I

Morphological Analysis of English Loanverbs in Jordanian

Spoken Arabic: An Explanatory Study of the Mental
Representation of Loanverbs

By
Baha’a Aldin Hasan Mohammad Al-Tibi

Supervisor
Prof. Majed Abdelkarim Al-Quran

A Thesis Submitted in Partial fulfillment of the Requirements

for the Degree of Master in English Language in the
Department of English Language and Literature

Faculty of Graduate Studies at the Hashemite University

Zarqa - Jordan

December 20, 2016

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 III

Dedication

To my late mother

To my beloved father and family

To my great friends

I dedicate this work

Baha’a
 IV

Acknowledgments

First of All, I am thankful to Allah for giving me the power,

determination, and patience throughout the writing process of this thesis.

I would like to express my gratitude to Prof. Majed Al-Quran, my

supervisor, for his helpful comments, attentive guidance and assistance. His
valuable comments and helpful remarks have made this thesis much better.

I am also grateful to Dr. Fathi Migdadi for his valuable comments and
helpful suggestions which definitely improved the quality of this thesis. I am
in debt to Dr. Sabri Al Shboul for his valuable comments, suggestions and
corrections.

Last but not least, I would like to thank Dr. Maisoun Abu-Joudeh for her
continuous support, encouragement and helpful remarks.
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Table of Contents

Topic Page

No.

Dedication………………………………………………………………………. III

Acknowledgment……………………………………………………………….. IV

Table of Contents…………………………...………………………………….. V

List of Phonetic Symbols………………………...…………………………….. VIII

List of Tables…………………………………………………...……………. IX

List of Abbreviations……………………………………………………..……. X

List of Appendixes……………………………………………………..………. XI

Abstract…………………………………………………………........................ XII

Chapter One: Introduction…………………………………………...………. 1

Background…………………………………………………………………….. 1

Statement of the Problem………………………………….………………….. 2

Purpose of the Study……………………………………………………………. 3

Questions of the Study…………………………………………………………. 3

Significance of the Study……………………………………………………….. 4

Methods and Procedures……………………………………………………… 4

Data Collection ……………………………………………………………. 4

Data Analysis………………………………………..…………………………. 4

Chapter Two: Review of Related Literature………………………………. 6

2.1 Theoretical Background………..………………………...………………… 6

Borrowing………………………………………….......……………………….. 6

2.1.1 Causes of Borrowing………………….…………………………………. 6

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2.1.2 Types of Borrowing…………………………………………….………. 7

2.1.2.1 Phonological Borrowing……………………………………………... 7

2.1.2.2 Lexical Borrowing…………………………………………………… 7

2.1.2.3 Syntactic Borrowing …………………………………………………… 8

2.1.3 Adaptive Structure of the Mental Lexicon…….…………………………. 8

2.2 Related Studies…………………………………………………………...… 10

Chapter Three: Findings and Discussion……………………………...…….. 21

3.1 Governing factors………………...………………………………………… 21

3.1.1 Social Factors …………………………………………………………… 21

3.1.2 Meaning Factor………………………………………………………...... 21

3.2 Phonological Similarity…………………………………………………….. 23

3.3 Levels of Integration ……………………………………………...………. 25

3.3.1 Full integration ……………………………………………………..…….. 25

3.3.1.1 Imperfective Verbs …………………………………………………… 26

3.3.1.2 Perfective Verbs………………………………………………………… 28

3.3.1.3 Active Participles ……………………………..……………………….. 29

3.3.1.4 Passive Participles…………………………………………………….. 30

3.3.2 Partial Integration …………………………………………………...……. 31

3.3.3 Verbs with no Integration in JCA.……………………….….……………. 32

3.4 Grammatical categories…………………………………………………… 32

Chapter Four: Conclusion and Recommendations …………………............ 34

Conclusion……………………………………………………………………… 34

Recommendations…………………………………………………………….. 36

References……………………………………………………………………… 37
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Appendixes…………………………………………………………………..…. 40

Arabic Abstract…………………………………………………………….…… 50
 VIII

JCA (IPA) symbols

JCA Consonants:

-The voiced uvular fricative is pronounced often as voiced velar fricative /γ/ in JCA

JCA Vowels:
 IX

List of Tables
Table 1: ELVs meaning groups and their integration in JCA
22
Table 2: Monosyllabic and disyllabic ELVs and their JCA counterparts.
24

Table 3: ELVs with their JCA counterparts with the adapted

25
form
Table 4: Fully integrated ELVs in JCA 26
Table 5: ELVs which were partially integrated and adapted by
31
JCA
Table 6: ELVs which do not correspond to JCA and not integrated to
32
JCA
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List of Abbreviations:

ELV: English Loan Verb.

JCA: Jordanian Colloquial Arabic.

IPA: International Phonic Alphabet.

MSA: Modern Standard Arabic.

CV: Consonants – Vowels

OT: Optimality Theory

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List of Appendixes

Appendix A: English loanverbs in Jordanian Colloquial

40
Arabic

Appendix B: Conjugation of English verbs along with their

41
JCA correspondents
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Abstract
Morphological Analysis of English Loanverbs in Jordanian Spoken
Arabic: An Explanatory Study of the Mental Representation of Loanverbs
By
Bahaa Aldin Hasan Mohammad Al-Tibi
Supervisor
Prof. Majed Abdelkarim Al-Quran
This study investigates the behavior of English loanverbs used in Jordanian colloquial
Arabic. It examines the factors which govern the integration of English Loanverbs (ELV)
within Jordanian colloquial Arabic (JCA). Jordanians often use quite a large number of
English words in general in their everyday life conversations. They use many English
verbs as if they were Arabic words. These verbs are used mainly by all types of layers in
the society.
This thesis helps to create a universal account for the way the mental lexicon
accommodates to loanverbs. It also attempts to explain the reason some English verbs
are accepted in Jordanian colloquial Arabic while others are not although they are used
quite often. It provides a case of study which contributes to the typological studies
regarding loanverbs.
To study the reasons behind English loanverbs behavior once they enter Jordanian
colloquial Arabic, the researcher first collected the data. The data was analyzed and
processed according to their correspondence and consonant-vowel structure. The study
suggests that phonological similarity plays the most significant role in determining the
adaptation of English verbs within Jordanian colloquial Arabic’s system. Thus, common
English verbs in Jordanian colloquial Arabic were aligned with words which have similar
phonological structures.
The study shows that phonological similarity between English verbs and Arabic
words leads to some sort of acceptance in the system of Jordanian colloquial Arabic to
English loanverbs. The adapted words fit various grammatical categories in Jordanian
Arabic such as the perfective, imperfective, active participles, and passive participles.
However, some verbs are adapted with an only limited use like the imperative. Other
verbs are not adapted as verbs; rather, they are adapted as nominalized verbs only.
 1

Chapter one

Introduction

Background

As a result of communication between people who speak different languages,

language contact occurs. Language contact includes some phenomena like: language
convergence, borrowing, and relexification. Language contact causes some linguistic
phenomena like code switching and the creation of pidgin and creoles. Borrowing is quite
different from code-switching, a speaker does not intend to use another variety when
using borrowed words (Holms 2006).
In borrowing, a speaker uses lexical items from another language without intending
to use a different variety. Studying borrowing includes examining its causes, types,
modifications, and effects. Investigating causes of borrowing includes looking for
reasons behind borrowing. So, borrowing occurs for example when a new invention or a
technological device is developed and it spreads out around the world, while other
languages lack a proper name for that particular device (Holms 2006).
Studying types of borrowing is concerned with studying how borrowing may apply
to different linguistic levels. When examining modifications for the borrowed items,
lexical items mostly, most researches investigate what differences and changes happen
for certain borrowed items within the different linguistic levels. Some recent studies
investigate the integration of borrowed items within the linguistic system of the recipient
language.
Different lexical items like nouns, verbs, and adjectives may be borrowed. However,
nouns are the most to be borrowed while verbs are the least. Verbs are a very challenging
category to study when borrowed due to the problems of integration and accommodation
in different languages. Myers-Scotten states (2006:229) “verbs do not transfer cross-
linguistically”. Beeston (1970:115) also states “loanverbs are very rare in Arabic”. Verb
accommodation is defined as the way a word integrates to the system of the recipient
language by means of productivity. Verb accommodation in a recipient language follows
some particular mechanisms like direct insertion, indirect insertion, light verbs strategy,
and paradigm insertion (Wichmann & Wohlgemuth 2004).
Existing studies of typology of verb borrowing take their data from different
languages such as German, English, Russian, and Croatian like Wichmann Wohlgemuth
 2

studies and others. However, the case of English and Arabic is not explored yet. Thus,
this study explores the case of borrowed verbs from English into Jordanian Colloquial
Arabic. It focuses on the factors which govern the amount and mechanism of integration.
Jordanian colloquial Arabic is a variety of Modern Standard Arabic which is used in
The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan by the majority of the population. As a native speaker
in the Jordanian community, the researcher notices that there are some minor local
variations within this variety. However, those differences do not affect people’s
understanding of the language. A person from a northern town can communicate with
another from a southern town. Few words and pronunciations of some words differ
slightly.
Anis Freiha (1981:107) states that people in Arab countries speak different colloquial
varieties in different countries. However, they all understand Modern Standard Arabic
(MSA) and they consider it as the formal and official language. A lot of questions has
been raised regarding how they have been formed and whether they are considered a
whole different variety or not. Some scholars view using these colloquial varieties as a
form of corruption of the standard variety. In general, colloquial varieties are thought of
as lower varieties.
This thesis sheds light on the integration of borrowed lexical items form English into
Jordanian colloquial Arabic. It focuses on the factors which govern the amount of the
integration of the borrowed items in the recipient language’s system. Previous studies
discuss the different strategies of verb accommodation in different languages such as the
case of German, English and others. However, the case of ELVs and JCA is not discussed
in typological studies. Furthermore, the explanation for such behavior of verbs is not
sufficiently targeted except for few studies which will be cited in the next chapter. Thus,
this study attempts to investigate the factors which determine the integration of ELVs
when borrowed to JCA.
Statement of the Problem
People in Jordan use many English verbs in their everyday conversations like save
and download. Some of these verbs are integrated, inflected, and derived in JCA while
some others are not. For example, the English verbs save and share are used in JCA as if
they are JCA verbs: {sayyiv ‫}سيّف‬, {sshayyir ‫}شيّر‬. On the other hand, the English verbs
download, copy, and paste are not used as JCA verbs. This phenomenon needs to be
explained since previous studies in this field have investigated verb borrowing as an
 3

attempt to create a typological data base. Other studies have investigated the common
accommodation patterns of borrowed verbs. However, none of the studies has
investigated enough the reasons of such behavior for borrowed verbs except for few
studies which explained the governing factors of adaptation of loanwords. They study
Classical Arabic rather than a colloquial variety and they are concerned mainly with
borrowed nouns. Furthermore, previous studies have not focused on Arabic language
except for few studies about Egyptian and Hadhrami colloquial Arabic. Those studies
discuses lexical borrowing in general as well as the modifications applied to borrowed
words.
This observation has motivated the researcher to investigate the governing factors for
adaptation of borrowed verbs from English into JCA by determining the similarity
mechanisms that govern this integration. Seemingly, the mental lexicon of JCA is
motivated by other factors rather than the rule application mechanisms. Those factors
include similarity in collaboration with analogy factors which determine the amount of
integration of English verbs when entering JCA.
Purpose of the study
English verbs are used in JCA frequently by Jordanians. Some of them are used as
if they were Arabic original words, while other borrowed verbs are used as nominalized
verbs only. So, the present study is an attempt to explain why English borrowed verbs
behave in such way. It sheds light on the factors which determine the amount of
integration of these verbs within the system of JCA. It also shows how phonological
similarity plays a significant role in determining which English verbs can be integrated
in JCA.
Questions of the Study
This study aims at providing a sufficient account for the integration of the ELVs used
in JCA and the level of integration as well. Thus, the study attempts to answer the
following questions:
1. What are the factors that govern English borrowed verbs integration in JCA?
2. How does phonological and morphological similarity contribute to the borrowed verb
integration?
3. What are the levels of integration for English verbs once they enter JCA?
4. How does the grammatical category in both the donor and the recipient languages
change after the integration of some borrowed verbs?
 4

The researcher assumes that the correspondence theory and the similarity principle
may account for the integration of some verbs. For example, the English verb save is
phonologically similar to an already existing adjective in JCA {‫ غير‬Gheir} which means
‘different’. Since both words have the same number of syllables and have the same
consonant-vowel structure, and the JCA verb for the first person singular imperfective
form is formed as {‫ بغيّر‬baGhayyir}, the Arabic rule of forming the first person singular
imperfective would be applied to the English verb save when used by JCA speakers.
Significance of the Study
This study is expected to contribute to the establishment of a universal account for
the mental representation of verbs when borrowed from one language to another. It
examines the reasons which cause the variation in the amount of integration as well as
the variation in the strategies of integration. The study suggests that phonological
similarity affects the structure of the representation of borrowed verbs in the mental
lexicon of JCA speakers. It adopts particular English verbs as original verbs in JCA. The
study also contributes to the previous attempts to create a typological data base for verbal
borrowing by providing a detailed illustration of a significant case of verbal borrowing
between English and one variety of Arabic (JCA).
Methods and Procedures
In the present study, the researcher uses the scientific method of analysis to overcome
the research problem. The method and procedures followed in the study are illustrated
here.
Data Collection
As a native speaker of JCA, the researcher collected fifty seven English verbs which
are used in JCA frequently. Researcher’s observation method was introduced by
Weinreich (1963). He suggested that through this way, the best data can be obtained by
the observation of a good linguist. This study is not concerned with the attitudes which
different people might have towards the use of ELVs in JCA.
Data Analysis
The study uses the canonical approach in which ELVs are classified according to
whether they correspond to the JCA phonological and morphological patterns. This
approach has been used by Spence 2005 and others and it has been proved to be effective
in studying morphological patterns. The study focuses on explaining how phonological
and morphological similarity effect plays a significant role in determining the integration
 5

with the recipient language. Thus, the collected English verbs are analyzed and processed
according to whether they have JCA correspondent words or not. After that, the words
are put in groups according to the number of syllables they contain. Then, the similarity
between some English verbs and their Arabic correspondent words is illustrated. After
that, the uses and conjugations of the English verbs in JCA are discussed. Also, the
variation in the grammatical categories which occurs in the case of some words is
illustrated as well.
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Chapter Two

Review of Related Literature

2.1 Theoretical Background

This section presents the main studies conducted on verbal borrowing and the
adaptation of loan words in different languages. It also presents the major studies
regarding the adaptive structure of the mental lexicon.

Borrowing

Borrowing refers to “the process of importing linguistic items from one linguistic
system into another, a process that occurs any time two cultures are in contact over a
period of time” Hoffer (2002:1). Borrowing is a common linguistic phenomenon, and
almost all languages contain borrowed items. Items affected by it are called ‘borrowings’,
‘loans’, or ‘transfers’, and the languages involved are frequently labeled, according to
their roles, ‘donor’ and ‘recipient’ (Weinreich 1953).

Languages vary in the amount of borrowed items. For instance, Albanian has
borrowed the majority of its vocabulary from other languages. English is believed to have
borrowed 50% of its vocabulary. In contrast, Native American languages, belonging to
the Athabaskan family, are considered to have borrowed relatively few lexical items.
This variation in the amount of borrowed items could be attributed to historical and
cultural reasons rather than linguistic; since borrowing is never a linguistic necessity
because it is always possible to extend and modify the use of existing items to meet new
communicative needs (Langacker 1973).

2.1.1 Causes of Borrowing

What causes borrowing mainly is the need to find words for new objects, concepts,
and places. To borrow a word is quite easier than to make up a new one (Langacker
1973). An outstanding example is names of the states in USA, Mississippi, Michigan,
Chicago, and Dakota. These names have been borrowed from Indian-American
languages.

Cultural influence may cause borrowing too. Many Arabic words entered English
because of role of Arabs and their contribution in the development of sciences and
civilization. For example, zero, cipher, zenith, alchemy, algebra, alcohol, and tahini are
 7

Arabic words used in English. English has also borrowed so many words from French
during the Norman’s period Langacker (1973:181).

As long as prestige plays a powerful role in determining what kinds of words to be

borrowed and how many words to be borrowed, another question arises; what determines
the choice between adoption and adaptation (Joseph & Hock 2009).

2.1.2 Types of Borrowing

Borrowing may take place in the different linguistic levels (phonology, morphology,
syntax, etc). Lexical items are relatively freely borrowed since the lexicon is simply a list
of independent elements. In contrast, the phonology and syntax of a language consist of
an integrated series of rules (Langacker, 1973).

2.1.2.1 Phonological Borrowing

Phonological borrowing occurs when a language borrows a phonological rule from

another. An example of phonological borrowing is the American Indian languages of the
Pacific Northwest. Many of these languages have glottalized consonants; the percentage
is higher than it is in the languages of the world generally, and yet the languages which
display glottalized consonants are not related. The explanation for that could be that
glottalization spread out in the area through borrowing. Another example is the retroflex
consonants in Indo-European languages of India. It is fairly certain that these sounds
developed in the Indo-European languages as a result of the influence of the Dravidian
languages spoken in India highly employ retroflex consonants (Langacker 1973).

2.1.2.2 Lexical Borrowing

“A very common result of linguistic contact is lexical borrowing, the adoption of

individual words or even of large sets of vocabulary items from another language or
dialect” (Joseph & Hock 2009). Many English words are borrowed from French, such as
rouge (from French), macho (from Spanish), yen 'craving' (from Chinese), or schwa
(from Hebrew via German). Once a word is borrowed, it is not going to be returned back.
The donor language does not actually lose the borrowed word. In addition to that,
borrowed words will not be copied exactly the same way to the borrowing language.
Rather, many changes in the phonological level take place. This process is known as
nativization.
 8

Different languages have different phonological systems; borrowed words would be

difficult to pronounce if not impossible once they are borrowed. Thus, they are nativised.
There are many ways to adjust a borrowed word like to change the pronunciation or to
integrate the word into the structure of the borrowing language. Either way, a
phonological change should take place in order to make the word pronounceable (Joseph
& Hock 2009).
2.1.2.3 Syntactic Borrowing

There has been a concentration on what syntactic borrowing exactly means: whether
it is like other kinds of borrowing, especially lexical. The question is whether it is a true
borrowing or not. The other question is about the conditions which govern such type of
borrowing. Syntactic borrowing could be divided into two types the first is within a
bilingual community and the second is by cultured speakers who have some knowledge
of the lending language. An example of this kind of borrowing is the use of English
adjectival gerunds in Spanish (Pountain 2006).

2.1.3 Adaptive Structure of the Mental Lexicon

A lot of studies have shown that the mental lexicon is a complex network. A lot of
theories and research has been done attempting at providing sufficient account for the
ongoing question of the way lexical items are represented in the mental lexicon. Another
question is about the factors governing the adaptive structure of the mental lexicon. A lot
of studies have shown that there is a relationship between phonological factors and the
way words are represented and perceived in the mental lexicon. Following are some brief
summaries for some of these studies.

McCarthy and Prince’s (1995) proposed in “Faithfulness and Identity in Prosodic

Morphology.” what is called “the correspondence theory”. They defined the
correspondence theory as a mean to comprehend phonological processes within
Optimality Theory. They discussed many issues like: the case of over application. For
example, they discussed the issue of back-copying and prosodic morphology. The study
suggested that reduplication copies the base.

Tamariz, M (2004) argued that the mental lexicon is a mind boggling structure sorted
out as far as phonology, semantics, and linguistic structure, among different levels. In
this sense it is recommend that this structure can be clarified as far as the pressures acting
upon it: each part of the organization of the lexicon is an adjustment last identified with
 9

the capacity of dialect as a device for human correspondence, or to the way that dialect
must be learned by different generations of individuals.

A gathering of strategies, the greater part of which is connected to a Spanish discourse

corpus, uncover structure at various levels of the lexicon. In addition to that, the forms
of intra-word distribution of phonological data might be an outcome of pressures for ideal
representation of the lexicon in the brain, and of the pressure to encourage discourse
segmentation. The study showed evidence of an interference of morphology in
determining the phonological similarity. Vowels play significant role in determining the
grammatical category of the word.

Inkelas (2008) suggested that the connection between morphology and phonology is
stemmed from the fact that morphology is seen to be involving a generalization of the
form and the meaning that connects words to each other, while phonology appears as a
generalization that concerns the sound patterns in a language. In another meaning,
morphology and phonology converge seeing that the announcement of morphological
speculations incorporates data about sound examples (realizational morphology), and
seeing that the announcement of phonological speculations incorporates data about
morphology (morphologically adapted phonology). Another analysis concentrates on co-
occurrence in discourse to make a representation of the lexicon where the position of a
word is controlled by the words that have a tendency to happen in its nearby vicinity.
Varieties of context-based lexical space normally classify words linguistically and
semantically.

2.2 Related Studies

The following section summarizes the major studies related to verbal borrowing.
Many studies discussed verbal borrowing from different perspectives. Some of them
studied verbal borrowing in order to create a typological data-base. They also focused on
the different strategies of accommodation. Some other studies shed light on the
integration of loanwords in general but not loan-verbs in specific.

Noor Bueasa (2015) studied the factors which govern the adaptation of loanwords in
Classical Arabic. The study showed that Classical Arabic has borrowed words from
different languages such as: Greek, Persian, Turkish, and others. The study investigated
both the linguistic and social factors which govern the adaptation of loanwords. The
study suggested that loanwords are adopted at three levels; merely adoption, partial
 10

adoption, and full adoption. The Persian word {khurasaan} which means ‘cement’ is an
example of the merely adoption and is only used in one form. The Persian word
{chatrang} ‘chess’, represents an example of a partial adoption in Classical Arabic as
{shatarandj}. An example of the third and the most productive level is the full adoption.
The Greek {dhrakhmi} ‘a silver coin’ is adopted by Classical Arabic as {dirham}.

The study suggested that the governing factors are divided into linguistic and social.
Linguistic factors include phonological and morphological similarity between the source
language and Classical Arabic. The third level of adoption is the most productive since
the words have similar Classical Arabic CV structure, and can be derived into other
grammatical categories.

The study showed that phonological and morphological similarity have an effect on
the level of integration of a loanword, but it discusses only the case of loan-nouns. Also,
it focused on Classical Arabic rather than a colloquial variety of Arabic.

Bahumaid (2015) investigated English loanwords in Hadhrami Arabic (a variety of

MSA used in Yemen) in terms of linguistic adaption. The study discussed phonological,
morphological, and semantic adaptation of English loanwords. The study aimd at
identifying the English loanwords used in Hadhrami Arabic, and examining the
conditions of this entrance. Moreover, it analyzed the English loanwords in terms of
phonology, morphology, and semantics.

The study shows that nouns take the largest portion of the borrowed words. They
represent 86% of the total number of English loanwords in Hadhrami Arabic. Verbs
(which consist only 10% of the total words), adjectives, and adverbs are the least to be
borrowed since it is complicated to be borrowed from one language to another.

English Loanverbs usage in Hadhrami Arabic is only illustrated along with examples.
The study did not attempt to investigate the governing factors which govern the
adaptation of these verbs.

Al-Quran (2006) investigated Turkish loanwords which have entered JCA during the
Ottoman age. The study aimed to identify Turkish loanwords used in JCA and to analyze
the grammaticalization which loanwords undergo. The study illustrated the major
meaning preferences for loanwords as well as the morphological restructuring within the
new grammaticalization. The study illustrated the borrowability of different grammatical
categories and put them on a scale in which nouns were the most to be borrowed (75%),
 11

adjectives in the second place (25%), and verbs were the least (5%). These results
matched the findings of previous studies conducted for the case of English and Indian.

The study also, concluded that all the borrowed items were free morphemes.
However, they were subject to derivation and inflection processes in JCA. Native JCA
prefixes can be added to form an adjective from the original noun. For example, the
Turkish {zengin} ‘rich’, is restructured in JCA as an adjective through adding the prefix
{m-zengil}. Similar process occurs with Turkish nouns like {tenkit} ‘criticism’. It
undergoes a morphological restructuring and becomes a verb in JCA by adding the prefix
{y-nnekit}.

Finally the study illustrated a limited case in which Turkish verbs are restructured in
JCA as adjectives with a slight change in the meaning. The tukish verb {tanismak} which
means ‘to get acquainted’ is used as an adjective in JCA {mtennish} to refer to someone
who ignores something or someone. The study did not investigate the governing factors
behind the behavior of the few borrowed Turkish verbs.

Søren Wichmann and Jan Wohlgemuth (2005) investigated the structural patterns of
loanverbs. They attempted to come up with generalizations which give account for the
strategies of verb borrowing. The paper presented a classification of the strategies which
speakers of the recipient language will use with loanverbs. They also reflected the
variation in the adaptation strategy to the structure of the recipient language. They
mentioned examples about the case of Lebanese Arabic taking verbs from French (Abou
1962). Another example was the case of Moroccan Arabic borrowing verbs from Spanish
and Dutch (Boumans 1998). The data was collected from previous language contact
research, personal communication and descriptions of individual languages. The results
of the study showed that there were four major strategies for borrowing verbs; the light
verb strategy, indirect insertion, direct insertion, and paradigm transfer.
The first strategy is about light verbs which refer to verbs like ““do” or “make”’ or
verbs of a similarly broad referential scope”. This strategy involves a verb meaning “to
do” for the integration, and they call it “do-strategy”. The following example is about the
case of Turkish <French:

“Turkish verbal borrowings from French are nominalized by means of source-

language devices before they enter into the target language’s ‘do’-construction.
(3) TURKISH < FRENCH
 12

isole etmek
isolated do/make
‘to isolate, insulate’ [Fr. isolé] (Lewis 1967:154, via Dan Slobin, p.c.)”

The second strategy is the indirect insertion which refers to the fact that in many
languages an affix is required to accommodate loanverbs and the normal inflections of
verbs in the target language can be applied once the affix is added.

Example: “MANANGE [Tibeto-Burman] < NEPALI [Indo-Aryan]

bolai-ti 1mi ro
call-LV EVID REP
‘He called (for the frog)’ [Nep. bolai] (Kristine Hildebrandt, p.c., from field
notes).”

The third strategy refers to “a process whereby the loan verb is plugged directly into
the grammar of the target language with no morphological or syntactic accommodation.”
Example: “(16) FIGUIG BERBER [Berber] < FRENCH
a. i-gõfla
3SG.M-be.swollen/PFV
‘he is swollen up.’ [Fr. gonfler ‘to swell’] (Maarten Kossmann, p.c.)
b. tt-gõnfli-x
IMPFV-be.swollen-1SG
‘I am swelling up.’ (Maarten Kossmann, p.c.)”

The fourth strategy in which the loan verb is not adapted to the recipient language’s
morphology at all but is borrowed along with significant parts of the donor language’s
verbal morphology which maintains its function rarely occurred.
Example: ROMANI (AGIA VARVARA) < TURKISH
and o sxoljo ka siklos te okursun ta te jazarsun
in ART school FUT learn.2 COMP read.2SG and COMP write.2SG
‘at school you will learn how to read and write’ (Bakker 2005:9) [Tur. okumak ‘to
read’, yazmak ‘to write’]
The study illustrated the strategies in which borrowed verbs are accommodated
within the system of the recipient language. The study did not discuss the reasons which
govern the application of these strategies. However, the second strategy mentioned in the
results is applied most to the case of English and JCA.
 13

Moh’d Nour Abu Guba (2016) is currently working on a PhD dissertation in the
university of Leeds. UK, entitled “Gemination in English Loanwords in Jordanian
Arabic”. His study attempts to explain why some English loanwords are adapted into JA
with geminate consonants. The research tries to find out why words like 'Toyota',
'balloon', and 'ace' are adapted into Arabic with geminate consonants while other words
like 'million', 'dollar' and 'chiffon' are rendered with single consonants. The study
employs Optimality Theory (OT) as an attempt to identify the constraints that account
for the geminating of English loanwords in JA. The data includes more than 3000
English loanwords collected from many oral and written resources. The items are
transcribed and analyzed phonetically as they are pronounced by Arab native speakers in
Jordan. Then the words are categorized into two types according to the constraints that
govern them.

The second list is further subdivided into two sets. The first includes geminated
words in order to satisfy an “undominated constraint in Arabic, namely bimoracity,
which stipulates that the minimal lexical Arabic word be bimoraic. For example, words
like “boss, full, and nag” are pronounced with a geminate final consonant although none
of them is geminated in the source language". Gemination in the second list of words can
be accounted for by an interaction of constraints namely, Onset, Stress-to-Weight
Principle and Foot Binarity For example, ‘l’ and ‘t’ in ‘balloon’ and ‘battery respectively
are geminated in Jordanian Arabic to satisfy both Foot Binarity and Stress-to-Weight
Principle"
In his study, he suggests a new constrain which discusses consonant gemination in
both loanwords and native Arabic words as well.

As the summary of the incomplete study shows, it deals with gemination of

loanwords in JCA from a phonological perspective. However, it is not concerned with
the behavior of English loan-verbs.

El-KhaliL (1983) analyzed English loanwords in Jordanian written Arabic at the

phonological, morphological, syntactic and semantic levels. The data was collected from
sixty issues of two daily Jordanian newspapers: Al-Ra'I and Al-Dostour, along the period
of three years. Then the loan words were collected, classified, transcribed and analyzed,
and compared to Arabic forms. He attempted to identify the reasons and the causes of
English to Arabic borrowing as well as to provide a linguistic analysis for them. The
 14

findings showed that loanwords occurred in the following areas: modern innovations,
food (sandwich/ sandwish, sports (football), professions, sciences, and medicine (vitamin
/ fitami:n).

He also attempted to figure out the effects of these words on Arabic language at the
phonological, morphological and semantic levels. He maintained that loanwords are
rarely used in written Arabic in Jordan because of the tendency for Arab scholars to
purify the language from any foreign new words. Verbal borrowing, in contrast, is very
limited to few uses in spoken language.

Mohamed Galal (2004) discussed the case of Cairene Arabic (Egyptian Arabic) in an
attempt to explain why CA elects epenthesis as a strategy of adapting loanwords. The
study used the optimality theory framework developed by McCarthy and Prince (1993).
The data was collected from previous studies, as well as from reviews with native
speakers, and all the items were taken from CA (Afro-Asiatic, Semitic). The paper was
divided into two main sections: data section which presented and described the items
under study (Arabic: .firizar → English: freezer) (bustiman → postman). The analysis
section analyzed the data and discussed the constraints for vocalic epenthesis in terms of
three main points: "1. the constraints responsible for vowel epenthesis in general, i.e.
epenthesis vs. deletion as a strategy opted for by CA; 2. Different positions of epenthetic
vowel in terms of OT constraints (isbiit → speech); 3. The factors accounting for the
quality of the epenthetic vowels, particularly why some vowels are selected for the
purpose of epenthesis rather than others (istub → stop, kilash → clash, furuut → fruit".

The study concluded that OT theory accounts for loanword phonological adaptation
strategies, proving the struggle between faithfulness and markedness. It showed how
constraints conspire to adapt the loanword into the phonotactics of the borrowing
language; thus, providing further evidence to the validity of the universality of this
theory. As noticed from the results, the study focused on only the application of the
optimality theory to loanwords in general but not verbs in specific.

Al-Qinai (2000) studied the morpho-phonemics of loanwords in Arabic. The study

concluded two main types of modifications. The first type included words which have
undergone through modifications to adapt with the Arabic phonological rules. The
second set of loanwords were undergone through modifications but without a clear
reason; just to “give a flavor of Arabic sounds and morphological patterns.”
 15

Shiyyab (2008) aimed at determining the strategies used in translation of English

literary terms into Arabic. Data was collected through a questionnaire which included the
English items in addition to various Arabic equivalents. The Arabic items were taken
from Arabic dictionaries, books and encyclopedias. Then the respondents were asked to
choose the most suitable Arabic equivalent, and to suggest any other Arabic translation
for the English expressions. The results revealed that English terms had multiple Arabic
equivalents due to the large number of synonyms in Arabic language like: bus n → ‫باص‬
‫اوتوبيس‬/ ‫حافلة‬/. Additionally, it was shown that the respondents used many strategies to
find the corresponding Arabic term including loanwords in which the borrowed item
follows the Arabic inflection such as cancel → ‫كنسل‬, save →,‫ سيّف‬loan translations,
coinages, paraphrasing and transliterations. The study did not investigate the determining
factors which govern the integration of the loanverbs.

Melhem (2011) aimed in his study of borrowing in Jordanian Arabic at investigating

dialect borrowing in Jordanian Arabic in Irbid city. Dialect borrowing refers to the
process in which a dialect borrows lexical items from another similar one rather than a
different language. It also aimed at finding student's attitudes toward this phenomenon
and finding out the motivations and factors that affect this phenomenon. The results
revealed that borrowing affects all levels of language (phonological, morphological,
syntactic, and lexical), and that Jordanian Arabic had incorporated new features. The
results also showed that this borrowing was motivated by national identity and
demographic diversity. Melhem’s study did not show any significant results regarding
English loanverbs or the reason of the changes and modifications which occur to the
borrowed words.

Islam (2011) studied loan words in Urdu which came from Arabic, Persian and
English. For example a single Urdu word, e.g. laɪlmi ‘unawareness’ can be broken into
three morphemes, i.e. the Arabic prefix la ‘un’, Arabic stem ɪlm ‘knowledge/awareness’
and native Urdu suffix -i. Arabic and Persian loanwords are older than English
loanwords, so they are treated like Urdu native words. The study used a descriptive
approach and dealt with the characteristics of the morphological structures of Arabic,
Persian and English. The focus of the study was on gender, number and case morphology,
and derivation by affixation and by compounding. The study did not discuss the reasons
which govern the integration of the loan words which leads to the possibility of
affixation.
 16

McManus, H. E. (2008) investigated the adaptation of English words in Australian

Aboriginal languages (Martu Wangka, Gamilaraay and Warlpiri languages). The study
was based on Jennifer L. Smith’s approach, source similarity model of loanwords
adaptation. However, the study focused on the phonological similarities and
modifications rather than the morphological ones.

Mwita (2008) conducted a constraint based study to show the processes of adapting
a loan word into Kiswahili. The study was concerned with OT and in the strategies that
Kiswahili used to repair the nonconforming syllables of the borrowed words are:

(a) Vowel epenthesis like stempu /stɛ.mpu/ “stamp’ sulta:n → sultani/ ibri:q ‘kettle’
→ / bi.ri.ka/

(b) consonant deletion ammar → amiri /a.mi.ri/ ‘begin’

(c) cluster tolerance unwan → anwani /a.nwa.ni/ ‘address’ amr → amri /am.ri/
‘command

(d) feature change waqf →/q/ → [k] wakfu /wak.fu/ ‘religious endowment’ ibri:q
→ birika /bi.ri.ka/ ‘kettle’

The study showed that Kiswahili has two main epenthetic vowels, /i/ and /u/, which
seem to be contextually predictable. Loanwords have forced Kiswahili to take closed
syllables so as not to violate the sonority hierarchy within the syllable. As the results of
the study show, it did not discuss integration in the morphological level. It only described
the integration of loanwords in general and only regarding phonological aspects.

Akidah (2013) conducted a study entitled 'Phonological and Semantic Change in

Language Borrowing: The Case of Arabic words Borrowed into Kiswahili'. The study
aimed at investigating the various phonological and semantic changes that take place in
Arabic words borrowed into Kiswahili. Data was extracted from the Kiswahili dictionary
Kamusi ya Karne ya 21, and all lexical items were divided into various categories. The
study discussed the sound system of both Kiswahili and Arabic. The analysis revealed
that Kiswahili includes many words of Arabic origins as a result of borrowing processes.
Arabic words go through various phonological and semantic processes as they get
absorbed into the Kiswahili lexicon. The study concluded that phonological adaptation
processes of Swahili loans from Arabic involved:
 17

1. Vowel and consonant epenthesis (i.e. Inserting a phoneme (either vowel or

consonant) in a word to break the consonant cluster system to meet the
phonotactic constraints of a recipient language). For example:

Arabic word: ‫[علم‬ʕ i l m] CVCC →Kiswahili word: [ε l i m u] VCVCV [m a w

t] CVCC → [m a u t i] VCVCV

2. Consonant deletion: [ʕamm] →[ami] ‘paternal uncle’

3. Vowel shortening: [kitaːb] →[kitabu] ‘book’
4. Consonant and vowel substitution: [qaːnuːn] → [kanuni] ‘rule’
5. Vowel lowering [ʕilm] → [εlimu] ‘knowledge’/ [ħisaːb] → [hεsabu]
‘accounting’

Moreover, the study showed that Arabic lexical items go through semantic changes
such as semantic broadening: [qaːʔim] person in acting capacity → [kaimu] 1. person in
acting position 2. Person with power of sorcery. [daradʒa] degree, grade, level, step
[daraja] 1. Level 2. Bridge Narrowing like: [ʔaːja] verse, sign, mark, miracle → [aya]
verse, paragraph.

Shift like: [taːdʒir] ‘merchant’, ‘businessman’ → [tajiri] ‘rich person’, ‘employer’.

Akidah’s study concluded in that there are a lot of changes that occur to Arabic
borrowed words into Kiswahili. However, the changes are in the phonological and the
semantic levels. The problem of verbs and their integration was not addressed.

Baker and Brew (2008) mentioned that languages contain problematic words not
included in dictionaries. These words come from different sources and they might be
proper names, jargons, or borrowed words. The study suggested that such words cannot
be neglected and worth more investigation. The study examined the case of English
loanwords in Korean. However, verbs were not studied in particular and neither the
integration of loanwords.

Kenstowicz (2006) reviewed the results of a study of an 800 word corpus of

loanwords from English into Yoruba and considered their relevance for models of
loanword adaptation. The focus was on the tonal correspondences between the voiceless
aspirated, voiceless unaspirated and voiced stops of the two languages. The adaptation
in this study was in the phonological level. The morphological adaptation was not
addressed in this study.
 18

Więcławska-Szymańska (2009) claimed in his study that adopting loan-terms is a

patterned process. The claim was based on a semantics analysis of loan terms from a
simple legal English text that has been adopted by Polish. The result was that lexical
borrowing appeared within the different linguistic levels (morphological or lexical). It
says: “The more recent the borrowing is the fewer graphic and morphological adaptations
it underwent. The reasons for it may be twofold. Firstly, new loan terms need time to be
well adapted to the recipient language. Secondly, it is due to the language specifics.
Legalese is a language used by educated people, which excludes changes resulting from
the lack of knowledge of the source language.” (Więcławska-Szymańska 2009:P.49).

The study did not include any further details on the integration of the verbs when
borrowed from one language to another. Only the semantic effect is discussed but not the
phonological similarity and its effect on the integration of verbs.

Jennifer L. Smith (2009) suggested in her study that there is a correspondence

relation between the loan words and the mental representation in the recipient language.
She used Correspondence Theory proposed by McCarthy and Prince (1995) to prove that
it gives an account to multiple phonological adaptation strategies. She used the acronyms
LAW, Ls and Lb as follows: (LAW: Loan Word Adaptation), (Ls: Source Language) and
(Lb: Borrowing Language). She suggested that “LAW” cannot be attributed to the Lb-
internal phonological grammar alone. Certainly, Lb constraints are involved in LWA.
Loanwords are typically adapted to comply with certain Lb phonotactic restrictions.”

The study presented the “Orthographic influence and loanword-specific

adaptation strategies in Japanese”. She explains the epenthesis in Japanese loanwords
works out:

Example: Epenthesis in Japanese loanwords (Arakawa, 1977; Smith, 2006b)

ɡɯ.ɾi.se.ɾiɴ < English [ɡl]ycerine

po.ket.to pocke[t]

dʒit.taː.baɡ.ɡɯ jitterbu[ɡ]

The study did not discuss the morphological integration or borrowed verbs in
particular. It just focused on the phonological adaptation strategies not the
morphological.
 19

Esme Winter-Froemel (2008) discussed how loanwords integration can be classified

and described. The study discussed the case of European languages (English, Spanish,
German and Italian). The main purpose of the study was to make a distinction between
conformities in both the source and the target languages. The study presented the notion
of loanwords integration and gave an example to show the change in pronunciation,
spelling and morphology.
English. Ski>Span.esqui (DLE, MOL)\
Fr. Bechamel> Ital. besciamella (DO, ZI)
Engl.. meeting [‘mi:ting]>Fr. Meeting [mi’ting]
In the case of French> Italian, many changes occurred, the {ch} is replaced by {sci}
and the word final {-a}. The study then defines loanword integration as: “designed
processes by which a borrowed word is changed from the SL form in order to obtain
structures that conform to the TL.” After that, Winter-Formal suggested a distinction for
foreign words based on the conformity based on both SL form and TL system. Many
examples ware mentioned to explain the characteristics of this conformity.
Finally, the study concluded that there are still many problematic issues in studying
linguistic borrowing and loanwords integration. For example, Haugen’s distinction of
importation and substitution and it did not account for particular kinds of integration of
loanwords especially verbs.
The results of the previously discussed studies showed that borrowing is a very
common phenomenon among languages. Some studies concluded that loanwords
undergo through phonological and morphological modifications and restructuring. The
studies also showed that verbs are the least to be borrowed cross-linguistically.
Typological studies showed how loanverbs were adopted in recipient languages through
variety of strategies. Some studies examined the governing factors which govern the
adoption and the adaptation of loanwords in general. The studies examined borrowing in
different languages belonging to different language families. Borrowed words in
Classical Arabic and some colloquial varieties of it were examined in some studies. They
shed light on different areas related to borrowing. Some of them discussed the reasons
and causes of borrowing while some others examined the morphological restructuring of
the borrowed items in the recipient language.
However, none of the studies examined the governing factors which determine the
adaptation of ELVs in JCA in specific. Thus, this study adds to the previous research by
 20

providing a case study for ELVs which are used in JCA. It also adds to previous studies
which had already examined the governing factors of the adaptation of loanwords with
more focus on verbs and a colloquial variety of Arabic.
 21

Chapter Three
Findings and Discussion
The findings of this study are classified into four main sub-sections, each of which
addresses one of the research four questions. In the first section, factors which affect the
integration of ELVs are examined. In the second section, phonological and
morphological similarity effect is examined. The third section illustrates the different
levels of integration of ELVs in JCA derivational and inflectional systems. The fourth
and final section examines special cases regarding some changes in the grammatical
category.
3.1 Governing Factors
Many factors might be relevant when it comes to investigating the adaptation of
loanwords in recipient languages. Those factors include variety of linguistic, and social
factors. This study is concerned with linguistic factors since the results of the study
showed that they play the most significant role in determining which ELVs are adpted
by JCA.
3.1.1 Social Factors
Previous studies have shown that different linguistic factors may govern the
integration of loanwords when borrowed from one language to another. Some studies
have examined the effect of social factors. Social factors include the different attitudes
that speakers might have towards the use of loanwords in recipient languages. However,
the scope of the study is limited to the canonical patterns which govern the integration of
ELVs in JCA.
3.1.2 Meaning Factor
The analysis of the collected data showed that the semantic factor does not play a
significant role in determining the amount of integration for ELVs in JCA. The
distribution of ELV in meaning groups do not show significant role in determining
whether the ELVs are accepted and integrated within the JCA morphological system.
The table below presents ELVs classified according to their meaning groups in JCA.
 22

Table (1): ELVs meaning groups and their integration in JCA

ELVs related to ELVs related to everyday life
computer and conversations
technology
Integrated Not Integrated Partially Not
in JCA as integrated in JCA as a integrated in integrated
a verb in JCA as verb JCA as a verb in JCA as
a verb a verb
1 share like finish miss order
2 film zoom film relax polish
3 chat post cash enjoy present
4 block cover full stop overhaul
5 cash add freeze shoot (soccer)
6 save attach visa love
7 format copy double
8 message past filter
9 cancel comment center
10 visa follow
11 delete remove
12 configure reply
13 activate report
14 fabricate switch
15 test deactivate
16 hack install
17 uninstall
18 download
19 setup
20 select
21 update

Table (1) shows fifty six ELVs used in JCA classified into two main groups according
the contexts they are used in JCA. The first group includes ELVs which are used in JCA
 23

in the context of computers and technology. This group is divided into two sub-groups
according to their integration in JCA. The second main group includes ELVs used In
JCA in other general everyday life contexts. The second main group is divided into three
sub-groups according to their integration in JCA.
ELVs in JCA might have some variations and uses in English; but, the majority of
them are adapted into JCA in the context of computer and information technology
context. Only 19 English verbs related to everyday life language were borrowed to JCA
compared to 38 verbs related to computer and technology. Thus, it can be inferred that
the meaning factor contributes to the borrowing of English verbs to JCA. However, the
meaning group did not affect the level of integration of ELVs in JCA.
These results support the findings of previous studies like El-KhaliL (1983) and
others in which that words (including verbs) related to technological advances are more
subject to borrowing. They also show that the meaning factor does play a significant role
in determining the integration of borrowed verbs within the recipient language’s
morphological and phonological systems.

3.2 Phonological Similarity

As previously mentioned in chapter one, ELVs which correspond to the JCA
phonology tend to be adapted by JCA morphological system. The analysis of ELVs in
JCA showed that ELVs with a similar phonological and morphological structure were
adapted by the mental lexicon of JCA. Table (2) presents seventeen fully adapted
monosyllabic and disyllabic ELVs which phonologically correspond to JCA words. As
the table shows, the CV sequence of ELVs correspond to that of their JCA counterparts.
Sharing a similar vowel along with a similar CV pattern lead to the adaptation of ELVs
in JCA, while the consonants themselves do not affect the adaptation process. Thus, it
can be inferred that having the same CV pattern is not enough to adapt an ELV by JCA.
The vowel should also be similar (or the same). It can also be inferred that the JCA words
does not have to be a JCA verb; it could rather be a noun or an adjective. The results were
similar to Bueasa (2015) results in that canonically, words which conform to Classical
Arabic phonological rules tent to be fully adapted by the Classical Arabic morphological
rules.
 24

Table (2): Monosyllabic and disyllabic ELVs and their JCA counterparts.
English Verb Transcription Arabic correspondent Transcription
share /ʃeɪr/ ‫ غير‬gheir ‘different’ /γeɪr/
1 save /seɪv/ ‫ سير‬seir ‘traffic’ /seɪr/
cvc cvc cvc cvc

film /fɪlm/ ‫ع علم‬ilm ‘knowledge’ /ʕɪlm/

2 cvcc cvcc cvcc cvcc
chat /tʃæt/ ‫ فات‬faat ‘he entered’ /fæt/
3 cash /kæʃ/ ‫ مات‬maat ‘he died’ /mæt/
cvc cvc cvc cvc

4 full /fʊl/ ‫سم‬

ُ sum ‘poison’ /sʊm/
cvc cvc cvc cvc
5 freeze /fri:z/ ‫ برييز‬briiz ‘electric plug’ /bri:z/
ccvc ccvc ccvc ccvc
6 test /tɛst/ ‫‘ زفت‬asphalt or very /zɪft/
cvcc cvcc bad’
7 format /fɔr.mæt/ ‫‘ لوحات‬paintings’ /lɔ.ħæt/
cvc.cvc
cvc.cvc lohaat c v c . c v c cvc.cvc
8 message /mæ.sɪdʒ/ ‫‘ لحن‬rhythm’ /læ.ħɪn/
cvc.cvc
cvc.cvc lahin c v c . c v c cv.cvc
9 cancel /kæn.sɪl/ ‫‘ ساكن‬he lives’ /sæk.kɪn/
cvc.cvc
cvc.cvc saakin c v c c v c cvc.cvc
10 visa /vi:zæ/ ‫‘ نيلة‬indigo’ /ni:læ/

cv.cv cv.cv niila c v c v cv.cv

11 double /dʌ.bəl/ ‫‘ قبل‬before’ /qʌ.bɪl/
cv.cvc
cv.cvc qabil c v c v c cv.cvc
12 delete /dɪ.li:t/ ‫‘ ببيع‬he sells’ /bɪ.bi:ʕ/
cv.cvc
cv.cvc bibiiʕ c v c v c cv.cvc
13 finish /fɪ.nɪʃ/ ‫‘ وسخ‬dirty’ /wɪ.sɪx/
cv.cvc
cv.cvc wisikh c v c v c cv.cvc
14 filter /fɪl.tər/ ‫‘ د ْره ْم‬coin’ c v c . c v /dɪr.həm/
cvc.cvc dirham cvc.cvc
cvc.cvc
15 center /sɪn.tər/
cvc.cvc
cvccvc
 25

Table (3): ELVs with their JCA counterparts with the adapted form

English Verb Adapted Form Arabic Correspondent word

1 configure / kən.fɪ.ɡər/ config /kən.fɪɡ/ ‫‘ يُنذر‬he warns’

/jʊn.ðɪr/

2 activate /ak.tɪ.veɪt/ active /ak.tɪv/ ‫‘ جاهز‬he is ready’

/dʒa.hɪz/

3 fabricate /fæb.rɪ.keɪt/ fabric /fæb.rɪk/ ‫‘ جاهز‬he is ready’

/dʒæ.hɪz/

4 hack /hæk/ hacker /hæ.kər/ ‫‘ سافر‬he traveled’

/sæ.fær/

Table (3) shows four ELVs which are fully adapted by JCA. ELVs presented above
do not correspond to the phonological and CV structure of their JCA counterparts. Their
adjective and noun forms correspond to the phonological and CV structure of their JCA
counterparts. The results above showed that an ELV might undergo through derivational
processes to correspond to phonology and CV structure of JCA.

3.3 Levels of Integration

ELVs were divided into three main groups in terms of their adaptation by JCA. The
first group consisted of 21 ELVs. The second contained 6 ELVs which are partially
integrated and used in limited cases in JCA. The third group included 25 ELVs which
were not adapted by JCA as verbs.
3.3.1 Full Integration
As mentioned in the literature review section (Søren Wichmann and Jan Wohlgemuth
(2005), ELVs followed the strategy of accommodation with affixation. Twenty one ELVs
have shown a full integration in JCA, and they are used by JCA speakers quite often in
their everyday life conversations. The English verbs in this category are used exactly like
JCA verbs and fully conjugated in JCA. JCA conjugation includes the perfective and the
imperfective forms of the verb, the active, and the passive participles. These forms are
 26

conjugated with different subject pronouns in Arabic. Unlike MSA, JCA has nine subject
pronouns; the first person singular and plural, second person singular masculine and
feminine, plural, third person singular masculine and feminine, and plural. English verbs
conjugation with JCA subject pronouns is illustrated before.
Table (4) below illustrates ELVs which are fully adapted and integrated in JCA
Table (4): Fully integrated ELVs in JCA
NO ELV Transcription NO ELV Transcription
1 share /ʃeɪr/ 18 configure / kən.fɪ.ɡər/

2 save /seɪv/ 19 activate /ak.tɪ.veɪt/

3 film /fɪlm/ 20 fabricate /fæb.rɪ.keɪt/

4 chat /tʃæt/ 21 hack /hæk/

5 cash /kæʃ/
6 full /fʊl/

7 freeze /fri:z/

8 test /tɛst/

9 format /fɔr.mæt/

10 message /mæ.sɪdʒ/

11 cancel /kæn.sɪl/

12 visa /vi:zæ/

13 double /dʌ.bəl/

14 delete /dɪ.li:t/

15 finish /fɪ.nɪʃ/

16 filter /fɪl.tər/

17 center /sɪn.tər/

3.3.1.1 Imperfective Verbs

In JCA, both present simple and the future simple are expressed by using the
imperfective form. The imperfective is formed by adding the prefix {ba-} to the root with
the first person singular like {ba-Ghayyir} ‘I change’, and by adding {bin-} with the first
 27

person plural like {bin-Ghayyir} ‘we change’. For the second person singular and plural
both masculine and feminine, the prefix {bit-} is added, and the suffix {-ii} for the
feminine like in {bit-Ghayrr-ii} ’you (feminine) change’. The suffix {-oo} is added to
the second person plural like {bit-Ghayr-oo} ‘you plural change’. The third person
singular masculine is formed by adding the prefix {bi-} like {bi-Ghayyir} ‘he changes’,
and for the singular feminine, like the second person masculine by adding {bit-} {bit-
Ghayyyir} ‘she changes’. The third person plural is usually formed by adding the prefix
{bi-} and the suffix {-oo} {bi-Ghayr-oo} ‘they change’. However, there is another form
for third person feminine used among some JCA speakers. It is formed by adding the
prefix {bi-} and the suffix {-in} like in {bi-Ghayr-in} ‘they (feminine) change’.
The following example shows how the JCA conjugation completely applies to the
one-syllable English verb save since it has an Arabic correspondent {Gheir} which
means ‘different’
1st person
Singular {ana}
{ba-Ghayyir} /bæ.γæj.jɪr/ {ba-sayyiv} /bæ.sæj.jɪv/
[I change] [I save]
Plural {eHnaa}
{bin-Ghayyir} /bɪn.γæj.jɪr/ {bin-sayyiv} /bɪn.sæj.jɪv/
[We change] [We save]
2nd person
Singular masculine {enta}
{bit-Ghayyir} /bɪt.γæj.jɪr/ {bit-sayyiv} /bɪt.sæj.jɪv/
[You (singular masculine) change] [You (singular masculine) save]
Singular feminine {entii}
{bit-Ghayr-ii} /bɪt.γæj.ri:/ {bit-sayv-ii} /bɪt.sæj.vi:/
[You (singular feminine) change] [You (singular feminine) save]
Plural {entoo}
{bit-Ghayr-oo} /bɪt.γæj.ru:/ {bit-sayv-oo} / bɪt.sæj.vu:/
[You (plural) change] [You (plural) save]
3rd per
Singular masculine {howwa}
{bi-Ghayyir} /bɪ.γæj.jɪr/ {bi-sayyiv} /bɪ.sæj.jɪv/
 28

[He changes] [He saves]

Singular feminine {heyyii}
{bit-Ghayyir} /bɪt.γæj.jɪr/ {bit-sayyiv} /bɪt.sæj.jɪv/
[She changes] [She saves]
Plural {hommi}
{bi-Ghayr-oo} /bɪ.γæj.ru:/ {bi-sayv-oo} /bɪ.sæj.vu:/
[They change] [They save]
Plural {hinni}
{bi-Ghayr-in} /bɪ.γæj.rɪn/ {bi-sayv-in} /bɪ.sæj.vɪn/
[They (feminine) change] [They (feminine) save]

3.3.1.2 Perfective Verbs

Past simple tense is expressed by using the perfective form of the verb. The perfective
is formed by deleting the prefix {ba-} from the imperfective form of the first person
singular, and by adding the suffix {-t} like {ba-Ghayyir} ‘I change’ becomes {Ghayyar-
it} ‘I changed’. With the first person plural, the prefix {bin-} is taken off and the suffix
{-na} is added like in {bin-Ghayyir} ‘we change’ and {Ghayyar-na} ‘we changed’. The
second person singular masculine is formed by adding the suffix {-t} which is the same
as the first person singular. The second person singular feminine is formed by adding the
suffix {-ii} like in {Ghayyart-ii} ‘you (feminine) changed’. The second person plural is
formed by adding the suffix {-too} like in {Ghayyar-too} ‘you (plural) changed’. For the
third person singular masculine, no affixes are added. The third person singular feminine
is formed by adding the suffix {-at} like {Ghayyar-at} ‘she changed’. Finally, for the
third person both masculine and feminine, the suffix {-oo} like in {Ghayyar-oo} ‘they
changed’ and the suffix {-in} for the feminine form as in {Ghayyar-in} ‘they (feminine
changed’.
The following example shows an English verb finish, and how it is totally integrated
with the JCA system. The reason for this integration, is believed to be that the ELV
corresponds to the phonological and CV structure of a JCA word {wisiKh }, ‘dirty or not
clean’.
1st per
Sing {ana}
{wassaKh-it} /wæs.sæ.xɪt/ {fannash-it} /fæn.næ.ʃɪt/
 29

[I made something dirty] [I finished \ ended something]

Plur {eHnaa}
{wassaKh-naa} /wæs.sæx.næ/ {fannash-naa} /fæn.næʃ.næ/
[We made something dirty] [We finished]
2nd per
Sing masc {enta}
{wassaKh-it} /wæs.sæ.xɪt/ {fannash-it} /fæn.næ.ʃɪt/
[You (sing masc) made something dirty] [You (sing masc) finished]
Sing fem {entii}
{wassaKh-tii} /wæs.sæ.xti:/ {fannash-tii} /fæn.næ.ʃti:/
[You (sing. fem) mad something dirty] [You (sing fem) finished]
Plur {entoo}
{wassaKh-too } /wæs.sæx.tu:/ {fannash-too} /fæn.næʃ.tu:/
[You (plural) made something dirty] [You (plural) finished]
3rd per
Sing masc {howwa}
{wassaKh } /wæs.sæx/ {fannash} /fæn.næʃ/
[He made something dirty] [He finished]
Sing fem {heyyii}
{wassaKh-at} /wæs.sæ.xæt/ {fannash-at} /fæn.næ.ʃæt/
[She made something dirty] [She finished]
Plur {hommi}
{wassaKh-oo} /wæs.sæ.xu:/ {fannash-oo} /fæn.næ.ʃu:/
[They made something dirty] [They finished]
Plur {hinni}
{wassaKh-in} /wæs.sæ.xɪn/ {fannash-in} /fæn.næ.ʃɪn/
[They (feminine) made something dirty] [They (feminine) finished]
3.3.1.3 Active Participles
Active participles are considered adjectives which are derived from verbs. They are
also used often as nouns in Arabic (subjective noun), {ism faae’l \ ‫} إسم فاعل‬. They refer
to the person who does an action. The active participle is formed for the first person
singular masculine by adding the prefix {m-} and the infix {-i-} before the last letter as
in {m-Ghayy-i-r} ‘I (masculine) change (subjective noun)’. The feminine is formed by
 30

adding the suffix {-a or -eh} like in {m-Ghayr-eh} or {m-Ghayr-a} ‘I (feminine)

change’. The same affixation is applied for the second and third person singular
masculine and feminine as well. For the first person plural, the same prefix {m-} is added
and the suffix {-iin} like in {m-Ghayr-iin} ‘we change’. The second and the third person
plural is the same as the first person plural except for the third person plural feminine,
the suffix {-iin} is replaced by the suffix {-aat} like in {m-Ghayr-aat} ‘they (feminine)
change’.
The following is an example of an ELV which is widely used among JCA speakers.
The English verb format has the same template the plural noun in JCA {lowHaat}
‘paintings’, and that explains the full integration of the verb. The ELV here is integrated
and the active participle form (along with other previously mention forms in JCA) is
derived as if it is a regular Arabic verb.
1st {ana}, 2nd {enta}, 3rd {howwa}, sing. Masc.
{m-laww-i-H} /mlæw.wɪħ/ {m-farm-i-t} /mfær.mɪt/
[I, you (sing. masc), he shooking] [I, you (sing. masc), he formatting]
1st {ana fem}, 2nd {entii}, 3rd {heyyi}, sing. Fem.
{m-laww-i-Haa} /mlæw.wɪħæ/ {m-farm-i-taa} /mfær.mɪ.tæ/
[I, you (sing. fem), she shooking] [I, you (sing. fem), she formatting]
1st {eHna}, 2nd {entoo}, 3rd {homma}, plur. Masc.
{m-lawiH-iin} /mlæwɪ.ħi:n/ {m-farmit-iin} /mfær.mɪ.ti:n/
[We, you (plural), they shooking] [We, you (plural), they formatting]
1st {eHna}, 2nd {entoo}, 3rd {hennii}, plur. fem.
{m-lawwiH-aat} /mlæw.wɪ.ħæt/ {m-farmit-aat} /mfær.mɪ.tæt/
[we, you, they (plu fem) shooking] [we, you, they (plu fem) formatting]

3.3.1.4 Passive Participles

Passive participles are considered adjectives which are derived from verbs. They are
also used often as nouns in Arabic (objective noun), {ism maf’ool \ ‫} إسم مفعول‬. They refer
to an action which happens to a person. The passive participle is formed like the active
participle with changing the vowel in the last syllable. It is formed for the first person
singular masculine by adding the prefix {m-} and the infix {-a-} before the last letter like
in {m-Ghayy-a-r} ‘(it masculine) has been changed’. The feminine is formed by adding
the suffix {-a or -eh} like in {m-Ghayy-a-r-ah} ‘(it feminine) has been changed’. The
 31

same affixation is applied for the second and third person singular masculine and
feminine as well. For the first person plural, the same prefix {m-} is added along with
the middle infix {-a-} and the suffix {-iin} like {m-Ghayy-a-r-iin} ‘they (masculine)
have been changed’. The second and the third person plural is the same as the first person
plural except for the third person plural feminine, the suffix {-iin} is replaced by the
suffix {-aat} like in {m-Ghayy-a-r-aat} ‘they (feminine) have been changed’.
The same example is illustrated bellow to highlight the differences between the active
and passive participles.
1st {ana}, 2nd {enta}, 3rd {howwa}, sing. Masc.
{m-laww-a-H} /mlæw.wæħ/ {m-farm-a-t} /mfær.mæt/
[I, you (sing. masc), he has been shaken] [I, you (sing. masc), he has been formatted]
1st {ana fem}, 2nd {entii}, 3rd {heyyi}, sing. Fem.
{m-laww-a-Haa} /mlæw.wæħæ/ {m-farm-a-taa} /mfær.mæ.tæ/
[I, you (sing. fem), has been shaken] [I, you (sing. fem), has been formatted]
1st {eHna}, 2nd {entoo}, 3rd {homma}, plur. Masc.
{m-law-a-H-iin} /mlæwæ.ħi:n/ {m-farm-a-t-iin} /mfær.mæ.ti:n/
[We, you (plural), have been shaken] [We, you (plural), have been formatted]
1st {eHna}, 2nd {entoo}, 3rd {hennii}, plur. fem.
{m-lawwaH-aat} /mlæw.wæ.ħæt/ {m-farmat-aat} /mfær.mæ.tæt/
[we, you, they (plu fem) have been shaken] [we, you, they (plu fem) have been
formatted]

3.3.2 Partial Integration

Six ELVs were partially integrated into JCA and they are used among JCA speakers
but in a specific uses and forms. Those verbs might be used as imperatives only or in
only one case. These verbs do not have an explicit correspondent in JCA, but they are
used by some JCA speakers as imperatives and with only one subject pronoun. The verbs
enjoy, relax for example are used as only imperatives, while they cannot be used in any
other forms. They are also used with only the first person singular subject pronoun. The
six ELVs are presented in table (5) below:
 32

Table (5): ELVs which were partially integrated and adapted by JCA
NO ELV Transcription Use in JCA
1 miss /mɪs/ With first person sing. only
2 relax /rɪ.læx/ Imperative
3 enjoy /ɪn.dʒɔɪ/ Imperative
4 stop /stɒp/ Imperative
5 shoot (soccer) /ʃuːt/ Imperative
6 love /lʌv/ First person sing. Only

3.3.3 Verbs with no Integration in JCA

ELVs which do not correspond to JCA phonology and CV patterns were not adapted
and integrated by JCA and could not be used in JCA as verbs. Still, they are used but as
only nouns through a strategy mentioned by Søren Wichmann and Jan Wohlgemuth
(2005) known as ‘do’ or ‘make’ strategy. Simply, the verb is used in the recipient
language but as a noun not a verb (nominalized verb). The following example presents
24 ELVs which do not correspond to JCA phonological structure:
English verb Arabic correspondent Nominalized Verb
Copy /kɒ.pi:/ N/A
1st singular Do Strategy English Verb
{ana } {baʕmal} {cobii}
[I] [make] [a copy]

Table (6): ELVs which do not correspond to JCA and not integrated to JCA
NO ELV NO ELV
1 like 13 report
2 zoom 14 switch
3 post 15 deactivate
4 cover 16 install
5 add 17 uninstall
6 attach 18 download
7 copy 19 setup
8 past 20 select
9 comment 21 update
10 follow 22 order
11 remove 23 polish
12 reply 24 present
 33

3.4 Grammatical Categories

Some integrated ELVs were adapted by the adjective and noun forms rather than the
verb form. Still, they are borrowed and used as JCA verbs. These ELVs are not directly
integrated into JCA; rather, the adjective or noun forms were adapted and then derived
in JCA to be used as verbs. Verbs like activate, and fabricate, are integrated in the
adjective form. The following example explains the process.
English verb English adjective Arabic Correspondent word
activate /æk.tɪ.veɪt/ active /æk.tɪv/ {jahiz} /ʤæ.hɪz/
The example here shows how the process goes for the first person singular masculine.
The same process applies for all subject pronouns in the perfective, imperfective verbs,
and the active and passive participles.
1st singular masculine imperfective {ana}
{ana ba-jahhiz} /bæ.ʤæ.hɪz/ {ana ba-aaktiv} /bæ.Ɂæk.tɪv/
[I prepare] [I activate]
 34

Chapter Four
Conclusion and Recommendations
Conclusion
This study attempted at providing sufficient account for a common phenomenon
which occurs often when studying language contact and borrowing. English verbs are
often used by Jordanian speakers as if they were original JCA words. Verbal borrowing
started to attract researchers to conduct more research since it requires deeper analysis
and helps revealing the mechanisms by which the mental lexicon perceives a borrowed
word. Many studies have examined the behavior of borrowed verbs among different
languages.
The study aims at explaining the behavior of English loanverbs once they enter JCA.
The researcher observed that many English verbs are used by speakers of JCA as Arabic
verbs while others are not. That observation has motivated the researcher to examine this
phenomenon by conducting this study and looking into the relevant factors to uncover
the rules which govern this behavior of verbs. Analysis of the different factors showed
that phonological similarity between a verb from the source language and the recipient
language leads to the adaptation and integration of that borrowed verb.
Since the semantic factor plays significant role in many linguistic phenomena, it was
taken into consideration. ELVs were divided into meaning-based groups. English verbs
related to computers and technology took the largest portion of the verbs to be borrowed.
The study showed that the meaning does not directly affect the process of integration and
accommodation of a borrowed verb.
The study illustrated the way ELVs are integrated in the JCA system. They are used
in all forms of JCA verbs: the imperfective form of the verb, which represents the present
simple and the future simple in JCA, and the perfective form of the verb, which indicates
a completed action and used for the past tense. English integrated verbs can also be
derived to form the active participles, a process which is commonly used in Arabic to
express that someone is specialized at doing something. Furthermore, the passive
participle form, which means that an action has been done to someone or something, can
be derived too.
Some verbs were not integrated in the JCA system because they do not have similar
correspondent words in the JCA. In this case the ‘do’ strategy is used to accommodate
 35

those verbs. They are borrowed as nominalized verbs. The verb ‘do’ or ‘make’ is inserted
before the English verb and used to express the meaning.
JCA has adapted the adjective form and integrated it to a verb that can be inflected
and derived like Arabic verbs. The verb form of these words has three syllables while the
adjective form consists of only two syllables.
Dialectical variation may happen when pronouncing some of the integrated English
verbs in Arabic. The endings of some words like the third person feminine singular
{mfarmi-taa} is pronounced by many Jordanian speakers as {mfarmi-teh}. There are two
suffixes for the feminine conjugation {-aa} and {-eh}. However, this variation does not
cause in significance effect that might lead to a misunderstanding among JCA speakers.
 36

Recommendations
Further research on reasons for the accommodation patterns may be done. A better
understanding for this phenomenon will be achieved through conducting further studies.
More research needs to be done to examine if there are other factors which govern the
process of integration of a loanverb in the system of a recipient language.
The phonological similarity has accounted for the case of borrowing from English
into Arabic. However, other studies should be conducted to examine the case of other
languages which borrow verbs from other languages. In Kuwaiti Arabic, English verb
jam, jammed is commonly used by Kuwaiti people as for example {jayyamat} ‘(it)
jammed’. Another important area of study is the social attitude towards borrowing in
general and verbal borrowing in particular. People may have different opinions regarding
the application of Arabic rules to English borrowed verbs.
Further research may be conducted to examine the case of possible words. Some
English verbs are not integrated in JCA although they have similar JCA words. The ELV
{remove} for example, has a JCA similar word {bimoot} which means ‘he dies’. This
ELV is not integrated in JCA although it has a similar JCA word. The researcher believes
that this word follows the rules mentioned above
Other studies may shed the light more on the semantic changes of some ELVs after
being used in JCA as verbs. English verbs like film are used in JCA in a little bit different
sense; in English, it refers to the activity of recording a video while the Arabic use varies.
In Arabic, the verb {bifallim} means that someone is pranking another. Another verb is
used in a different way which is full; it is used in Arabic as fill. Thus, this semantic
difference should be investigated further.
 37

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‫المراجع العربية‬-

.‫ لبنان‬.‫ بيروت‬،‫ دار الكتاب اللبناني‬.1981 .‫ الطبعة الثانية‬،‫ نظريات في اللغة‬.‫ أنيس‬،‫فريحة‬
 40

Appendix A: English loanverbs in Jordanian Colloquial Arabic

share like finish miss order

film zoom film relax polish
chat post cash enjoy present
block cover full stop overhaul
cash add freeze shoot (soccer)
save attach visa love
format copy double
message past filter
cancel comment center
visa follow
delete remove
configure reply
activate report
fabricate switch
test deactivate
hack install
uninstall
download
setup
select
update
 41

Appendix B: Conjugation of English verbs along with their JCA correspondents

Table 1: Conjugation of an English verb {save} with its correspondence in JCA {Gheir}
Imperfective Perfective Active Passive participle
participle
1st per. sing. JCA /bæ.γæj.jɪr/ /γæj.jæ.rɪt/ /mγæj.jɪr/ masc. /mγæj.jær/ masc.
ana /mγæj.ræ/ fem. /mγæj.jæ.ræ/ fem.
ELV /bæ.sæj.jɪv/ /sæj.jæ.vɪt/ /msæj.jɪv/ masc. /msæj.jæv/ masc.
/msæj.væ/ fem. /msæj.jæ.væ/ fem.
st
1 per. plu. JCA /bɪn.γæj.jɪr/ /γæj.jær.næ/ /mγæj.ri:n/ /mγæj.jæ.ri:n/ masc.
eHna masc. /mγæj.jæ.ræt/ fem.
/mγæj.ræt/ fem.
ELV /bɪn.sæj.jɪv/ /sæj.jæv.næ/ /msæj.vi:n/ /msæj.jæ.vi:n/ masc.
masc. /msæj.jæ.væt/ fem.
/msæj.væt/ fem.
nd
2 per. sing. JCA /bɪt.γæj.jɪr/ /γæj.jæ.rɪt/ /mγæj.jɪr/ masc. /mγæj.jær/ masc.
masc. entaa ELV /bɪt.sæj.jɪv/ /sæj.jæ.vɪt/ /msæj.jɪv/ masc. /msæj.jæv/ masc.
nd
2 per. sing. JCA /bɪt.γæj.ri:/ /γæj.jær.ti:/ /mγæj.ræ/ fem. /mγæj.jæ.ræ/ fem.
fem. entii ELV /bɪt.sæj.vi:/ /sæj.jæv.ti:/ /msæj.væ/ fem. /msæj.jæ.væ/ fem.
2nd per. plu. JCA /bɪt.γæj.ru:/ /γæj.jær.tu:/ /mγæj.ri:n/ /mγæj.jæ.ri:n/ masc.
entoo /bɪt.γæj.rɪn/ fem /γæj.jær.tɪn/ masc. /mγæj.jæ.ræt/ fem.
entin fem /mγæj.ræt/ fem.
ELV /bɪt.sæj.vu:/ /sæj.jæv.tu:/ /msæj.vi:n/ /msæj.jæ.vi:n/ masc.
/bɪt.sæj.vɪn/ fem /sæj.jæv.tɪn/ masc. /msæj.jæ.væt/ fem.
fem /msæj.væt/ fem.
rd
3 sing. JCA /bɪ.γæj.jɪr/ /γæj.jær/ /mγæj.jɪr/ masc. /mγæj.jær/ masc.
masc. ELV /bɪ.sæj.jɪv/ /sæj.jæv/ /msæj.jɪv/ masc. /msæj.jæv/ masc.
howwa
3rd per. sing. JCA bɪt.γæj.jɪr/ /γæj.jæ.ræt/ /mγæj.ræ/ fem. /mγæj.jæ.ræ/ fem.
fem.
hiyyii ELV /bɪt.sæj.jɪv/ /sæj.jæ.væt/ /msæj.væ/ fem. /msæj.jæ.væ/ fem.
rd
3 per. sing. JCA /bɪ.γæj.ru:/ /γæj.jæ.ru:/ /mγæj.ri:n/ /mγæj.jæ.ri:n/ masc
plu. hommii masc.
ELV /bɪ.sæj.vu:/ /sæj.jæ.vu:/ /msæj.vi:n/ /msæj.jæ.vi:n/ masc
masc.
3rd per sing. JCA /bɪ.γæj.rɪn/ /γæj.jæ.rɪn/ /mγæj.ræt/ fem. /mγæj.jæ.ræt/ fem.
plu. fem.
hennii ELV /bɪ.sæj.vɪn/ /sæj.jæ.vɪn/ /msæj.væt/ fem. /msæj.jæ.væt/ fem.
 42

Table 2: Conjugation of an English verb {film} with its correspondence in JCA {‫ع‬ilm}
Imperfective Perfective Active participle Passive participle
st
1 per. sing. JCA /bæ.ʕæl.lɪm/ /ʕæl.læ.mɪt/ /mʕæl.lɪm/ masc. /mʕæl.læm/ masc.
ana /mʕæl.mæ/ fem. /mʕæl.læ.mæ/ fem.
ELV /bæ.fæl.lɪm/ /fæl.læ.mɪt/ /mfæl.lɪm/ masc. /mfæl.læm/ masc.
/mfæl.mæ/ fem. /mfæl.læ.mæ/ fem.
1st per. plu. JCA /bɪn.ʕæl.lɪm/ /ʕæl.læm.næ/ /mʕæl.mi:n/ masc. /mʕæl.læ.mi:n/ masc.
eHna /mʕæl.mæt/ fem. /mʕæl.læ.mæt/ fem.
ELV /bɪn.fæl.lɪm/ /fæl.læm.næ/ /mfæl.mi:n/ masc. /mfæl.læ.mi:n/ masc.
/mfæl.mæt/ fem. /mfæl.læ.mæt/ fem.
nd
2 per. sing. JCA /bɪt.ʕæl.lɪm/ /ʕæl.læ.mɪt/ /mʕæl.lɪm/ masc. /mʕæl.læm/ masc.
masc. entaa ELV /bɪt.fæl.lɪm/ /fæl.læ.mɪt/ /mfæl.lɪm/ masc. /mfæl.læm/ masc.
2nd per. sing. JCA /bɪt.ʕæl.mi:/ /ʕæl.læm.ti:/ /mʕæl.mæ/ fem. /mʕæl.læ.mæ/ fem.
fem. entii ELV /bɪt.fæl.mi:/ /fæl.læm.ti:/ /mfæl.mæ/ fem. /mfæ.læ.mæ/ fem.
2nd per. plu. JCA /bɪt.ʕæl.mu:/ /ʕæl.læm.tu:/ /mʕæl.mi:n/ masc. /mʕæl.læ.mi:n/ masc.
entoo /bɪt.ʕæl.mɪn/ f /ʕæl.læm.tɪn/ f /mʕæl.mæt/ fem. /mʕæl.læ.mæt/ fem.
entin
ELV /bɪt.fæl.mu:/ /fæl.læm.tu:/ /mfæl.mi:n/ masc. /mfæl.læ.mi:n/ masc.
/bɪt.fæl.mɪn/ f /fæl.læm.tɪn/ f /mfæl.mæt/ fem. /mfæl.læ.mæt/ fem.
3rd sing. JCA /bɪ.ʕæl.lɪm/ /ʕæl.læm/ /mʕæl.lɪm/ masc. /mʕæl.læm/ masc.
masc.
ELV /bɪ.fæl.lɪm/ /fæl.læm/ /mfæl.lɪm/ masc. /mfæl.læm/ masc.
howwa

3rd per. sing. JCA bɪt.ʕæl.lɪm/ /ʕæl.læ.mæt/ /mʕæl.mæ/ fem. /mʕæl.læ.mæ/ fem.
fem.
hiyyii ELV /bɪt.fæl.lɪm/ /fæl.læ.mæt/ /mfæl.mæ/ fem. /mfæl.læ.mæ/ fem.
3rd per. sing. JCA /bɪ.ʕæl.mu:/ /ʕæl.læ.mu:/ /mʕæl.mi:n/ masc. /mʕæl.læ.mi:n/ masc
plu. hommii ELV /bɪ.fæl.mu:/ /fæl.læ.mu:/ /mfæl.mi:n/ masc. /mfæl.læ.mi:n/ masc
3rd per sing. JCA /bɪ.ʕæl.mɪn/ /ʕæl.læ.mɪn/ /mʕæl.mæt/ fem. /mʕæl.læ.mæt/ fem.
plu. fem.
ELV /bɪ.fæl.mɪn/ /fæl.læ.mɪn/ /mfæl.mæt/ fem. /mfæl.læ.mæt/ fem.
hennii
 43

Table 3: Conjugation of an English verb {full} with its correspondence in JCA {soom}
Imperfective Perfective Active participle Passive participle
st
1 per. JCA /bæ.sæm.mɪm/ /sam.mæ.mɪt/ /msæm.mɪm/ masc /msæm.mæm/ masc
sing. /msæm.mɪ.məh/ /msæm.mæ.məh/
ana fem fem
ELV /bæ.fæ.lɪl/ /fal.læ.lɪt/ /mfæl.lɪl/ masc /mfæl.læl/ masc
/mfæl.lɪ.ləh/ fem /mfæl.læ.ləh/ fem
1st per. JCA /bɪn.sæm.mɪm/ /sæm.mæm.næ/ /msæm.mɪ.mi:n/ /msæm.mæ.mi:n/
plu. masc masc
eHna /msæm.mɪ.mæt/fem /msæm.mæ.mæt/fem
ELV //bɪn.fæl.lɪl/ /fæl.læl.næ/ /mfæl.lɪ.li:n/ masc /mfæl.læ.li:n/ masc
/mfæl.lɪ.læt/ fem /mfæl.læ.læt/ fem
2nd per. JCA /bɪt.sæm.mɪm/ /sæm.mæ.mɪt/ /msæm.mɪm/ /msæm.mæm/
sing. ELV /bɪt.fæl.lɪl/ /fal.læ.lɪt/ /mfæl.lɪl/ /mfæl.læl/
masc.
entaa
2nd per. JCA /bɪt.sæm.mɪ.mi:/ /sæm.mæm.ti:/ /msæm.mɪ.məh/ /msæm.mæ.məh/
sing. ELV /bɪt.fæl.lɪli:/ /fæl.læl.ti:/ /mfæl.lɪ.ləh/ /mfæl.læ.ləh/
fem.
entii
2nd per. JCA /bɪt.sæm.mɪ.mu:/masc /sæm.mæm.tu:/masc /msæm.mɪ.mi:n/ /msæm.mæ.mi:n/
plu. /bɪt.sæm.mɪ.mɪn/fem /sæm.mæm.tɪn/fem masc masc
entoo /msæm.mɪ.mæt/ /msæm.mæ.mæt/
entin fem fem
ELV /bɪt.fæl.lɪ.lu:/ masc /fæl.læl.lu:/ masc /mfæl.lɪ.li:n/ masc /mfæl.læ.li:n/ masc
/bɪt.fæl.lɪ.lɪn/ fem /fæl.læl.tɪn/ fem /mfæl.lɪ.læt/ fem /mfæl.læ.læt/ fem
3rd sing. JCA /bɪ.sæm.mɪm/ /sæm.mæm/ /msæm.mɪm/ /msæm.mæm/
masc. ELV /bɪ.fæl.lɪl/ /fæl.læl/ /mfæl.lɪl/ /mfæl.læl/
howwa
3rd per. JCA /bɪt.sæm.mɪm/ /sæm.mæ.mæt/ /msæm.mɪ.məh/ /msæm.mæ.məh/
Sing fem
ELV /bɪt.fæl.lɪl/ /fæl.læ.læt/ /mfæl.lɪ.ləh/ /mfæl.læ.ləh/
hiyyii
3rd per. JCA /bɪ.sæm.mɪ.mu:/ /sæm.mæ.mu:/ /msæm.mɪmi:n/ /msæm.mæ.mi:n/
sing.plu. ELV /bɪ.fæl.lɪ.lu:/ /fal.læ.lu:/ /mfæl.lɪ.li:n/ /mfæl.læ.li:n/
hommii
3rd per JCA /bɪ.sæm.mɪ.mɪn/ /sæm.mæ.mɪn/ /msæm.mɪmæt/ /msæm.mæmæt/
sing
ELV /bɪ.fæl.lɪ.lɪn/ /fæl.læ.lɪn/ /mfæl.lɪ.læt/ /mfæl.læ.læt/
plu fem
hennii
 44

Table 4: Conjugation of an English verb {format} with its correspondence in JCA {loHaat}
Imperfective Perfective Active participle Passive participle
st
1 per. JCA /bæ.læw.wɪħ/ /læw.wæħɪt/ /mlæw.wɪħ/ masc /mlæw.wæħ/ masc
sing. /mlæw.wɪ.ħæ/ fem /mlæw.wæ.ħæ/ fem
ana ELV /bæ.fær.mɪt/ /fær.mæ.tɪt/ /mfær.mɪt/ masc /mfær.mæt/ masc
/mfær.mɪ.tæ/ fem /mfær.mæ.tæ/ fem
1st per. plu. JCA /bɪn.læw.wɪħ/ /læw.wæħ.næ/ /mlæw.wɪ.ħi:n/ /mlæw.wæ.ħi:n/ masc
eHna masc /mlæw.wæ.ħæt/fem
/mlæw.wɪ.ħæt/fem
ELV /bɪn.fær.mɪt/ /fær.mæt.næ/ /mfær.mɪ.ti:n/ masc /mfær.mæ.ti:n/ masc
/mfær.mɪ.tæt/ fem /mfær.mæ.tæt/ fem
2ndper sing. JCA /bɪt.læw.wɪħ/ /læw.wæ.ħɪt/ /mlæw.wɪħ/ /mlæw.wæħ/
masc. ELV /bɪt.fær.mɪt/ /fær.mæ.tɪt/ /mfær.mɪt/ /mfær.mæt/
entaa
2nd per. JCA /bɪt.læw.wɪ.ħi:/ /læw.wæħ.ti:/ /mlæw.wɪ.ħæ/ /mlæw.wæ.ħæ/
sing. ELV /bɪt.fær.mɪ.ti:/ /fær.mæt.ti:/ /mfær.mɪ.tæ/ /mfær.mæ.tæ/
fem. entii
2nd per. plu. JCA /bɪt.læw.wɪ.ħu:/ /læw.wæħ.tu:/ /mlæw.wɪ.ħi:n/ /mlæw.wæ.ħi:n/ masc
entoo masc masc masc /mlæw.wæ.ħæt/ fem
entin /bɪt.læw.wɪ.ħɪn/ /læw.wæħ.tɪn/ /mlæw.wɪ.ħæt/ fem
fem fem
ELV /bɪt.fær.mɪ.tu:/ /fær.mæt.tu:/ /mfær.mɪ.ti:n/ masc /mfær.mæ.ti:n/ masc
masc masc /mfær.mɪ.tæt/ fem /mfær.mæ.tæt/ fem
/bɪt.fær.mɪ.tɪn/ /fær.mæt.tɪn/
fem fem
rd /bɪ.læw.wɪħ/ /læw.wæħ/ /mlæw.wɪħ/ /mlæw.wæħ/
3 sing. JCA
masc.
ELV /bɪ.fær.mɪt/ /fær.mæt/ /mfær.mɪt/ /mfær.mæt/
howwa

3rd per. JCA /bɪt.læw.wɪħ/ /læw.wæ.ħæt/ /mlæw.wɪ.ħæ/ /mlæw.wæ.ħæ/

sing.
fem. ELV /bɪt.fær.mɪt/ /fær.mæ.tæt/ /mfær.mɪ.tæ/ /mfær.mæ.tæ/
hiyyii
3rdper. sing. JCA /bɪ.læw.wɪ.ħu:/ /læw.wæ.ħu:/ /mlæw.wɪ.ħi:n/ /mlæw.wæ.ħi:n/
plu. ELV /bɪ.fær.mɪ.tu:/ /fær.mæ.tu:/ /mfær.mɪ.ti:n/ /mfær.mæ.ti:n/
hommii
3rd per sing. JCA /bɪ.læw.wɪ.ħɪn/ /læw.wæ.ħɪn/ /mlæw.wɪ.ħæt/ /mlæw.wæ.ħæt/
plu. fem.
ELV /bɪ.fær.mɪ.tɪn/ /fær.mæ.tɪn/ /mfær.mɪ.tæt /mfær.mæ.tæt
hennii
 45

Table 5: Conjugation of an English verb {cancel} with its correspondence in JCA {sakin}
Imperfective Perfective Active participle Passive participle
st
1 per. JCA /bæ.sæk.kɪn/ /sæk.kæ.nɪt/ /msæk.kɪn/ masc /msæk.kæn/ masc
sing. /msæk.kɪ.næh/ fem /msæk.kæ.næh/ fem
ana ELV /bæ.kæn.sɪl/ /kæn.sæ.lɪt/ /mkæn.sɪl/ masc /mkæn.sæl/ masc
/mkæn.sɪ.læh/ fem /mkæn.sæ.læh/ fem
1st per. plu. JCA /bɪn.sæk.kɪn/ /sæk.kæn.næ/ /msæk.kɪ.ni:n/ /msæk.kæ.ni:n/
eHna masc masc
/msæk.kɪ.næt/ fem /msæk.kæ.næt/ fem
ELV /bɪn.kæn.sɪl/ /kæn.sæl.næ/ /mkæn.sɪ.li:n/ /mkæn.sæ.li:n/ masc
masc /mkæn.sæ.læt/ fem
/mkæn.sɪ.læt/ fem
2nd per. JCA /bɪt.sæk.kɪn/ /sæk.kæ.nɪt/ /msæk.kɪn/ /msæk.kæn/
sing. ELV /bɪt.kæn.sɪl/ /kæn.sæ.lɪt/ /mkæn.sɪl/ /mkæn.sæl/
masc. entaa
2nd per. JCA /bɪt.sæk.kɪ.ni:/ /sæk.kæn.ti:/ /msæk.kɪ.næ/ /msæk.kæ.næ/
sing. ELV /bɪt.kæn.sɪ.li:/ /kæn.sæl.ti:/ /mkæn.sɪ.læ/ /mkæn.sæ.læ/
fem. entii
2nd per. plu. JCA /bɪt.sæk.kɪ.nu:/ /sæk.kæn.tu:/ /msæk.kɪ.ni:n/ /msæk.kæ.ni:n/
entoo masc masc masc masc
entin /bɪt.sæk.kɪ.nɪn/ /sæk.kæn.tɪn/fem /msæk.kɪ.næt/ fem /msæk.kæ.næt/ fem
fem
ELV /bɪt.kæn.sɪ.lu:/ /kæn.sæl.tu:/ /mkæn.sɪ.li:n/ /mkæn.sæ.li:n/ masc
masc masc masc /mkæn.sæ.læt/ fem
/bɪt.kæn.sɪ.lɪn/ fem /kæn.sæl.tɪn/ fem /mkæn.sɪ.læt/ fem
rd JCA /bɪ.sæ.kɪn/ /sæk.kæn/ /msæk.kɪn/ /msæk.kæn/
3 sing.
masc.
ELV /bɪ.kæn.sɪl/ /kæn.sæl/ /mkæn.sɪl/ /mkæn.sæl/
howwa

3rd per. JCA /bɪt.sæk.kɪn/ /sæk.kæ.næt/ /msæk.kɪ.næ/ /msæk.kæ.næ/

sing.
fem. ELV /bɪt.kæn.sɪl/ /kæn.sæ.læt/ /mkæn.sɪ.læ/ /mkæn.sæ.læ/
hiyyii
3rd per. JCA /bɪ.sæk.kɪ.nu:/ /sæk.kæ.nu:/ /msæk.kɪ.ni:n/ /msæk.kæ.ni:n/
sing. ELV /bɪ.kæn.sɪ.lu:/ /kæn.sæ.lu:/ /mkæn.sɪ.li:n/ /mkæn.sæ.li:n/
plu.
hommii
3rd per sing. JCA /bɪ.sæk.kɪ.nɪn/ /sæk.kæ.nɪn/ /msæk.kɪ.næt/ /msæk.kæ.næt/
plu. fem.
ELV /bɪ.kæn.sɪ.lɪn/ /kæn.sæ.lɪn/ /mkæn.sɪ.læt /mkæn.sæ.læt
hennii
 46

Table 6: Conjugation of an English verb {delete} with its correspondence in JCA {bibii‫}ع‬
Imperfective Perfective Active participle Passive participle
st
1 per. JCA /bæ.bæj.jɪʕ/ /bæj.jæ.ʕɪt/ /mbæj.jɪʕ/ masc /mbæj.jæʕ/ masc
sing. /mbæj.jɪ.ʕæh/ fem /mbæj.jæ.ʕæh/ fem
ana ELV /bæ.dæl.lɪt/ /dæl.læ.tɪt/ /mdæl.lɪt/ masc /mdæl.lɪt/ masc
/mdæl.lɪ.tæ/ fem /mdæl.lɪ.tæ/ fem
1st per. plu. JCA /bɪn.bæj.jɪʕ/ /bæj.jæʕ.næ/ /mbæj.jɪ.ʕi:n/ masc /mbæj.jæ.ʕi:n/ masc
eHna /mbæj.jɪ.ʕæt/ fem /mbæj.jæ.ʕæt/ fem
ELV /bɪn.dæl.lɪt/ /dæl.læt.næ/ /mdæl.lɪ.ti:n/ masc /mdæl.læ.ti:n/ masc
/mdæl.lɪ.tæt/ fem /mdæl.læ.tæt/ fem
nd
2 per. JCA /bɪt.bæj.jɪʕ/ /bæj.jæ.ʕɪt/ /mbæj.jɪʕ/ /mbæj.jæʕ/
sing. ELV /bɪt.dæl.lɪt/ /dæl.læ.tɪt/ /mdæl.lɪt/ /mdæl.læt/
masc. entaa
2nd per. JCA /bɪt.bæj.ʕi:/ /bæj.jæʕ.ti:/ /mbæj.jɪ.ʕæ/ /mbæj.jæ.ʕæ/
sing. ELV /bɪt.dæl.ti:/ /dæl.læt.ti:/ /mdæl.lɪ.tæ/ /mdæl.læ.tæ/
fem. entii
2nd per. plu. JCA /bɪt.bæj.ʕu:/ masc /bæj.jæʕ.tu:/ masc /mbæj.jɪ.ʕi:n/ masc /mbæj.jæ.ʕi:n/ masc
entoo /bɪt.bæj.ʕɪn/ fem /bæj.jæʕ.tɪn/ fem /mbæj.jɪ.ʕæt/ fem /mbæj.jæ.ʕæt/ fem
entin ELV /bɪt.dæl.tu:/ masc /dæl.læ.tu:/ masc /mdæl.lɪ.ti:n/ masc /mdæl.læ.ti:n/ masc
/bɪt.dæl.tɪn/ fem /dæl.læ.tɪn/ fem /mdæl.lɪ.tæt/ fem /mdæl.læ.tæt/ fem
3rd sing. JCA /bɪ.bæj.jɪʕ/ /bæj.jæʕ/ /mbæj.jɪʕ/ /mbæj.jæʕ/
masc.
ELV /bɪ.dæl.lɪt/ /dæl.læt/ /mdæl.lɪt/ /mdæl.læt/
howwa

3rd per. JCA /bɪt.bæj.jɪʕ/ /bæj.jæ.ʕæt/ /mbæj.ʕæ/ /mbæj.jæ.ʕæ/

sing.
fem. ELV /bɪt.dæl.lɪt/ /dæl.læ.tæt/ /mdæl.tæ/ /mdæl.læ.tæ/
hiyyii
3rd per. JCA /bɪ.bæj.ʕu:/ /bæj.jæ.ʕu:/ /mbæj.ʕi:n/ /mbæj.jæ.ʕi:n/
sing. ELV /bɪ.dæl.tu:/ /dæl.læ.tu:/ /mdæl.ti:n/ /mdæl.læ.ti:n/
plu. hommii
3rd per sing. JCA /bɪ.bæj.ʕɪn/ /bæj.jæ.ʕɪn/ /mbæj.ʕæt/ /mbæj.jæ.ʕæt/
plu. fem.
ELV /bɪ.dæl.tɪn/ dæl.læ.tɪn/ /mdæl.tæt/ /mdæl.læ.tæt/
hennii
 47

Table 7: Conjugation of an English verb {finish} with its correspondence in JCA {wisiKh}
Imperfective Perfective Active participle Passive participle
st
1 per. sing. JCA /bæ.wæs.sɪx/ /wæs.sæ.xɪt/ /mwæs.sɪx/ masc /mwæs.sæx/ masc
ana /mwæs.xæ/ fem /mwæs.sæ.xæ/ fem
ELV /bæ.fæn.nɪʃ/ /fæn.næ.ʃɪt/ /mfæn.nɪʃ/ masc /mfæn.næʃ/ masc
/mfæn.ʃæ/ fem /mfæn.næ.ʃæ/ fem
1st per. plu. JCA /bɪn.wæs.sɪx/ /wæs.sæx.næ/ /mwæs.xi:n/ masc /mwæs.sæ.xi:n/ masc
eHna /mwæs.xæt/ fem /mwæs.sæ.xæt/ fem
ELV /bɪn.fæn.nɪʃ/ /fæn.næʃ.næ/ /mfæn.ʃi:n/ masc /mfæn.næ.ʃi:n/ masc
/mfæn.ʃæt/ fem /mfæn. næ.ʃæt/ fem
nd
2 per. JCA /bɪt.wæs.sɪx/ /wæs.sæ.xɪt/ /mwæs.sɪx/ /mwæs.sæx/
sing. ELV /bɪt.fæn.nɪʃ/ /fæn.næ.ʃɪt/ /mfæn.nɪʃ/ /mfæn.næʃ/
masc. entaa
2nd per. JCA /bɪt.wæs.xi:/ /wæs.sæx.ti:/ /mwæs.xæ/ /mwæs.sæ.xæ/
sing. ELV /bɪt.fæn.ʃi:/ /fæn.næʃ.ti:/ /mfæn.ʃæ/ /mfæn.næ.ʃæ/
fem. entii
2nd per. plu. JCA /bɪt.wæs.xu:/ masc /wæs.sæx.tu:/ masc /mwæs.xi:n/ masc /mwæs.sæ.xi:n/ masc
entoo /bɪt.wæs.xɪn/ fem /wæs.sæx.tɪn/ fem /mwæs.xæt/ fem /mwæs.sæ.xæt/ fem
entin ELV /bɪt.fæn.ʃu:/ masc /fæn.næʃ.tu:/ masc /mfæn.ʃi:n/ masc /mfæn.næ.ʃi:n/ masc
/bɪt.fæn.ʃɪn/ fem /fæn.næʃ.tɪn/ fem /mfæn.ʃæt/ fem /mfæn.næ.ʃæt/ fem
3rd sing. JCA /bɪ.wæs.sɪx/ /wæs.sæx/ /mwæs.sɪx/ /mwæs.sæx/
masc.
ELV /bɪ.fæn.nɪʃ/ /fæn.næʃ/ /mfæn.nɪʃ/ /mfæn.næʃ/
howwa

3rdper sing JCA /bɪt.wæs.sɪx/ /wæs.sæ.xæt/ /mwæs.xæ/ /mwæs.sæ.xæ/

Fem hiyyii
ELV /bɪt.fæn.nɪʃ/ /fæn.næ.ʃæt/ /mfæn.ʃæ/ /mfæn.næ.ʃæ/
3rd per. sing. JCA /bɪ.wæs.xu:/ /wæs.sæ.xu:/ /mwæs.xi:n/ /mwæs.sæ.xi:n/
plu. hommii ELV /bɪ.fæn.ʃu:/ /fæn.næ.ʃu:/ /mfæn.ʃi:n/ /mfæn.næ.ʃi:n/
3rd per sing. JCA /bɪ.wæs.xɪn/ /wæs.sæ.xɪn/ /mwæs.xæt/ /mwæs.sæ.xæt/
plu. fem.
ELV /bɪ.fæn.ʃɪn/ /fæn.næ.ʃɪn/ /mfæn.ʃæt/ /mfæn.næ.ʃæt/
hennii
 48

Table 8: Conjugation of an English verb {filter} with its correspondence in JCA {dirham}
Imperfective Perfective Active participle Passive participle
st
1 per. JCA /bæ.dær.hɪm/ /dær.hæ.mɪt/ /mdær.hɪm/ masc mdær.hæm/ masc
sing. /mdær.hɪ.mæ/ fem /mdær.hæ.mæ/
ana fem
ELV /bæ.fæl.tɪr/ /fæl.tæ.rɪt/ /mfæl.tɪr/ masc /mfæl.tær/ masc
/mfæl.tɪ.ræ/ fem /mfæl.tæ.ræ/ fem
1st per. plu. JCA /bɪn.dær.hɪm/ /dær.hæm.næ/ /mdær.hɪ.mi:n/ /mdær.hæ.mi:n/
eHna masc masc
/mdær.hɪ.mæt/ /mdær.hæ.mæt/
fem fem
ELV /bɪn.fæl.tɪr/ /fæl.tær.næ/ /mfæl.tɪ.ri:n/ masc /mfæl.tæ.ri:n/
/mfæl.tɪ.ræt/ fem masc
/mfæl.tæ.ræt/ fem
nd
2 per. JCA /bɪt.dær.hɪm/ /dær.hæ.mɪt/ /mdær.hɪm/ /mdær.hæm/
sing. ELV /bɪt.fæl.tɪr/ /fæl.tæ.rɪt/ /mfæl.tɪr/ /mfæl.tær/
masc.
entaa
2nd per. JCA /bɪt.dær.hɪ.mi:/ /dær.hæm.ti:/ /mdær.hɪ.mæ/ /mdær.hæ.mæ/
sing. ELV /bɪt.fæl.tɪ.ri:/ /fæl.tær.ti:/ /mfæl.tɪ.ræ/ /mfæl.tæ.ræ/
fem. entii
2nd per. plu. JCA /bɪt.dær.hɪ.mu:/ /dær.hæm.tu:/ masc /mdær.hɪ.mi:n/ /mdær.hæ.mi:n/
entoo masc /dær.hæm.tɪn/ fem masc masc
entin /bɪt.dær.hɪ.mɪn/ fem /mdær.hɪ.mæt/ /mdær.hæ.mæt/
fem fem
ELV /bɪt.fæl.tɪ.ru:/ masc /fæl.tær.tu:/ masc /mfæl.tɪ.ri:n/ masc /mfæl.tæ.ri:n/
/bɪt.fæl.tɪ.rɪn/ fem /fæl.tær.tɪn/ fem /mfæl.tɪ.ræt/ fem masc
/mfæl.tæ.ræt/ fem
rd
3 sing. JCA /bɪ.dær.hɪm/ /dær.hæm/ /mdær.hɪm/ /mdær.hæm/
masc.
ELV /bɪ.fæl.tɪr/ /fæl.tær/ /mfæl.tɪr/ /mfæl.tær/
howwa

3rdper sing. JCA /bɪt.dær.hɪm/ /dær.hæ.mæt/ /mdær.hɪ.mæ/ /mdær.hæ.mæ/

fem.
hiyyii ELV /bɪt.fæl.tɪr/ /fæl.tæ.ræt/ /mfæl.tɪ.ræ/ /mfæl.tæ.ræ/
rd
3 per sing. JCA /bɪ.dær.hɪ.mu:/ /dær.hæ.mu:/ /mdær.hɪ.mi:n/ /mdær.hæ.mi:n/
plu. ommii ELV /bɪ.fæl.tɪ.ru:/ /fæl.tæ.ru:/ /mfæl.tɪ.ri:n/ /mfæl.tæ.ri:n/
rd
3 per sing. JCA /bɪ.dær.hɪ.mɪn/ /dær.hæ.mɪn/ /mdær.hɪ.mæt/ /mdær.hæ.mæt/
plu fem.
ELV /bɪ.fæl.tɪ.rɪn/ /fæl.tæ.rɪn/ /mfæl.tɪ.ræt/ /mfæl.tæ.ræt/
hennii
 49

Table 9: Conjugation of an English verb {center} with its correspondence in JCA {dirham}
Imperfective Perfective Active participle Passive participle
st
1 per. JCA /bæ.dær.hɪm/ /dær.hæ.mɪt/ /mdær.hɪm/ masc mdær.hæm/ masc
sing. /mdær.hɪ.mæ/ fem /mdær.hæ.mæ/ fem
ana ELV /bæ.sæn.tɪr/ /sæn.tæ.rɪt/ /msæn.tɪr/ masc /msæn.tær/ masc
/msæn.tɪ.ræ/ fem /msæn.tæ.ræ/ fem
1st per. plu. JCA /bɪn.dær.hɪm/ /dær.hæm.næ/ /mdær.hɪ.mi:n/ masc /mdær.hæ.mi:n/ masc
eHna /mdær.hɪ.mæt/ fem /mdær.hæ.mæt/ fem
ELV /bɪn.sæn.tɪr/ /sæn.tær.næ/ /msæn.tɪ.ri:n/ masc /msæn.tæ.ri:n/ masc
/msæn.tɪ.ræt/ fem /msæn.tæ.ræt/ fem
nd
2 per. JCA /bɪt.dær.hɪm/ /dær.hæ.mɪt/ /mdær.hɪm/ /mdær.hæm/
sing. ELV /bɪt.sæn.tɪr/ /sæn.tæ.rɪt/ /msæn.tɪr/ /msæn.tær/
masc. entaa
2nd per. JCA /bɪt.dær.hɪ.mi:/ /dær.hæm.ti:/ /mdær.hɪ.mæ/ /mdær.hæ.mæ/
sing. ELV /bɪt.sæn.tɪ.ri:/ /sæn.tær.ti:/ /msæn.tɪ.ræ/ /msæn.tæ.ræ/
fem. entii
2nd per. plu. JCA /bɪt.dær.hɪ.mu:/ /dær.hæm.tu:/ /mdær.hɪ.mi:n/ masxc/mdær.hæ.mi:n/ masc
entoo masc masc /mdær.hɪ.mæt/ fem /mdær.hæ.mæt/ fem
entin /bɪt.dær.hɪ.mɪn/ /dær.hæm.tɪn/
fem fem
ELV /bɪt.sæn.tɪ.ru:/ /sæn.tær.tu:/ /msæn.tɪ.ri:n/ masc /msæn.tæ.ri:n/ masc
masc masc /msæn.tɪ.ræt/ fem /msæn.tæ.ræt/ fem
/bɪt.sæn.tɪ.rɪn/ fem /sæn.tær.tɪn/ fem
3rd sing. JCA /bɪ.dær.hɪm/ /dær.hæm/ /mdær.hɪm/ /mdær.hæm/
masc.
ELV /bɪ.sæn.tɪr/ /sæn.tær/ /msæn.tɪr/ /msæn.tær/
howwa

3rd per. JCA /bɪt.dær.hɪm/ /dær.hæ.mæt/ /mdær.hɪ.mæ/ /mdær.hæ.mæ/

sing.
fem. ELV /bɪt.sæn.tɪr/ /sæn.tæ.ræt/ /msæn.tɪ.ræ/ /msæn.tæ.ræ/
hiyyii
3rd per. JCA /bɪ.dær.hɪ.mu:/ /dær.hæ.mu:/ /mdær.hɪ.mi:n/ /mdær.hæ.mi:n/
sing. ELV /bɪ.sæn.tɪ.ru:/ /sæn.tæ.ru:/ /msæn.tɪ.ri:n/ /msæn.tæ.ri:n/
plu. hommii
3rd per sing. JCA /bɪ.dær.hɪ.mɪn/ /dær.hæ.mɪn/ /mdær.hɪ.mæt/ /mdær.hæ.mæt/
plu. fem.
ELV /bɪ.sæn.tɪ.rɪn/ /sæn.tæ.rɪn/ /msæn.tɪ.ræt/ /msæn.tæ.ræt/
hennii
 ‫‪50‬‬

‫‪Abstract in Arabic‬‬
‫الملخص‬
‫تحليل صرفي لألفعال اإلنجليزية المستعارة في اللغة العربية المحكية في االردن‪ :‬دراسة تفسيرية‬
‫للواقع الذهني‬
‫إعداد‬
‫بهاء الدين حسن محمد الطيبي‬
‫إشراف‬
‫أ‪.‬د‪ .‬ماجد عبد الكريم القرعان‬

‫تتناول هذه الدراسة التفسيرية الصرفية األفعال اإلنجليزية المستخدمة باللغة العربية (اللهجة‬
‫األردنية)‪ .‬تهدف الدراسة إلى التعرف على العوامل التي تحدد مدى اندماج األفعال اإلنجليزية‬
‫المستعارة في نظام اللغة العربية العامية األردنية‪ .‬يستخدم الناس في األردن بمختلف شرائحهم‬
‫المجتمعية العديد من األفعال اإلنجليزية في حياتهم اليومية وكما لو كانت أفعاال عربية األصل‪.‬‬
‫تسهم هذه الدراسة للوصول إلى تفسير آلية استقبال القاموس الذهني للكلمات المستعارة بشكل‬
‫عام واألفعال على نحو خاص‪ .‬تهدف الدراسة أيضا إلى توضيح أسباب قبول النظام اللغوي للعربية‬
‫العامية األردنية لبعض األفعال اإلنجليزية دون غيرها رغم شيوع استخدامها بين أوساط المتحدثين‬
‫بالعربية العامية األردنية‪ .‬تسهم الدراسة أيضا في إثراء قاعدة البيانات التي وصلت لها الدراسات‬
‫السابقة في مجال التصنيفات المختلفة لسلوك األفعال المستعارة إذ تعد دراسة مفصلة لحالة من‬
‫حاالت استعارة األفعال بين اللغتين اإلنجليزية والعربية العامية األردنية‪.‬‬
‫لدراسة العوامل المؤثرة على اندماج األفعال اإلنجليزية‪ ،‬تم جمع األفعال المستخدمة بين أوساط‬
‫المجتمع األردني‪ .‬بعد جمع البيانات‪ ،‬تم تحليلها وتصنيفها حسب المعنى الذي يدل عليه كل فعل‬
‫باإلضافة الى توضيح ترتيب األحرف الصامتة وأحرف العلة‪ .‬تقترح الدراسة أن التشابه الصوتي‪،‬‬
‫وخاصة أحرف العلة‪ ،‬بين الفعل اإلنجليزي وكلمة عربية عامية أردنية أصيلة يؤدي إلى قبول النظام‬
‫اللغوي للعامية األردنية للفعل اإلنجليزي وامكانية استخدامه كما لو كان فعال عربيا‪ .‬لذلك تم ربط‬
‫األفعال اإلنجليزية بكلمات عربية مشابهة‪.‬‬
‫أظهرت نتائج الدراسة أن التشابه الصوتي بين الفعل اإلنجليزي وكلمة عربية عامية أردنية يؤدي‬
‫إلى قبول النظام اللغوي العربي العامي األردني لتلك األفعال‪ .‬يتعدد استخدام تلك األفعال أو بصيغة‬
‫فاعل ومفعول‪ ،‬غير أن بعض األفعال المستعارة استخدمت بصيغة واحدة فقط مثل صيغة األمر‪.‬‬
‫أظهرت الدراسة أن نظام العامية األردنية لم يسمح باستعارة األفعال اإلنجليزية التي ال يماثلها صوتيا‬
‫لكلمات عربية‪.‬‬