Solid Mechanics EMM331

Ir. Dr. Feizal Yusof

Fracture Mechanics 4
Week 11-12 (6 hrs)

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 Effect of plasticity at crack tip
1. The use of linear elastic theory to 4. The crack tip plastic zones could be
describe crack tip stresses was much seen clearly in these tests, in the form
criticized initially McClintock (1961), of surface dimpling of the sheet
because in tough engineering materials material (Fig 22) and it was considered
such as steel, aluminium will experience that the presence of these zones was
local crack tip deformation (dimpling altering the stress pattern to an extent
effect) which means crack tip which introduced a significant
deformation is not purely elastic. inaccuracy in the stress description.
2. Use of linear elastic fracture mechanics
LEFM or (K-concept) was however
justified by the experimental findings
that it seemed to work – at least for
crack propagation at low nominal stress
values compared to the material yield
strength and in brittle fracture.
3. When attempts were made to apply
LEFM to tough materials such as aircraft Fig 22

aluminium alloys, crack propagation

tended to take place at much higher
stress levels in relation to the yield
strength and 𝐾!" as calculated by linear
elastic theory did not seem to give 2
constant result.
 Effect of plasticity crack tip
5. The main effect of plasticity is that
the stresses close to the crack tip are
relaxed by yielding at the expense of
increased stresses outside the plastic
zone.
Fig 23
6. Thus, if we say that the elastic stress
on the crack plane 𝜃 = 0° exceeds 8. However, Irwin (1963) has shown
the yield strength 𝜎! over a length 𝑟! , that when yielding occurs at the
we might expect the plastic zone to crack tip, LEFM techniques may still
extend to a distance 2×𝑟! from the be applied if an equivalent crack
crack tip. length is used, i.e. a physical crack
length plus an allowance for the
7. In Fig 23, A crude interpretation of
extent of the plastic zone.
this is that the original elastic stress
pattern has been moved a distance 𝑟! 9. This zone is generally represented by
to the right and has also been a circular boundary of radius 𝑟! at the
chopped off at the yield strength crack tip and the equivalent crack
value length then becomes:
𝑎" = 𝑎 + 𝑟! --- (33) 3
 Effect of crack tip plasticity
10. The effect of the plastic zone on the 14. Eq. (36) is limited to 𝑟# ≪ 𝑎.
stress intensity factor might then be
approximated by adding half the plastic
15. This method is now called the plastic
zone length to the real crack before
calculating K: correction had the effect of producing
the right order of correction to the
aluminium alloy test results as shown
𝐾! = 𝜎 𝜋 𝑎 + 𝑟# ---(34)
by the curve in Fig 24.
11. Thus similarity in the stresses near the
crack tip should be regained.
12. The size of 𝑟# can be determined from
the description of stresses at the crack
tip (Eq. 18) when 𝜃 = 0°
𝜎# = 𝐾! ⁄ 2𝜋𝑟# --- (35)
13. Rearranging to show 𝑟# :
% Fig 24
$ '!
𝑟# = ---(36)
%& ("

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 Effect of crack tip plasticity
16. For plane stress situations 𝑟𝑦 has 19. However, the Irwin approach to crack
been shown to be: tip plasticity is severely limited to
# &! $
conditions that K field is still
𝑟! = --- (36) dominance over the size of plastic
$% '"
zone.
17. For plane strain cases the extent of 20. When the plastic zone is greater than
plastic zone is less as indicated in K-field, the characterization of crack
Fig.25. tip fields falls under the elastic-plastic
Fig 25 problem and parameter such as J
after Rice (1967) must be employed
to describe crack tip stresses.

18. The radius of plastic zone for the

plane strain case is given by (in a
discussion by Hutchinson (1983):
# &! $
𝑟! = --- (37) 5
(% '"
 Example 1
Question Solution
A single edge crack bend aluminium alloy Because this problem is a “sheet” therefore
has a crack 20 mm long. If the we use the plane stress assumption to
fracture stress for the sheet is 300 determine the plastic zone:
&
MN/m2 and the yield stress of the 1 𝐾$%
𝑟# =
material is 500 MN/m2, calculate the 2𝜋 𝜎#
fracture toughness of the material Info from the question:
i) Using Irwin’s original K solution 𝑎 = 20 𝑚𝑚 (because edge crack)

ii) Determine the size of plastic zone, ry 𝜎' = 300 𝑀𝑁/𝑚&

𝜎# = 500 𝑀𝑁/𝑚&
iii) Using Irwin’s plastic zone correction. 𝐾 = 𝜎 𝜋𝑎 𝑌
i) 𝐾!" = 300×10#× 𝜋×0.020×1.12 = 84.2 𝑀𝑁/𝑚$/&
ii) 𝑟# = 1⁄2𝜋 ∗ 84.2⁄500 & = 4.5 𝑚𝑚

iii) 𝐾!" 𝑝𝑙𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝜎' 𝜋 𝑎 + 𝑟( = 300𝑒6(𝜋(24.5𝑒 −

3)& = 93.2 𝑀𝑁/𝑚$/&

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 Application of LEFM: ASTM E399 code
1. From Eq (20), a widely used concept
in fracture mechanics was
established which was known as the
linear elastic fracture mechanics
(LEFM) and it is codified in American
Std of Testing Materials (ASTM) ASTM
E399 and has since been updated
into ASTM E1820.
2. Similar code was developed in the UK
as known as the British Standard (BS)
7448.
3. The basis of LEFM (ASTM E399 and
BS 7448) design approaches were
established through:
i) All materials contain cracks and flaws
ii) The stress intensity value K may be calculated
for the particular loading and crack
configuration.
iii) Failure is predicted if K exceeds the critical
value KIc for the material.
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 Experimental determination of critical
SIF - E399 & BS7448
1. It is now known that the stress
intensity factor, K may be calculated
from a knowledge of the nominal Fig 26
stress and the size, shape and
orientation of the crack.
2. The basis of LEFM is that fast fracture
will occur when K reaches the critical 5. The limiting value of KC is observed in
value for the material.
plane strain (which is the maximum
3. The critical value KC may be constraint condition) – lower bound
determined experimentally from toughness
standardized test on samples of the
6. It is designated KIC and is usually
material.
referred to as the fracture toughness
Effect of size
7. It is important not to confuse KI with
4. It has been found that the value of KIC.
the critical stress intensity factor, KC 8. KI depends on the configuration of
at which unstable crack growth
the system but KIC is a material
occurs under static loading depends property and is independent of the
on the specimen thickness as shown
configuration of the system. 8
in Fig 26.
 Experimental determination of critical
SIF - E399 & BS7448
9. Since KIC is the most conservative
value of fracture toughness for the
material, it is this value which is used
in design calculations.
10. Therefore the standardized test
conditions are carefully chosen to
ensure that it is KIC which is
determined and after testing, checks
are made on the validity of the test
conditions.

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 Experimental determination of critical
SIF - E399 & BS7448
Test methods 17. And this is recorded automatically as
11. The 2 most commonly used test the vertical axis on an X-Y plotter.
methods involve bending or tensile 18. The horizontal axis is obtained from a
loading of the test specimens shown in displacement (clip) gauge attached to
Fig 27. the test piece as shown in Fig 28.
12. The specimens contain a carefully
machined notch which may have a
plane front or a chevron profile.
13. A chevron notch has been found to
keep the crack in-plane and so the
machining operation is not quite so Fig 27
critical as with a plane notch.
14. In order to get a sharp crack, the
machined notch is extended by
applying a cyclically varying force to the
test piece.
15. Typical forms of test are illustrated in Fig 28

Fig 28.
16. The force is measured directly from the
load cell on the testing machine
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 Experimental determination of critical
SIF - E399 & BS7448
19. From the graph, a value of force Fig 28

termed FQ is obtained so that an

interim value of stress intensity factor
KQ may be calculated.
20. If the material is perfectly elastic up
to fracture then the peak force is
taken as FQ.
21. Assuming the material exhibit some
non-linearity as in Fig. 28. then the
procedure for obtaining FQ is to draw 23. The fracture surface is then examined
a line OQ with a slope of 95% of the so that the crack length 𝑎 may be
initial slope of the force- determined as the average of a1, a2
displacement graph. and a3 where a1 and a3 are mid-way
22. The value of force at the point where between the centre-line of the
this line intersects the F-D specimen and its edge as shown in
characteristic is taken as FQ. Fig 29.

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 Experimental determination of critical
SIF - E399 & BS7448
20. The fracture surface is then examined
so that the crack length 𝑎 may be
determined as the average of a1, a2
and a3 where a1 and a3 are mid-way
between the centre-line of the
specimen and its edge as shown in
Fig 29.
Fig 29
21. Using the values of FQ and a thus
obtained, the following equations are
used to calculate KQ:
22. For bending and tension respectively
(38)
23. The values of f1(a/W) and f2(a/W)
depend on the particular geometry.
24. Having thus obtained an interim
value of stress intensity factor KQ,
checks are made that the following
conditions have been satisfied:
25. If these conditions are upheld, the
test is valid and KQ is taken to be KIC.
Otherwise the result must be
discarded.
26. Table 1 shows typical KIC and GIC of
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selected materials
Typical KIc and GIc

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 Example 2
Suppose that an ASTM compact tension specimen is used to measure the fracture toughness of a steel.
The specimen has dimensions W = 40 mm and B = 20 mm. The crack length a was 18.5 mm and the
fracture load was 15kN.
(i) Calculate the fracture toughness of the steel
(ii) If the steel has yield stress of 800 MPa, was this a valid measurement assuming LEFM conditions
applies.
(i)

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 Crack Opening Displacement
1. This method was proposed by
Dugdale (1960) and developed by
Wells (1961).
2. It is based on the fact that owing to
plasticity at the crack tip, the crack
opens in the direction of the applied
stress as shown in Fig.30.
Fig 30
3. The COD test is performed using the
same type of specimen shown in Fig.
27 and the same procedure as
described for determining KIC.
4. The clip gauge measures the sample
opening Vg which is a measure of the
resistance of the material to fracture
initiation.
5. The objective is to determine the
critical crack opening at the onset of
crack extension.
6. A typical test record is shown in
Fig.31 and this indicates how the
plastic component Vp of the clip
gauge displacement is obtained
Fig 31
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 Crack Opening Displacement
7. For this type of characteristic the
critical displacement is taken as the
value corresponding to the maximum
applied force Fc.
8. The clip gauge displacement Vp must
be converted to the crack opening
displacement d using :
(39)
9. And z = thickness of knife edge. We
obtain f1(a/W) from Table 2.
10. A basic requirement of toughness
tests for critical COD is that they
should be carried out at full
thickness.
11. These test do not have to satisfy
criteria related to plane strain
conditions because they seek to
determine a toughness value relevant
to the particular thickness of interest.
12. For application to welded structures
it is necessary for tests to be carried
out on material representing
different regions of the welded joints.
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 Crack Opening Displacement
13. From elastic-plastic analysis of the for both plane stress and plane strain
crack tip region using several situations
simplifying assumptions, the critical
crack tip opening displacement has
been related to the critical values of
fracture toughness.
14. The most commonly used relations
are:

(40)

15. Where l is a constant constraint

factor which theoretical analyses
have shown to be in the range 1-2
and which experimental
measurements have shown to be 1
(unity) 17
 Example 3
Questions Calculate the maximum internal pressure
A pressure vessel has a diameter of 2m to which the vessel could be subjected. E
and a wall thickness of 10 m. During = 207 GN/m2 , sY = 500 MN/m2 , n = 0.3
routine inspection it is discovered that
there is a crack 6.5 mm deep on the Ans : p = 7.8 MN/m2
outside surface of the cylinder. The steel
used in the vessel is known to be tough
and a COD test on a sample gives the
following results:

Sample width, B = 25 mm; Vp = 0.35 mm

Sample depth, W = 50 mm; Fc = 65 kN
Crack length, a = 25 mm; z = 2.5 mm

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 What we learned?
1. Be clear on these terms:
– K = stress intensity factor
– Kc = critical stress intensity factor and
also used for fracture toughness of non-
plane strain size specimen.
– KIc = critical stress intensity factor from
plane strain specimen
– KQ = a measured stress intensity factor
yet to be qualified as a KIc.
– KI = stress intensity factor due to mode
one loading (tension/opening load)
– KII = stress intensity factor due to mode
two loading (shear load)
– KIII = stress intensity factor due to mode
three loading (tearing load)
– Kt = stress concentration factor (related
to stress concentration of discontinuity
in a geometry)
– 2a = length of a crack
– a = half-length of a crack or length of a
crack from the edge of a geometry
– a’= aeff = crack length correction due to
plastic zone consideration following
Irwin
– W = ligament length of a geometry
containing a crack
– B = thickness of specimen containing
a crack also known as t
– r = a measurable distance ahead of a
crack tip
– q = a measurable angle around a
crack tip
– rp = a distance ahead of a crack
enveloped by plastic zone
– s = a measure of stress for a
geometry under a load.
– sapp = an applied stress subjected
through a load on a geometry also
similar to srem or s¥ or sfar.
– sij = is a stress tensor where i and j
can be represented as 1, 2, 3 or x, y,
z. e.g. s11, s12, s22, s33, etc
– Stress tensors are components of
stresses acting on an internal datum
plane can be decomposed into 3
orthogonal components.
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 What we learned?
2. Be clear on these terms: – To ensure a problem is under
– so = sy = yield stress of a within the requirement of LEFM,
material the measurement of B, a must be
– Y = f(a/W) crack calibration or greater then 2.5´(KQ /sy)2, when
KQ = KIc.
geometry correction factor. For
crack in infinite geometry Y = 1.
But for cracks in finite geometry
of semi-infinite geometry, Y
depends on the given equation
or data to calculate the value of
Y.
– LEFM = Linear elastic fracture
mechanics; fracture mechanics
limited to:

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Check out Topical test problems on e-learning at week 11
- You have to do within 45 mins
- You need to submit your solution on power point and
provide a recorded voice to explain your answers to the
questions.

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