl need poinlstlaat conLre c\iutded/classi{ted by o Jtyr,e,
Ge ponsl-Line/ decrston bound,oly tnrill be perpendlcula'u to -tlae g vectrr oluraXx.
L.at us loegrrn"
) Leks fivst -roy tilr-at 6 {s t3l
1st Poilrb

luppose our algort{hrr.r encrr,rltterc *he 1st raech'r

*ct) =
'l .l,obe[ = * I o
t 't 1 I
r,rr tetl out( aLgoxtthrvr to drorroa rrectot I
from orgivl to this po\rt crnd maketk +he v\en

ttl o
1

-The lelea *tntple , i& o potnt wt+h +1 Lobel

is \
f$ g {hat I make [s potnted lovrlar& -l,he one poivtt thoL r.te houe tlnen , by
de$auLt -tl^,rs point [s correatty cta,rrifred
Poivtt
,suppose the next poivt is ,c(') = label +1

Now i aak vrnrl olgori{hvrn,._1s *he neyo point

['l I '^rc+h
carrec*ly
clouifted occorcltns {o *he O \^,e h.r\re
l.tere hre covr Jee wsuatly {hat both poivtts ore
fu the n'g'ltt eide d lhe ,Ltne tivr bLue) I @ o
+
Mathelnattcatly hle ark
\
) check if y(") (6.2d") I ) o \
L*VEs becr,.,se t+1)[[r,rrI >o
l]l o 1

Io rnoue ota, 1o {lae v.r e x +p

"L"t
 2.22
3rd point & 4th poink
arre polvlt is qs Jong os +he atgovithms
hencour,tfus
1
@ o
ttew potvtts thot ore, cprvecty ctosstfded occovdi^g +
to oun I , hle dorr/t, neecl {o u:ovry, because
rarc lnoue o covrect closst$er

Flere we harre *r,rlo nehc poivttr -'l 1

x(z) lobel - 1 drpmaiyrsanne

=
[:il o
-1 \
x (+) [-.sl tcrheL -1 d yeryrains <arrr
L-.5l @

5++1 int
@ 0
{he 5{h potnt
-l
Now corvregthe trtcky part', Lel3 sqy +
eutcounterred by otgovi*hna ia

xtr) = -labeL -1
-{
LI'J 4

when vue check i+

6 -@
) check i+ y(s) [6".xts)) > o
L _i ( [r , rr ) ,* ncrr ]o o
-t
[].rl
/o fals e
g66 t*rat'the poi'tt i not cl^^eclty clossi$ed
we olso see -le^ "*'
{he cu.rvtvrt d . ,Sotoe'wifl houa -lo updateit'
ocovdtlg {o
one second e're'vy'lhi^g t^Ptft how ' and anst'\tfY +h^'
,Xfouc jrrst iovqet {or
voftat rcould d be if only poir,t 2t(s) exfrtecl '
il beeru a wr-tov {tcrrn' ovigin lo *tt' lcut wtt9t
The crnsyoey is roould ha.rre,
{o
lcecorrse rrue wonb J".ril; rnechrvs r'\rg+{n tobel -1
a negotwe.
poi.vtt away ^ig!1frorn {hem -Ao t{ +here wos only
rHo.trtd ;.; un"r" v(il ' d y(t) 'x(s)
"' point 'c(i)
one xts)
*o the probterrn ' {ne algovl{hm saYs
N,lrro t,rle cor,r'ts Faek

0 new
til 1

| :,j I';]
 2-.23

te the algori*hm .LW to ftnd t{re new r,ector

New e \ectoy = Otcl {fiet
tfieta vectov Netn g r,rector *hat cto,r.rifres *he
classiited + he.^? point correc{y , t'J the nenr
pvevious potnts veetor hlos otoyre.
covrec*ty

Lefs see hornr 6t^r graph -[oot<.g like h]it{4 d =

El
\,^!e aee *hot the x1 axls itsel{
hos yrorar become the dec(sian boundaty t @ 6
+ +
ar,td aLL *he point o,r corvec*ty cto,usr'{Ced

Now j*t or *he {.^ol ne^it in'the -t {

Decistan
baundov2
eoJf iw nle hH ll add qnother
pOtr,tt
@
@
e-th poLrrud {

@
?((6) -2_ lobet = *1
=
-.2D
I (t)
6. x(t))
*he poivr* t^)ill not lce properly ctassified beco,se y (

= *i ([o , .rl [:.fo1) = -.rzs < o

*he vrer,l
-.t
onen =
dotd + ,t6)*ce)
o +r[:.;,]=f ,-
t I
.5 ,25
I

-gn"u'
J
0old
a
I

f +
0

A I

+
y(6.)*tcl
@ e/
@

g/s ore veeftnity

added h pnd
b/ t
 2_,24

OOPSIEe eeeo
rae-c+ov d cloes
t'r.6t r^rhevr you then Bl"t , \^)e hlere alc oub -lo end. Th" ne^)
-potnts properlT "
@ & @ otre. ovr
ttre utrcrr/\g t tde
hot classtfy qlr. the
How do You jeel ? Do You {eel
like an idiot nounr !
you ore one You suck.Ll.l, ' Borroa t!\
nlell you should , becouse '

a' trick nohJ

Now Now clowt be *ad ' t wilL lell yotl
trlheyr w€ cryr. proutdecl {he clata set . lde raron't be provided
-the pointS
Ohe aftev -the other. rde ranlt lce prorrtded oll" t{ee n (hev'e 6) potnte
toge*hev " ^6,o u.re ccryl choose ah! point to be *he 1st , hd , Zvd
ar,ld vt{n . lts up+o ug - 3o wE $TART Aqeiu
y!1e , r,.:ho t's o. vrnatherrrahca[ gerr-ius tells y ou 1o clo-{*re folrowcng
^Bp nord
Take ls* pivrt 1o be :Cts) prevrleus\y .

we Eet e' = -1- I- t-l

thts won4 cto,r,ri{y sttll
belierc. me
h'5l [:;J
-(oke 2nd potnt tD be xL4\ p re vtousty

f .rd-x) = -t.(t-' rl -"5 ) =-(.5-,25) =-.25 <a

-.5 I
Ao
dn"^ = d*a + Y(2) x(2)
tel ri ldre nerc
,Eecond Potnt

l:; l+e,,\1]
=f il vrYlnen rare sdavled
O.go.trr"

Lets loo k tnrhat happevts nohr

IioL{rrL 1
+ +
h)e nornlfio.re a ttnec.rt repeva*oz &
hle dont* rneed *o .t.ook at Jurttrer
points because ff"y o.r.e atready 1 -l
Correcfty cto*a{tecl ), ,,rwnt +
,J
Change g ./o o
I
 2,25
,So *fre Atc ori*hm is sornethlng like {r"x
Inittqlize g =O
Choose a Sequence ft* 1 {o rr- lo tterate ovrgf,

*or {oop in i
check if ytit 1g.x(i)) <. o 6o to
next
UYrs d = d+ Ytirltil (

b N o Dor* do onY*hing
Afier end { f"r( I*p
,T d ctaut$es all potnl( correc!
urle found *he ctassi$er . ENDc.oDE
iS not sruulJte -l*re indices

,[ol a -r {nre hrtl't4 enor6fi,

long 'f ,t6d.
fi yor do '1fi^t3 f4+lr i,,n" y61.t GIA.ot

Aavisur desuz you wltt ftnd a xotl*ton

fvrp qctraL aigor('lfrwr -lookA .tike -lt"is

Note +4^dt PevcePfro't {trrc\ A ,go[u'fton, {herne con be manY rno}€

,solu{tovrs f", 4he Sovvre {rolning aeb

$evrwolize *}u's vlnen

Ibul v.Je tdill xee hornc NE COl/l fl"ere
ig qn ofr*eL Poro
MeVeY
 2-.L6
) Perce : Qeneral Coae
we o.lre ord y Knoutrlo *est cto*iS'ca*coa hle con do
yto ( d. x(il * go) > o oy 1o
l*e rrea I *vfck ts irt updattng Oo 6r *tds nre tttnk .l o,^r, problern-
os $nding q ne I^.) vec.b7 6 / flnaf hltll have a.n odd'rltonaL .[o.st enry

{oo 6

--s
9r We hlill add Xr
g Oz on oddittsna\ 2L2
x
9a Ito :
2Ld
Oo d+l xt *kre lost- elernenl-
o{ ecrch $nture
I
)
d+l x1
\nectoy .

,tl^d update jus* ttke be$orre

tf:
x
v X2
\ J Iti g old +
-.l
e vl EW o old + , ,/tt' xd 1
! J
+trutc hlilt gtnne us go heru = 0o otd + yti)

fu.n otgori'tf '{ooka like

thrs pvtvtqs us lp jhe end d {h" lecfur'e

Check
"t
t hny code l2_perceptron_visualization.ipynb in the shared folder
to wsuaLize a peTcep*ron
FIN"