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    All - About.history - Anne.boleyn - And.the - Wives.of - Henry.viii June.2020

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    Gabriel Ioniţă

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    INT ie SLX WIVES At the Tudor court, lust & ambition could lead to fatal consequences... _ THE REFORMATION e SUCCESSION CRISIS ¢ MISTRESSES e EXECUTION WELCOME To * ANNE BOLEYN ° SIX WIVES Pee een a ene eee es Poe ee er ote eat ee aes eee eee ee tere all only years before an infatuated King Henry VII had revolutionised De eet Se ae Gere et ce eet ld the king’ ther fve wives face? In Anne Boleyn and the ix Wives, meet the women who captured the womanising kings hear, from the devoted and pious Catherine of ‘Aragon tothe shrewd Catherine Part Over the following pages, find out why Henry considered Jane Seymour tobe his ‘true wife, delve into the shortiived marriage of Henry and Anne of Cleves and learn how Catherine Howard met her pitiful demise Elsewhere, uncover the story ofthe woman rumoured tobe lined up as the seventh wife and explore Dee eee eet ee cid This bookazine sprinted on recyeied paper. Its important that we core abaut our planet and make a difference where we can, Tor usand every generation that fellows. ANNE BOLEYN SIX WIVES it) 20 30 Er} er 48 58 7 7) CREPES SINTERS The road to tyranny Pte ae BUR cai Petree ne eet) ISHED WIVES Peete tas etd ws elt tr Ci ot eee etter ateny eet Re Toe Roce Pemtetee ta teens Prac neecettices BBS ota Seton aed poorer ane iveetenectey Da cineeee nt Ente: (craig enone Tenis! een nd SW ow une eloiy ceeded See CE erected peers BCE CEC nod the Boleyns Pete race ey ene Preceiereercey eye ee Leer ead BUST Ca lo (eke lel canteen ty Peas Penance ate eons Cee CS ONE J CAT OTS BUC te lod Seta ene erento oe BUC bate id Henry Vit aly consider making the Penge emacs ty Breet WIDE MISTRESSES 100 Bessie and the bastard ee oa ern ear ESE Treason nee ay Bee le odan plete eee ey pee er ec pine Buena ives eee se Pee eeerieermemer tc Sern LEGACY (MP WIEUE, Aa Vea BU Vay B oC ern een es Ete A living legacy Pear eee tanto] Pied SR eoc tod BCs exe oat Leen nny Poor ad YRANN What drove Henry eee Ni eee Oe Er eee lites isthe art ofthe possible So, according to legend, Oto von Bismarck, the great pragmatist. ‘observed, This holds te, whether fone is talking about a ZIst-century ed head of state ora Iéth-century dictator Itis not just modern patty leaders who embrac populism in their pursult of power Even the ruthless autocrat needs to calculate what he can get aay with; needs to persuade the people th ‘what he or she wants s forthe History is replete with exampkes of rulers have pushed their hick too far~and paid the pic Fenty VII has gone down to posterity as arguably England's worst tyrant the man who forced cuntry Largely i even he could no afford to treat public opinion with total disdain. He had to ‘maintain the support of the more powerful landed ‘magnates and he had to'manage’ those institutions ‘church and pariament- that represented t ajrity of his subjects. In seeking to understand his remarkable success we can identify three factors tha, n addition to his monumental e played their part: financial security, brillant advisers and sheer good fortune, To see how thes layed out let us fake a brief overview of the reign When his father, Henry Vil, won the crown at the Battle of Bosworth and established the Tudor ‘dynasty mest of his subjects could remember the ‘decades of warfare that had plagued the realm, as supporters of the houses of Lancaster and York Ved for power The new king sil had to fae the ae 14 BQO “ HENRY FORCED MOMENTOUS CHANGES ON HIS COUNTRY LARGELY IN HIS OWN INTERESTS” ame) AION challenge ofr ‘threatened with the continaation of disruptive flit. There was a dsie for peace and stability And these were provided by the astute fist Tudor. But they came a a price Henry VI established regime of ruthless efficiency. His bureauracy insinuated itself nto the lives of his wealthier subjects in quest of novel ways of augmenting the royal teasury. He took the initiative in encouraging trade and he operated as an entepreneur in is own tight, All these measures put the Crown in strong position financially - but were not all “universally popular. Thus, when, in 1509 the old ing died, mourning was distinct muted, An upand: ‘Thomas More, welcomed ‘the change of regime in words that many echoes: iit, Jong since at the mercy ofthe dregs pul title has too long been fr meaning. now lifts its head, now rejoices he road to tyranny THE UNEXPECTED KING Cae Pecos CECE nad ‘Tals of character developed in infancy remain ee es {or kingshp didnot begin until aftr the death Ces Aree ares are ened Se ed his time as an infant was spent inthe company eee ee ed ocean ee ese ee eee eed re eee a Ponte een ene eee re ee enone a etd ey Tere ce eed eee the prince was strictly controled. Participation ee ee) eee erry eee tg Seated eee a eee et) POEs Anne Boleyn and the Six Wives Jn such aking. and has proper reason for rejlcing The merchant, heretofore detered by numero: taxes now once again ploughs seas grown ‘unfamila. Laws, heretofore powerless. now happily have regained their proper authority, All are equally happy: All weigh thei earlier losses against the advantages to come: ‘The fund of goodwill young Henry VII enjoyed was a well-stocked a the teasury now at his disposal. However, ther aspects of his inheritance hhad not adequately prepared him -o the nation for what was in store. When he came tthe throne he was ust shy of his th bicthday ist years of his life het had no expectation of succeeding his father. The death of Arthur, his elder brother in 1502 made Henry hel tothe throne and by that time his basic character traits had already been formed. He was an athletic gregarious and furoving extrovert His education had not focused on the sof kingship and when his father 3 take kindly tit, The young bined, eribbed, confined’ and could scarcely wait for his father's death ‘ead his own vision of England's future It was self evident to him ‘thatthe triumph of the Tudo signaled divine favour. God had ‘hosen him, not only to bring peace and plenty to England but to restore the glory ofthe realm. ‘Asa child, Henry's favourite reading had been the LDth-century Historia Regum Britanniae, which ‘raced the Enlish royal line back through Arthur to the heroes of Greece and Rome. He revelled King Arthur and the knights of the Round Table never doubting thei historical of himse bbe a major payer in the afais ofthe continent This explans one ofthe fist decsions he made after coming to power -a decision that would ‘rove tobe fateful His father had marked out for himself postion among the op political players {in Burope. Negotiating a martiageallance with the royal house of Span, the most powerful western nation, was a real coup, He'd acquired asa bride for Arthur, Catherine, the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella joint rulers of Spo, Unfortunately thin months ofthe wedding Artht ater 1 Qe “Ir THE TuDoRS WERE Gop’s CHOSEN RULERS, HOW COULD HE LET THE DYNASTY PETER OUT?” Oe Ferdinand, Henry VU dithered over deci daughter law's ate His son dpa Indecision, He declared his inten his bothers widow - and dia so tna lavish ‘etemony within two months of his accession. Teall began well. The king and queen pe ‘vera lively court where ie was one long party ‘Occasionally they appeared in public t pageants, toumeys and ceremonial events designed to bond ruler an rule. Henry singled out his father’s chet ministers as scapegoats for the unjust policies ‘ofthe previous reign and had them executed Ie scemed that afresh start realy had begun, However, for Henry's subjects, took litle time the gilding of popular display to wear through to the hase metal of everyday reality As far as wernment policy was concerned, tle had changed - effective tx gathering was stil its ‘omnerstone. Infact, royal extravagance added to the burdens of weasury officers, During his eg, Henry built iteraly dozen well as endowing projects such as Trinity College, ‘Cambridge and spending hugely on castles and coastal defences made necessary by his aggressive foreign policy. As early 3 1512 he was launching ‘campaigns against Scetland and France and, even though he had to rein in his ambitions during the mide years of his reign, the 1540s saw a return tomiltary atvity that bankrupted the country ‘The costs were bore by the people -as they had boon during Henry VIS eign, 1¢ monumental change had taken place he second Tudor came tothe thro the ubiquitou wolutionary new technology was in every major European city. The result was quantum leap inthe communication of ideas Books, once the treasured possessions of scholars, ‘were more widely available; some of them written in vernacular languages rather than the Latin of the welheducated minority This created a demand forlteracy among al classes. What ideas were now Grculating among Barope's growing readership? “The answer ia wide range ofinnovatin ‘concepts many of which challenged conventional ‘wisdom. Daring authors ventured to criticise the intellectual certainties that bolstered the authority of leaders in church and state Of course, CGreumspect writers (nchuding Thomas More, who had rapturously welcomed the new regime in 1509 but was less wholeheatted many years late) vlled their criticisms in order to avoid trouble id Henry pay any heed to peas for reform? Well, yes and no, He was cultured ruler and cerainly aware ‘ofthe challenges presented by avant gad thinkers, He even appointed Thomas More a his Lord Chancellor in 1529, But he shunned the teachings of religous and social radicals - until i suited him to encourage them. His basic instinct was for stability. Therefore, we have to ‘explain why i was that this king initiated some (ofthe most profound changes in English history “Todo so we must lok to two interwoven factors Henrys determination at all costs to preserve the Tudor dynasty and his chote of talented advisers is primary responsibility ashe sav it, was to site a legitimate her Years passed and the only ill bore by Queen Catherine to survive infancy was a daughter, Mary Corn in 1516) Questions ‘were raged then and since about Henry's sexual ability He boosted of his viity and had at least two mistresses, yet he acknowledged only one illegitimate son and, despite his many royal wives, he sired only two legitimate children after the age (27. This was a cause of genuine anxiety - and bewilderment. If the Tudors were God's chosen rulers, as Henry believed, how could he allow the nasty to peter out? The answer that be stubbornly clung to was that his masige to his ‘brother's widow had been in breach of divine lw and that the reigning pope was duty-bound 10 Srna i. Ie was Clement VITs refusal to oblige that launched the sequence of events that severed England from Catholic Christendom. But he couldn't engineer this monumental change alone. He needed skilled politicians to build the necessary legislative machinery. Henry was a good judge of character and the English Reformation was framed! as much by his three senior advisers as by the king himself Thomas Wolsey, a highly efficient administrator, served as Lard Chancellor from 1515 to 1529, Wolsey oversaw domestic and foreign policy, masterminded niltary expeditions, and tried to ensure that royal revenue kept pace with royal expenditure. He was succesful until the marrage issue reared its head, Despite his best efforts he could not persuade Rome to accede to Henry’ wishes, so was dismissed. His replacement (1528-1532), Thomas More, laboured under a distinct disadvantage; a8 a pious Catholic he didnot believe in the royal annulment. Specifically, he could not support the Solution to his problem that Henry had adopted that of declaring himself head, not only of the English state but also of the English church When Henry refused his advice, Mae resigned His defiance cost him his head. Ths let the way cleat forthe remarkably talented Thomas Cromvell whose conviction was as firm as his predecessors. However unlike More, he was a religious rod prepared to et nothing stand inthe way of reform, Under his guidance, parliament passed the rcessary legislation fr Henry to disembarrass himself of his first wife and mary his second, Cromwell alo swept away the English monasteries, which were hotspots of papal support, and poured the confiscated wealth ito the king’ coffers He DEFENDER OF WHat FAITH? ‘The good Catholic king went on to have a major change of heart ee eee cee eee eer eee tee Ee eee tay Pere ene See et ee or See tenet eet rat eo tee] eee eee er ce enry ee td Sees Peake daar ee al ek ete ee ert (eee enge tern eee te] eect) eee ee) emer error] ee eee) etree’ ee) Paar eee Te eset oe etry Peete ernest went onto purge churches of eigious images and to sponsor an official translation ofthe Bible The result was a split of English society into Catholic and Protestant camps. A conservative rebellion, the Plvimage of Grace, had to be put down in 1537. Rival preachers Iaunched tials from their pulpit, And Henry? What «id he believe? What leadership was he giving his people? The French ambassador, Charles de Marla, reported to his master that oficial policy “is 9 often altered that iis diferent inthe ‘morning than after dinner” However, a he neared his end in January 1547, the king believed that he ha flied his God given destiny: one of his many wives had provided him with a legitimate male hei Anne Boleyn and the Six Wives othe end of his days Henry VII could not be sure that his dynasty was absolutely secure. “About the same time took place the lamentable execution ofthe ‘Countess of Salisbury atthe Tower, n the presence ofthe Lord Mayer and about 150 persons. When informed of her sentence, she found it very strange, not knowing her crime: ‘but she walked tothe space in front ofthe Tower where there was no scafok, but only a small ‘block, There she commended her sol to God, and ‘desired those present to pray forthe King, Queen, Prince and Princess” Few, if any. English kings have been more ‘guilty than Henry VI of shedding innocent blood, but arguably none of his crimes was less ‘excusable than the execution ofthe 67:ear old Margaret Pole, lady ho had never been guilty ‘of teasonous intent. This appalling act does however, bring home tous aspects ofthe politic religious situation we might otherwise tend to underestimate Te fact thatthe Tudor dynasty survived for well oer a century and successfully saw off all threats against it can ute us nt the assumption that after the Pilgrimage of Grace (1537) all ‘opposition was at an end and that Henry Vl had secured peace and a measure of unity but ‘we should not allow hindsight to play us false Seismic tremors frequently disturbed the realm and threatened to erupt in revolt or even allcut war Thre elements combined, throughout the reign to make the station unstable - dynastic rivalry, religious confit and international tension In the 15th century, the Wars ofthe Roses had, fr several decades, divided the leading aristocratic families int val Yorks and Lancastran camps, Henry VIhad emerged ‘victorious in 1485, united the rival parties by marrying Elizabeth of York and successfully seeing of attempts to place Yorkst pretenders ‘on the throne, ut, 50 years down the road, the ‘Tudor dynasty stl cng to power by slender thread, Inthe spring of 1537, when the Pilgrimage (of Grace collapsed, Henry VII was still without ‘male het to ensure the continuance of his line nd the maintenance of his religious policy It did not requie great poltical acumen to foresee that, ‘on Henry's death, there might well bea return to party stife and thatthe accession of Princess Mary. a devout Catholic, would see the end of England’ bie spell sa ‘rotestant nation. Interested observers inside and outside the country kept a close watch on events. There ‘was a network of aristocratic families, ‘some with Yorkist sympathies and some merely watching to sce how they might take advantage of changing situation. Some ofthese clans had kinship links withthe Tuders. ‘Across the Channel the ope intugued with the rulers of Prance and Spain inthe hope of bringing about an invasion that ‘would restore England to ‘the Catholic fod. These forces didnot operate {independently of each other Papal agents were active stirring discontent in various parts of England English activists travelled abroad seeking powerful pations. Among those destined to py significant roles in the political background of Tudor England ‘were descendants ofthe Yorist Edward 1V and his siblings: Henry Courtenay, Marquess of Bxeter (0961539 the brothers Edmund de la Pole, Dake of Sufolk (4711513) and Richard de Ia Pole (0480-1525), Margaret Poe, (not tobe confused with de la Pole) Countess of Salisbury (4731541) and her sons, Henry, Baron Montagu (14921530, Sir Geoffrey (15021558) and Reginald 15001558), and Arthur Plantageno, Viscount Lisle (4614542, nillegitimate son of Edward IV, ‘uch desperate malcontents motivated by dan loyalties andr religious convictions never merged into a coherent movement capable of dislodging Henry VII from his throne. Bu this didnot mean that they‘ gone away, nor that they had ceased tobe a force t0 be reckoned with. The king knew as wells they that time was noton his side, When he died there would certainly be those who backed Catholic Mary a his successor He deployed ‘various tactics to undermine potential opposition: he kept some of is cits at cour here he could ‘keep an eye on them: he bought cffsome with titles, court postions o lands confiscated fiom the monasteries; he sent agents into the shires t spy ‘00 those whose loyalty he suspected: and there were those he imprisoned or ‘executed, He even employed hitmen to rid himself of those who could not be silenced by other means. In the later years of Henry its reign, the dela Pole brothers. the strongest Yorist claimants, were abroad, seeking the backing of other rulers, but things di nat werk out well for them. n 1506, Philip {of Castile, Edmund’ protector, was driven off course by adverse winds whale waveing through {he Channel and was obliged to seek Henry VI protection, The English king took advantage of this mishap to negotiate Edmund’ deliverance ino his hands. As soon ashe arrived in his homeland, Fémund was conveyed tothe Tower of London. He was sil n captivity when Henry Vil died, Henry VII kept him a prisoner as a hostage to ensure the good behaviour of Richard de a Pole, wo ws still touring the Continent in Anne Boleyn and the Six Wives search of powerful patron, When Richard sold Ins sword to Francis | the French king, Henry cose to regard this a treasonous ae, since "England was currently at war with France, and took his revenge by summarily ordering Edmunds ‘execution in 1, For more than a decade Richard Continued to lead the life of solder of fortune ‘Much to Henry VIS delight, Richard ded wile fighting in the Battle of Pavia in 1525, On hearing the news, Henry is reputed to have responded, “AL last the dynasty i secure” fhe did express such a sentiment it was certainly premature. ‘Atention now switches tothe Pole. They were brought into the ace ofthe royal coure where, for some time, Margaret, Countess of Salisbury, was one of Queen Catherine ladies in-waiting and also attached to the household ofthe young Princess Mary. The family were in sympathy with Henry’ first queen and her religion but were not overtly disloyal. They were caught berween ‘concern fr their own advancement and the ictats of the heart. This was precisely what ‘the king intended his leading families to fel slong as they realised what side their bread was buttered on they were not likely torsk treasonous activity ‘enry could be generous with his lsplays of favour aimed a winning the support of those whose loyalty he needed. He showed particular favour fo Reginald Pole, Margaret’ third on, who eventually chose a career in the Church “The king paid forthe young maris university ‘education, at Oxford and later at Padi. Reginald was a considerable scholar and during extensive travels on the Continent he met several ofthe leading thinkers ofthe day. Henry expected that his protégé would exercise his influence with the academic community to endorse the oficial party line on the annulment of his fist mariage, But Pole was gradually moving towards the ‘contrary postion and deliberately absenting himself fom England. Other game players also recognised Pole’ talents and family connections, ‘The imperial ambassador. Eustace Chapays. even wen thatthe young man might be marred to Princess Mar, thus uniting the Yorkist and Tudor lines and paving the way for reconciliation with Rome. Pope Pa Il made Pole a cardinal and appointed him a legate to bring England back Pole, he had, finaly ‘made his postion clear ely in 1536 by sending reside over negotiations into the Catholic fold. As janulment and sought to pro-Cathlic forces at home and abroad to the Supremacy legislation. His timing sly have been worse. Within month rrthern counties were ablaze with insurrection, Margret Pole was appalled a her sept initiative, She wrote to castigate him forhis folly which, apart from anything ese, had potentially endangered her family. The rift was ‘wide and probably permanent. Reginald let his iblngs know, if] thought she was ofthe same opinion as thers over there. mother though she i would tread upon her with my fet: Henry was beside himself with rage. Nothing angered him more than personal betrayal and he was now bent on revenge. He sent agents t0 imtertgate members ofthe cardinals family Under pressure, Sir Geofrey threw himself on the king’ mercy and gave evidence against Lo. and the Marquess of Exeter, It ‘much information butt was enough men and the ‘They were put on trial and foun tueason, For his loyalty tothe Crown, Geottey pardoned and released, Thus ended the so-called “Exeter Conspiracy I had never amounted to very much and It played into the kings hands, He now had hostages at is mercy wile he went in pursuit of Cardinal Pole, What followed was a cat-and-mouse game, Henry despatched minions to loate Reginald and father evidence against him. Through diplomatic channels he tried to persuade King Francis and the Emperor Charles V to apprebend the eardinal but neither was prepared to take action against the pope’ envoy. When ll ese failed, Henty UO ODE mee THE BOOK SLELUMNTAND) Je TNT ana tI SEE RED Tracey PRS ear Dae ee respected throughout Europe asa scholar een eae er ea perermee aear ety Se ey eee Pe eee ee cae eer oe eee ee Pe hele recedta he went further He offered the massive Se eee a eee ae en es rage and drew his dagger. then stormed out eee Ce ee erent ots pe nts eee) ee anne et ed ee See Pees ‘that Henry was wrong to resist the Popes Judgment on the matrimonial sue, that he ee ee sioner ‘teaching ofthe Bible about the sn of marrying peep eee eet proscription ofthe widespread practic of Lene eet et arth eee en nar ey eee ee a REGINALDI a Anne Boleyn and the Six Wi Td sent assassins to solve his problem once and for all But Reginald was not without his own frends, Servants and spes. The ensuing saga of pursuit and light, of agents and double agents, tuff and counter buff was a sequence of events worthy of the pen of John le Carte. The cardinal sidestepped every attempt to entap him. ven the offer af 100.000 gold pleces was not enough to have Pole delivered into his royal master’s hands, hese adventures tock place against the background ofthe Pilgrimage of Grace and its aftermath, By the spring of 1537 the rebellion had been suppressed, Events were now moving i the sings favou, Not only had the "ueachetous commons been put down, but Catherine of Aragon and Anne Boleyn were both dead, line could be drawn under ‘the King's Great Matter: Henry had married again and the icing on his cake twas the discovery, in the spring of 1537 that his ew wife, Jane Seymour was pegnant. He felt vindicated. After the traumas of the last 10 years be hod emerged vitorous. He was convinced (orhad convinced himself that he would now have his long awaited heir. I is no coincidence that this was the time that he commissioned Hans Holbein to paint the lifesize image for his privy chamber at Whitehall. It was a celebration ofthe dynasty. proclaimed toall the important people privileged to enter this innermost space {hat the Tudors had ‘aved! and were here to stay, Yrkist hopeful and their cronies could eat ther hearts out. England's future was decided. would be fee from intemal aristocratic rivalries and the interference ofthe pope, Inthe event, matters di not tur out entirely as the king wished In October, Edward, the longetor prince of the blood royal, as born but his mother did not long survive the peri of 1th century post-natal care. This misfortune allowed the enemies ofthe break with Rome asmidgeon fof hope They spread the rumour thatthe baby prince had also perised. It was a clutching at straws. The king was manifestly Scotland 3, FAMILY DIPLOMACY Tee eet) eee eee St Se eee ee et eee es See eee ges Ferdinand's main objective was to manipuate eee cd peter cnet bear on his daughter to this end. He worked Cea a Pattee ere eens er ake Pan eee Cee ees eee entice td ‘man wi had most power ever Catherine was eee ee Dc leer a ee ee eee ee eed ee eee ee eer aoe Diego forbade her to go. When she demurred, eC enna ee at nL) ee toe eerie eee ard and Scotland were confirmed onthe authonty ce end eee et Re ed eee ee ee es ee Cg eed eee es gett) Ferdinand were bent on the same objectives, eee ind ee ety alliance that she was at pains to patch up. When ee ee eer Preereieeieete ate Ty ee ry Pe ee iis Cee een Pee ee But it was all a force. None of the ‘offenders eee eee! nota game between equals, Ferdinand, a master ‘of duplicity, had waited long to draw England into his ambitious schemes. Through Catherine, he lencouraged Henry’ belicose dreams of regaining Tand in Aquitaine that had once been annexed to the English crown, while his eal intention was to use the English invasion as a diversion to cover his ‘own assault onthe Pyrenean kingdom of Navarre The campaigning of 1512 was remaskable for extravagant bravura and humlating disaster Henry doubled the size of his navy. When he ‘heard that James IV of Scotland had ordeted the ‘bullding ofthe Michael in France, the biggest ‘warship afleat, he commissioned the Henry Grace Dieu to outcast. The glorious game of war was ‘celebrated in juts and court festivities and when the army embarked st Southampton, he went into raptues over the scene But the troops sent to south-west France were deserted by their Spanish ais and returned ‘with their tails between their legs wile naval lengagements in the Channel cost many lives and achieved nothing. Inevitably, relations between the allies were strained but Henry was set on his hero adventure and Catherine played her discreet part in oling the wheels ofthe war ‘machine She was particularly attached to the navy and, as her mother had emboldened her soldier and personally involved herself in ‘edministrative detail, so Catherine maintained contact with naval captains. At one point she negotiated with Venice to ite galley. Ultimately nothing came ofthis, but her buckstalrs diplomacy in Rome bore more portant fut Through Cardinal Bainbridge, Archbishop of York, she brought pressure to bear on Pope Julius It threaten James 1V with excommunication if he intervened in England to help the French. The siting Anglo Scottish conflict was a by-product of the corwoluted state of European politics, “HENRY WAS SET ON HIS HEROIC ADVENTURE AND CATHERINE PLAYED HER DISCREET PART IN OILING THE WHEELS OF THE WAR MACHINE” soe) ‘response to France overrunning pat (of north aly Julius had formed the Holy League embracing Span, the Holy Roman “Empire and England ostensibly in defence (ofthe Church though each participant had his ‘wn objectives, James 1V was tora between his obligation as a Cathal monarch, his alliance with England (he was married to Henry's sister, “Margated and his commitment to the traditional ‘Auld alliance with France. Eventually, It was the latter pus some pretty inflammatory correspondence with Henry - that made the {cision for him. “The main invasion of France was led by Henry in person and was planned forthe summer of 1513. On 15 June the king and queen stout from Greenwich on their way o Dover, where Henry was to embark with his grand amy. Tei ist halt was at Canterbury where they prayed atthe shrine of St Thomas Becket (which would be demolished by Henry VI 25 yeas lated), While the King crossed the Channel, he deputed Thomas Howard, Eat of Surrey, to deal with the Scottish threat and he left Catherine in overall command in England as Regent and Governor AL ast, Isabellas daughter was inher element. "Nature may have deprived her of her role as rayal mother but she would now show that she was a military champion, inspiring her to0ps, planning the overall campaign against the Scots and attending tothe necessary logistic. She oversaw the despatch of Surry and his army by land and a supporting seabore force with reinforcements and heavy artillery. The total English contingent numbered around 20.000. Catherine also presided ove the council sil ‘ot united in enthusiasm forthe venture, and sent regular repos to her husband. But that was not all Careful contingency plans were sen motion In case the Scottish advance was not effectively halted by Howard, A secondary amy was raised In the Midlands anda third, under Catherine's persanal command, formed a line of defence in the home counties When her force was mustered, the queen rode out to deliver arousing speech, in imitation of her mother 35 one observer reported, Did she, we may wonder, deck herself in part armour lke the redoubtable Isabella? In the event, elaborate defensive measures proved unnecessary. On 9 September, Surey’s men won an overwhelming victory inthe largest ever Anglo Scottish confrontation ata place called Flodden Feld or Branxton Moot This encounter hasbeen refered to as the ast, “Medieval battle fought on British soll because ofthe weaponry used and the rules of chivalry ‘which, n some measure, governed it The Scots hha crossed the border and enjoyed considerable success in early actions After some unaccountable ‘ely. they had taken up an excellent defensive position on Flodden Hil some 2000 metres to the south ofthe Northumberland village of Branston, lying four kilometres south east of Battle of Flodden 9 september 1513 Coldstream. The terrain was ily, with high round and steep-sided valleys running roughly In an effort to dislodge the enemy, Howard turned away northwards The Seats di leave thelr ‘vantage point but though the English tuned to face them, they succeeded in reaching the next ridge, Branston Hil. nan exchange of messages via heralds Suffolk challenged the Scottish King tormeet itn on level ground and a time and place was appointed forthe battle twas all very Fhonourably arranged, More surprisingly according, a ual tothe Scottish chronicle, Robert Lindsay of Pasco, 5 Howard brought his aller cross River Til he came n range of the Scotish Cannon but James refed to fake vantage Sd ordered his weapons to stay sent. As Pee Bosquet remarked centuries ltr about another brave but misguided miltary decison, “Cat ‘magnifique mais eal pas a goer - was magnificent, butt waset wat maybe {hat James elt he could be generous He held {he naive and outnumbered the enemy by seme 10,000 men, A 129 September, after an ineffective exchange of cannon fire, the Scots descended the north side of Branxton Fillo meet their adversaries in hand-to-hand battle asthe commanders had agreed, At about 4pm, James began with a sori ‘against the ight of the English ine and almost broke it, but Howard sent in his reserve forces and the flank held. Along the res of the line, bloody butte ensued in soggy ground that severely hhampered mobility Miltary historian aseribe the English su to the superiority of their weapons. The Scotish infantry relied on the pike, a spear some tee forfour metres in length twas a thrusting {ol designed for use against both foot and ‘mounted troops and worked best when the enemy could be prevented getting to close. The English employed the bil, developed from an agricultural implement. Teas shorter than the pike and had an axe bade as well as.aspeathead. As a cut and thrust weapon, it was of mere use in 1 sort of lose contac fighting forced cn the combatants by sticky ground conditions of Branston Moot. The Scots had to abandon their pikes and draw their swords. They were lterally scythed down in great numbers. The English right and lefe wings both pressed home thet advantage, almost surrounding the enemy ven so, the day was fr from won. King James led a furious charge against the standard bore before the Ear of Suey. Had he reached the English commander, the day would have been his. In fact, he was cut down only afew metres from his quarry. At that, the Seots struggled to Leanna SCOTLAND: Fume & Huy “A” TIME AND PLACE FOR THE BATTLE WAS APPOINTED. I WAS ALL VERY HONOURABLY ARRANGED” $f Crookham | ee cred” River Til ‘escape the field pursued by the baying victors. Losses in Medieval batles ae notoriously dificul to establish, since diferent records quote dillerent figures, Ata conservative estimate, we may say that Howard’ army was depleted by some 1500 men, against Scottish losses of aroun 10,000. Mote important politically was the number of nobles and major landowners who perished. The day’ losses were lng remembered in folklore: century poet. An eater Tament il played today) isthe Flowers OF The Forest: vay, en ote for the north, Queen Catherine was jubilant atthe news, Howatd sent her a trophy, from his dead body, and she forwax Inusband. “To my thinking” she wrote, "this bate hat nd all your realm the sreatest honour that could be, and more than ye should win all the crown of France” The Scottish victory came soon after a successful skimish at Thérouanne on 16 Henry's army besieging the town saw off a rele force. The event ingly referred to as the Battle ofthe Spurs because of the speed Pieced UOT eed fhe wy tb ae: . ae M Poge te 5 a fot lag her Her ewe ood © burt Gur your frbyeay” ™ Y and for ous ane Was ae Apna +8 vob yowrgpn WO Lrg erry Le ory o Goliog f ancl SotG me ye yours amd ah ano dant ye pet boner aber cord < eo by ok oe cote? of faawece shane bee ge wot te gc Hu wepes rhs ye % aw [oe ) yam fey your SPOee fagereD Lop Got enue oy Gal» yo manny ie Jacke crescent 8 $e fofhynele ub dager) 7 Feat Ay Yo goo oy aon pond wer Gud: yee open 7b he pec of be Shaws F F Pe oe wih wm Hs yom rece pt re % hehe ob Cae quae {ya0w Gove hw bape amy yore mig eu yen fr 2 aa 5 rhowshr 2 en Gym om ne & Sour ow aie {eotg—mer jap we oy ts—Gane § Beer hretcer | home fen fe 7 op nso Gene in be ial! oe Cider 8 re Blatt olor frre mets wile firme Oe ee ee ork eT ae we [Gs A A pleaf fee erm pay an fe ‘ube rey T I 40 Pde yet wn Geme Goomy Abo ts woo wt oe cur ne neneytihee/ Pine | ry axe owr Cay a rbalirar fon pas | previ) prt boveg og7*? rf pa Nee, Ay say f freee nde your pers 7" ainblefovnde a Pomyfene) urbe fick ora” ae bug Jo te She Jor bog of (er agen on5 2 yore Jae cag (fme ahs we }) Jargon commer Bive bone ie pyduyy pe frome your Freee Destined to be queen ofthe French retreat, Henry, too, sent ato the Channel - the Duc de Longuevil portant captive and Cather diagnosis or ended Theo, in th a1 QU “THe Tupor DYNASTIC TRAIN HAD RUN INTO THE BUFFERS — OR WAS IT JUST A MATRIMONIAL SIDING?” QQ Hensy now ne with his play in the form of Thomas of diplomacy Ree erereey ree xin had run int matrimonial sit OR ee od na a 70a DMM ML Le MRL OOK Catherine versus Anne Cee saying that princes and Pea) re not free to follow theit ‘own desires when i came to marrage - such affairs were determined by politics. From their eatiest days it was instilled into them that, abo ity ay to their dynasty and ted made for en children, wh ‘known any other regimen, it wasnt Oe “BY THE TIME SHE WAS THREE YEARS OL NEGOTIATIONS HAD ALREADY BEGUN FOR HER MARRIAGE TO ARTHUR” Sao ae bo an unbearable hariship for mos royal histo interests to thos i princesses, ho for her marriage to Arthur, Prince of Wales, son of Henry VI of England, At the time it was by ‘no means certain thatthe union would actually lace relations between the royal houses of ay containing alliance against France andthe prevention of Henrys Yorkist rivals fom gaining foreign ort. The first Tudor had gained his co 3 proxy to er English eat het union, And it was another two yeas before she ative in England. She must have found Englands damp airs something ofa shock aftr the spacious places and sunlit orange groves of her native land. ‘Worse was to come - mich have been favourably impre but The six wives welcomed into London by cheering crowds and of lavish banquets and entertainment culminating in the grand wedding ceremony in St Pauls Cathedral. After afew days the newiyeds set off for Ludlow Caste on the Wilsh border because Henry VII decreed that the Prince of Wales shoud take up residence in his principality There the caupe both succumbed 2 ever (perhaps the sweating scknesd). Catherine recovered. Arthur di not. He died suddenly on marrige had lasted just four d-t0 i Henry refused permission. substantial do ‘downpayment he had the proposed a second wedding forthe young widow He had another son the 13-year-old Henry Duke of York Catherine should now marry him, The next sev ere purgatorial for the princess. While her father and father Jaw entered into another round of protracted negotiations, she was hed virtually a aho fn England. She was homesick. The mem of her Spanish entourage were unpopular. She ‘complained fequenty that King Henry kept her short of money and lathes. In November 1504 news came that her beloved mother had die. ‘Bu the following summer there came a slimmer of hope: Prince Henry, now of age to {ake responsibility for his future, was brought ‘before the royal council to confirm his intention tomarry Catherine. He dectned, The decison ‘was in realty, his fathers ~ Henry VI had decided to pursue a treaty withthe Holy Reman [Emperor that was more to his pl pecuniary advantage, and so his ‘marry Princess Eleanor of Austria, 3s nothing now to ‘Nothing, indeed, excep the slowly ‘wheels of intemaional diplomacy. Lie dra ‘on weary for Catherine while the English king ept his options open. ‘Then, a astm April 1509, Henry VI died at Richmond Palace. One ofthe new king’ ist de to revive his marriage t Catherine, and while he was urged on by his counc itis likly that this chimed with his own inclinations. 3 advantage was that he knew her, he woulde't to tie himself, sight unseen to some foreign ha lady He was already showing signs ofthat egoism that would giow to masive proportions in the ‘coming decades, and he would please himselt rather than some foreign ally. He would put his ‘own an is family before those ofthe county oath, he persuaded himself that the two were indstinguishable, It seems likely that he had developed 3 respect and affection for his sisterindaw. She 3s atractve, well-educated, funtoving Gut cerainly not frivolous and wel. experiences was stiong mindedness, something Henry liked in women - atleast in is early years, contiay to populist nartatives that smack more of gossip than riography, thete is no Substantated evidence that Henry ‘Vit indulged himset with st during the fist decade of his marred life. To assume his promiscuity is to misunderstand the ‘complexity ofthe man and the circumstances of his private ite ring of mistresses Henry had two belie systems that largely ned his behaviour with women: he was rely religious and he was wedded to chivalric romance, Both conventional Catholicism and the courtly idealisation of women taught that ‘eroicsm vas to be avoided. That int say that the king never yielded to temptation, But he ‘embarked on marrage with genuine affection for his wif, desiring a family life and, above al, ware (ot his responsibility to sire legitimate offsri his dymasty It was when tie simply didn happen that he began to lak elsewhere and to convince paching the She had undergone six pregnancies and the oly infant to survive was Mary Tudor. Her husband, stil in his 20s, athletic and full of macho energy, found himself edt a dowdy middle aged woman who had faled to Fulfil te fist duty of royal wife twas assumed that the sex ofa child was determined by its mother, His desire for sexual gratification, thus, ncded with his getine bewilderment 3 ‘why God had turmed his back on the Tudors. a Qe 4 «, F HE WOULDN'T HAVE TO TIE HIMSELF, SIGHT-UNSEEN, TO SOME FOREIGN LADY” Oe ‘Meanwhile, an up family, the Boleyns, Thomas Boleyn came from a mercantile family and laboured asiduously t in royal service, He married a daughter ofthe Duke of Norfolk, gained access to Henry VIS court and was attached to various i sis his daughters, Mary and Anne reached reached their teens, be was abl to place ardly mobile Norfolk as reaching fr the tars, ter and advance Catherine versus Anne LTR OKy BST Tm ome) a bE VERSUS POPE? ‘The king's Great Matter definitely Poses) Tu eur head the notion thatthe Bible provided the ee ee ere) mariage. Anne was an enthusiastic reader Cerny ee ees (ld Testament in 1528. Anne had come under en ee i ee eer ron et eer e) possible way out of her love's impasse eer eae ear ee] eee ene ritual and ethical regulations, something that ee ete eet eens Rend See nee ene ceed eaten ee ee canara eee rr ead Prince Henry's espousa to Catherine back in Ee ere ee eee nett) er eg Cet Pitre Cer ee cee een ed ee ee ‘order to provide heirs to his siblings property. Since twas unthinkable thatthe Bible could Sete ain passages provided much meat for theologians er eg ‘The consensus among most scholars was thatthe Deuteronomy text enunciated eee te res eee nel situation perfectly. goes without saying that ree eer ety eee te! een ee ee te eae Ce renee eo ory ee eee ns 33 them in the entourages of Henry VIS wife and daughter Royal courts were places that ambitious parents placed their daughters to ‘inst their ‘education - and also to meet wealthy, titled Potential husbands. They were also places where mora tended tobe lax. Mary earned a reputation forbeing free with her favours: one of her afairs was probably with King Francis when she and Anne were at the French court around 1515, Back In England some five years later she became Henry VII mistress. By 1522 Anne was also in the English court as one ofthe queens attendants, and at some stage Henry transfered his attention to the younger sister. By 1524, sexsal relations between him and ‘catherine had come to an end, That meant that the dynasty had come to an end. There’ no reason to believe that Henry did fel this deeply, and nor can tbe disputed that he et deeply for Anne ‘The growth of his affections (and his frustration) is timetabled ina series of love letters writen between mid 1527 and autumn 1526, ll telling the story of an importunate lover who intally fears rection and is desperate for favours. He later offers all manner of inducements, including instituting Anne as official mistress At length he ‘expresses his hope of uniting with his beloved in marrage, Clearly Anne held out as ng, Ca \ \ ss 28 possible. Was tis col calculation, playing hard to get inorder to get the top prize? We cant ‘know we can only conjeture [seems understandable for her to show extreme caution = there was so much at stake and thrones were dangerous places for those ‘who got too close. In ation, there was her relationship with her iste, There was no love lost between the Boley gins Anne despised “Mary fr her loose morals and had no desire to be tarred with the same brush, If she became intimate with a man. t vould have to be with ‘marriage a the end in view. But if that man was the king. I's quite easy to see why she took her time. Perhaps inthe end, she had no choice 9) wemgoaw “SHE RESPONDED THAT Gop HAD CALLED HER TO BE A QUEEN, NOT A NUN’ ‘To accept the king was her only chance ‘of married happiness. Henry would certainly not have stood by t0 ee her snapped up by someone else Sa, by the mid 1520s three vehicles were speeding along converging roads Catherine's inability to provide a male hit, Henrys passion for Anne, and his conviction that he should have, by divine ight, whatever he wanted. A ‘monumental collision was inevitable nally, Henry tied the softly softy approach, promising Catherine generous treatment if she would retire to nunnery nd renounce the crown, Mast wives would have bowed to the inevitable, but Catherine was made of stemer stuff. Self respec, oligious conviction and dynastic pride all conspized to silfen her resistance and she responded that God had called her to bea queen, nota nun. She insisted that Henry's wish to terminate the marriage should be refered tothe pope and thatthe hea of er family, Emperor Charles, Catherine's nephew), should be fully informe The prospect of having his private life scrutinise by the wo leaders of western Christendom ‘outraged Henry Pethaps this was the beginning of the road that led to the Act in Restraint of Appeals in 1533, which declared that "this ealm of England isan empire entire of itsel Any appeal to Rome was never going to result in a decision in Henrys favour Even if Pope Clement Vil proved pliable, be was under the thumb ofthe emperce who ruled half of Italy dhe Kingdom of Naples) and whose troops sacked and pillaged Rome in 1527 The man inthe middle ofthese ireconilable forces and charged with fling the kings ‘wishes was Cardinal Thomas Wolsey As papal legate he was the senior English churchman and 28 Lord Chancellor he held the top political fice. As the power behind the throne since the beginning ofthe reign he had become adept at ivng Henry what he wanted, but the King’s Great Matter proved tobe his nemesis. Catherine and Anne both mistusted him and Anne in particular entertained a deep loathing that could saree fal to influence her royal love. ‘As rumours spread, public outrage became vocal Catherine attracted popular sympathies While Anne was refered to as the French whore and was accused of using witchcraft to win over Henry. Ant-Boleyn protests turned into riots in some places, anit was even said that an attempt hhad been made on Anne's fe In Ken, a self appointed prophetess, Elizabeth Barton attracted ‘crowds when she foretold death and destruction if Henry married Anne: this ‘Nun of Kent was hanged fr treason in 1534. As late a 1533, when the king took Anne ona royal progress it had to be aborted because of many demonstrations. ‘By this time the convoluted saga ofthe ‘Aivore’ had claimed another prominent victim. Throughout the years 152730, Wolsey trove with ‘might and main to bring about the annulment of Henry’ marriage by judicial means. is fist attempt, n May 1527, to decide the case secretly Inhis legatine court was almost a face. The Judges, though hand-picked, falled to agree. Al ‘the partcipans knew that Catherine could -and ‘would appeal an adverse verdict to Rome, To cap itll knowledge ofthis clandestine tribunal was ll over the royal cour within hours ‘Stage two ofthe campaign was to have the ‘ase tied in England bur before a special legate sent from Rome. Iwas another 16 months before the papal appointee, Carinal Lorenzo Campeggi, arrived. What he failed to tll anyone was that the was under strict orders from Clement Vit ‘ot to make a final pronouncement, but saply to report back to the pope It was 21 June 1529 before the court convened and now forthe fst time, Catherine was given the opportunity to ‘make her plea publicly. She grabbed it. She went ‘down on het knees before the king: WUE eT ed and a sang This. ‘more, and by me ye have bad di although it hath pleased God to call them out ‘ofthe world, which as been no there be any born out of your domi law that ye nent to depart 0 m nd Wf there be owl beseech Jou tate and rece none, then bere Imes nin my former princely bands: ‘There was more in the od cout refusing all instructions personaly before him in Rome. There was no way that Henry was going to subont to this humiliation. He was being denied something he passionately experience for him. Anne and she vented her fury on the king, All he could fo was strip Wolsey of his offices and despatch him to his diocese as Archbishop of York the nly posi hor state he was to retain. In November 1530 the ca arrested and began a return journey face treason charges, only to die enroute. Anne celebrated his death wih a court masque. 1tis worth noting that these events took agains a background of greatly increased For the frst i campaign against the flood of Lutheran ‘Merature coming into the country. incladed on the ist of books Wolsey ordered tobe burned was Willam Tyndales English New Testament, and just how flaught and complex the situation hhad now become is indicated by an incident sometime in 1529, Anne had acquired 3 copy of Tyndale recently published tract The Obed Oe “HE WAS TRAPPED — BETWEEN TWO VERY ANGRY WOMEN AND BETWEEN RIVAL POLITICAL FACTIONS in Cuurcu AND STATE” On ‘ofa Christian Man, wiich urged kings to recover authority usurped by the papacy. She showed it to Henry, who was so delighted with it that {ried to recruit the author ois propaganda team, Thus, the king was, tthe same time denouncing Tyndale asa heretic and seeking to employ him. politcal factions in Church and state: traditionalists and reformers He knew very wel the radical solution he wanted, but how was he to bring it about? Was there no ‘one who could sever the Gaudian knot? Enter Thomas 3 Wolsey’ avoided fal aster and rose rapidly in royal service He brought to the situation a radial, evangelical perspective afresh rind, a tele energy anda ruthless spit In 153 he gained 2 seat inthe House of Commons and was soon drafting and championing utionary legislation that radically changed th and state By autumn 1532, Henn living a husband and wife. Thomas Cranmer, a ‘Cambridge academic, was appointed archbishop of Canterbury, and he issued an annulment ofthe king ist mariage, and was poised to permit the second as soon as the pope had endorsed the appointment. Meanwhile the Reformation Parament had taken over from Convocation, the ecclesiastical legislative body all powers that had tied the English Church to Rome and kept it independent ofthe iil lave courts. A swingeing fine was imposed onthe clergy forthe crime praemunie (upholding papal jurisdiction. Royal Catherine versus Anne the conduct of monks and parish ler las, everything “Then, days into the new year, Anne toll him that she was pregnant Now there was anew urgency: twas vital thatthe cla shouldbe Jeghimate. The couple were secretly matied but twas not until the end of May that Cranmer appointment was confirmed, the marriage to ‘Catherine declared void and the martage to ‘openly announced, Without el med, afer processing to Westminster Abbey through sullen crowds, "7 September Anne was safely delivered of er baby, but there was a problem: it was agi Fenty vas disappointed - disappointed and angry. ‘After ll that be had been through to secur th succession, he was no nearer to achieving hie goal Husband and wile st no time in tying again, but the next child was stillborn. And so was the next. "Now totally disenchanted, Henry was soon onthe Jookout for another wif, Inevitably, word an the street was that God was punishing the King fr his tueatment of Catherine And wihat of the former queen al this time? ‘catherine was as stubbom as her exhusband, She constantly refused to recognise her changed state, insisting that her small band of attendants ‘continued to use her royalties, By royal order ved around the country to one rural residence after another. For the new queen raceme 1) ION SHE WAS CONVINCED THAT ANNE HAD ONTRIVED TO POISON HER” Oe hr daughter, Mary was denied access to he. In 1534 the princess was hastardsed by the Act of Succession, which pronounced Henry's children by Anne ta be heirs tothe throne and pronounced it taeason fr anyone to advance Mary's aim, The finale to thislong appalling drama that for Il years came with brutish 7 January 1536, Catherine dled at Kimbolton Castle. on the edge of the ‘Cambridgeshire fens. She had lived long enough to hear ofthe execution of several fiends and supporters wo, ike he, had refused to sign the (ath of Succession, Bitter tothe very end, she wa ‘convinced that Anne had contrived to poison her Infact. Catherine's death was the lst thing the queen needed, She had lost Henry’ affection pursuing Jane Seymour, one ies nating Catherine was now Anne's BROTHERS IN ARMS? SSCS OT eee CEng nee ent eases nd De ea mad Se on before her she joined the household of Catherine See oe Se ees ens eee eee Se tcd ‘power and preferment - who were responsible for actively encouraging Henry Vil's pursuit of reread eee er enna) et ere ee ee ey Cees en te ec Cee eee ee ray ee Roman Empie, had been tld that she ha been eee eS ee eee ter ema Pee ee eee cd eee Ee Sed eee hey ee eed ee eee ea ees eee tn ar rs Seco erat ee tea Sere ena et Poet ay eho ona te et) eee ay time her brothers attempted to seize control Seer ina similar manner a the Boleyn, both eee ees coer entire Insurance policy, as long as she lived ther, wa! question ofthe king finding some way to terminate his second marriage, There would be calls for him to return to hist wife’ and even Henry would probably be unwilling all that again. 17 days later the king had bad fal fom hi in the tltyard and was unconscious fora couple of hours. The news nck to the pregnant wife and she calmed that it bug amiage fve day Inter. Henry now had no incentive to continue ‘on his current marriage. "Thomas Cromovll was aware ofthis and wall stainy have recalled what had happened to Wolsey for failing to fre the king fom an unwanted relationship. He now set about finding (or manta adultery. Anne, fr her part, also entered into Intrigue to bring battle tothe death - and Cromwell won, ‘On 1 May, Anne's accused lov ‘the Tower. She joined them the next day: On 15 ‘May she was tred and found guilty of adultery and ploting her husband's death, On the 18 ‘May, Cranmer obligingly adjudged that Henry's second marrage was voided by virtue of Annes pre-contrat with another man. The next ‘moming the queen was beheaded, protesting her innocence tothe lat, So ended a Tong and kd not have been impo min fiction. Many have tried. OUR Re ad BR BREE N B BNYESMO EH Oe Anne spent seven years in France, learning the tricks of the courtly trade and developing sophisticated tastes. How would they influence her reception at Henry VII's court? Wirten by Jon Wright French contemporary paid ‘Anne Boleyn what he must hhave regarded as the highest compliment: "No one would ever have taken ber to be English by Ther manners but a nate-bom Frenchwoman” ‘Anne's immersion in hfe across the Channel had, Indeed, begun ata tender age. short spell at ‘the glamorous court of Archduchess Margaret, governor ofthe Habsburg Low Countries, go the ball lling when Anne was just 13 years old and ‘then it was of to the even more sumptuous treats available in France In an attempt to thaw out Increasingly frosty Anglo French relations, Henry ‘Vill agreed toa marrage between his sister, Mary. and the French king. Louis XM, Promising, well-bom English young women with a decent ‘command of the local language were required as escorts and Anne easly made the grade She hnad almost certainly settled into her new posting by the time ofthe royal matiage celebrations in the autuma of 1514 but then jus 2 days late, tragedy struck. Louis Xi died. It was assumed that Marys English attendants would al return home but Anne was invited to stay behind, “Annes mytlvmaking crits -nevern short supply ~have suggested that this had something {too with Anne catching the eye ofthe new ‘king, Francs I a rule, oe sure, who always hhad a wandering eye. In fac, there is no reliable evidence whatsoever of any sexual impropcety. c 5) “The rather less sensational likelihood sthat Anne hici ff with the new queen, Claude who, as well asboeing of similar ag, admired Anne’ abies, ‘decorum and virtue. Claude - goodness without sin" as one sycophantputit- would simply not have tolerated one of her companions indulging in ewe recreations This represents a hefty Bow to the cariature,pedled most famously and ‘venomous by the Jesuit Nicolas Sander, ofan Incorrgly whoredsh Anne Sander suggested that “Anne hil been packed off to France inthe first place to avoid the gosipy consequences of sleeping with het family’s butler and that she was referred toby the French asthe English mare because of her shameless behaviour in ther country. Tis wasall, to use the echnical term, tos ‘Ast happens, Anne seems to have led rather sedate. even studious life as a member of ‘Claude's household, The queen had a gift for falling pregnant and, during these spel, preferred to spend time at Blois and Ambose. She dd not relish the exertions requited by the social ‘whit and, while resentful ofthe kings ficial mistresses, was conten tole them take centre stage at many public events. This didnot preclude Jengthy spells in Paris and Claude, with Anne in tow, enjoyed a good dea of travel: journeying to after various overseas adventures, for example, ‘or participating in royal progresses. Claude and her households members naturally attended The French apprenticeship The six wives Ecceerrearinrnirneicnd *y evens such asthe christening of Claude's 2 Henry (he future Henry 1) in 1519, and the sumptuous diplomatic festivities atthe Feld of ‘the Coth of Gold in June 1520, Claude was not some meek bystander in French polis - no was allowed to forget her powerful status as the duchess of Brittany (a postion that, in som ‘ways, brought her close to Francs in terms ‘restige. Anne breathed inthis aspect of Claude's hhousehod. oo, whether in relative seu ‘the Lote Valley of a the heat of thing, in Paris ‘A genuine fondness developed between Claude and Anne - the queen is reported to have been stated when Anne returned to England - but Cate was also an exemplar ofa neve kin ‘queen: one who paid great attention 10 everything her mistress could teach her and, as Ick Would have i, this was a period when the role of women a the French court was entering a mative, dynamic phase 1 paper, the kings household col look like the font of all French power. It was always siderably lager than the yment and was he usually conducted. significant transition was already underway, howe household was home to around 19 ladies: and ‘maids-n-waitng, plus small ‘were dedicated to musical explits 13 kept an ‘eye on culinary matters five dealt with travel arrangements, et. total of 109 members made up the formal household ~ in addition to yo had final say when ic came to granting ‘health matters, finances and soon. Before ntury ended, Anne of Britany, wie of lL ad then Louis XU, took steps to ‘expand the household ~a process that continued after her death in 15i4 By 1523 Justa couple of ‘years after Anne Boleyn had let fr England, the ‘queen's household had 285 members. ‘A change in ethos as even more important, ‘The perception o than attractive appendages w shion - a trend with origins actos the Alps in aly. was still deemed abs sen at court to behave: relaxed approach was taken to conver the sexes andi dawned on the French yen might actually have interesting things to say. This was very much inked to the sorcalled ‘Quetelle des femmes a cultural debate that looked long and hard at female capacties, their ability to gover to their worthwhile ‘engagement in the er’ intellectual and artistic ‘endeavours. It would be anachronistic to define thisasa forerunner of modesn feminism, but from as early 35 the fist decades of the 15th ‘century Christine de Pizan was making the case fora more enlightened appreciation of female talents and potential (he famous The Book of of Ladies was hugely influential through the 15th century and was first translated and Printed in English in 1521 Needless to say, not allthe e such femal aspitations. Blaise de Monluc ater grumbled that "mis st that in France we rarer ie Interfere in too many matters. the king rather p hat about something other than thei hunting 3 the curious pa thet female companions Dung Anne’ ine in France, a more confident female role was championed by an impressive tro of lacing lights, all of whom, may well have served as role models forthe ‘yung woman from Hever Castle The king's other, Louise of Savoy was a formidable figure ‘who did not suffer fools gladly and acquitted herself well during shor spells as France's regent. ‘The king’ sister, Marguerite of Angouléme, owned asa gited scholar witha sideline (mainly exhibited after Anne's time in in humorous stores that challenged ideas about female social roles and pol ren. Nor shoud who, bind the humble ‘when t came to championing her cause all lived in the shadow of another royal Anne of France, sister of and sometime regent fo) King Chatles VII who, n written advice to her daughter, stressed the need for propriety and the advantages of not becoming a blabbermouth, but also saw good sense in edacatng her attendants {3s fully a5 possible (even an interest in diplomacy ng the qu a performative queenship. boat the but she pat full sdvantage of an environment and, 3st ‘nthe shaping oftheir public personae. question, Anne racked up an impressive number of achievement, attempting to strike the delicate balance between assertiveness and accepting the ‘constraints of a male-dominated milieu, Anne was renowned 25 fine musician with mastery ofthe lute fate, harp rebec and keyboards. One ‘of her more ardent fans boasted that “when she a second Orpheus, she would have made bears and wolves attentive” This ited g court of Francis 1 of the most precious arteacts associated with ‘Anne [sa collection of French and Low Count song that had a sigalficant impact onthe Tude musical tradition. Bancing. meanwhile wa -ommonly acknowledged asthe most desirable ourtly talent ofall. It allowed one to appraise the health and intellect of one's partner and er that, as one rather frank commentator pu be didnot “emit an unpleasant odour such as of bad ‘met’ Every astute courtier knew that the dan floor was the best way the begin the courtship STARTING OUT Deeg eae eerste tid Poteet a eat Pete cr) Cece reese Cocca eee) prestigious diplomatic posting tothe Low ea a ee ert arrange a much-soughtafter courtly position eee eae Leen ete ee ee ee Se a ee ed Sie n neths ee ere ee Ce een pee eee eee) etry ‘and architecture. Figures suchas Erasmus (attracted by Margarets spectacuia library) Ra er Pee eee set) ee ener ‘court was often lauded as one of the most Pee ater eee eee ay Reece ieee en een De ee Cee ee Poe ene ee Pocono EP omer rs DRESSING TO UT a aks PI On ee can ity lotheshorse but she appears to Pree est ert eee ae arene oat well in both France and England How splendid it would be to have a confirmed yet Se ret ee errs and portratsts We have to make do with conjecture. One written ac pe errenoulsyee seers Paar eet ed pare (enrereneresteentos Pore eee errr err) ee ee eee ene ed Cee eo ee aed Cee eee eee ery See een ee oe tastes appear to have influenced the court an, coerce ets “THE PERCEPTION OF COURTLY LADIES AS LITTLE MORE THAN ATTRACTIVE APPENDAGES ” WAS FALLING OUT OF FASHION ofa furure wife. She might be won by the "good temper and grace displayed while dancing” and, ‘on.a more practical evel. the old matrimonial Frunting rounds had become less appealing Tadies do not ike to be present at fencing oF tennis lest a splintered sword ora blow from a bal should cause them injury was best to ‘know the difference between your vanes and your galiards, as Anne assuredly did, ne also managed to develop refined tastes in Mterature ahe was alvaysa bookworm) and the ar, This, oo, chimed withthe French ‘courts spiraling interest in attracting celebrated painters from across Europe, Francis would offer a good deal of work to Andrea del Sarto and provide cosy lodgings for an ageing Leonardo da Vinci. Francis was no intellectual gant but he saw sense in dipping his toe nto the waters of humanistic earning, norably through support cf Guillaume Bud, who found rewarding work asthe king’ ibarian. A related but more tisruptive. legacy from the French years was Anne's cautious embrace ofthe cause of religious reform ~ this, again, may have been sparked by ber relationship with Marguerite of Angouleme. I would be erroneous to postion Anne asa fully fledged Lutheran, but she had a deep passion for Biblical translation Jacques Lefevie <@Brapks French version was among Der most prized possessions She relished reformist texts ike the Sermon di bon paste and was wel aware cof many ofthe ages challenging theological ideas, such as the Lutheran concept of Justification by faith alone. This all began in France and would hhave momentous consequences back in England. Anne should not be seen asthe mastermind behind a Protestant minded ‘party’ but she di lend supporto the episcopal carers of adventurous thinkers. This would! be more than enough ammunition for Anne's enemies to tse aginst her when the time came cee Paget eet recs er fl “Tis al lay in the future, of course. More urgent was the question that must have occupied Anes thought as she contemplated. Would she be seen. asa welcome exotic import or, with al er fancy skills and ideas as being hopelesly cut of step with the ways ofthe English court? She would soo find out. The relationship between Henry Vill and Francis Thad reached a point of crisis and there was simply no longer a place for ‘an English maid-in-waiting inthe household ofa French queen, ‘Anne was home by late 121 oreatly 1522 Iris tempting © assume that a clash of cultures was Inevitable. If France had embraced the idea of a fundoving adventurous - itll highly regulated cour, the household of Catherine of Aragon might appear, atleast at frst, as rather lacklustre by comparison. The advice ‘of someone like the infiuential Spanish humanist Juan Las Vives held considerable appeal, “She ‘who ruses allurement in those wins behold her ‘does not posses true chastity” Vives wrote. The To IROOM Ro eo ightest unseemly ‘upon and there was 2d chat and sexual encounter. ‘The powe ideas in England can easily bbe overstated, however. Catherine was partial o a nlce dress ofan energetic dance, and had no ‘problems about showing of her courtiers’ beauty in order to impress foreign vistors, During treaty ‘eebrations in 1518 the “lady maskers took e of them a French gentleman to dance with them, [they spoke] good French, which delighted muck ‘these gentlemen’. A Venetian s ‘even more bowied over. The women a. So yes, Catherine and Henry could put on a show Infact, some ravishing beauty who was about to ali very woman atthe English court. She was ‘erty enough but, as one contemporary saw things, “not one of the handsomest women in the woe”. She was of "middling statue, swarthy complexion, thin neck, wide mouth, fand) bosom not much raised though there was no ignoring the eyes, "which ae black and beautifal” Henry noticed Anne very quickly, but twas probably her vibrancy and intellect that captured his attention Nr di these qualities necessarily prow resentment in others. Being 2 all The link with Fra rf er seem rath ‘eat lending be torian Exc Wes puts it, “continental polis’, Perhaps some did find the confidence and the talkatveness alte hard to stomach ‘or her behaviout, manner tie and tongue she was distinctive, prec ‘because, as one observer put it ’she had been ‘brought up in France’. Tis perhaps caused some discomfort in an England that was stl very much ‘on the periphery of Furopean culture. he French ink alo threatened to expose a deep-seated Francophobia within Tudor society. Contemporaries often grumbled about the deleterious rung men pursuing thee studies 3 the English Channel: they often came 3, according to London lawyer Eard Hall all French in eating, drinking and apparel and in “French vies and brags’. tthe time of ‘Anne's martage the visting French ambassador ‘would be greeted with cries of "tench dog” and 3 knave’, wll Lord Leanard Grey got into a good deal of trouble for announcing that if "Thad a drop of Pench blood in my body [would cut myself open to get rd it” Such ‘prejudices died hard and, even a the end of the ‘Tudor er, courtier Robert Dalington would stl be itemising the nine great French moral failings simpac ts berets raceme 14 O “HENRY HATED THE PLACE POLITICALLY AND MILITARILY, BUT HE SHIPPED IN FRENCH CRAFTSMEN AND JEWELLERS” raceme 1a) eR ON disobedience, negligence railing recklessness, sloth lack of manners, decet forgetfulness and stupidity, Admittedly, the French had splendid buildings and one of the most delicate languages inthe worl, but, according t Dalington. they alo possessed a puetle sense of humour anda terrible habit of shrugging off future problems ‘node to enjoy the present moment: "ike schoolboys who care not, so long as they may play today though they may be birched tomorrow ‘Such bigotry was certainly not insuperable, however, and luckily enough Henry VI had a soft spot for many aspects of French culture. He hated the place palitieally and militarily but shipped in French craftsmen and jewelers, was competent in the language and even had a grudging respect for the fashion sense of his great rival, Fanci Allthat King Henty Vt and most of his court, probably saw when Are Boleyn made he fist public appearance after returning home was young woman, tom between opening:night ‘nerves and the self-confidence that France had granted her, The occasion was.a Shrove Tuesday ith Anne portraying the character of She would certainly require deep snmodity inthe turbulent masque Perseveran RY aA hey had caused a religious "evolution in their quest to marry, ‘but when Henry Vitland Anne Boleyn finally became husband and wife they did so In secret. The ‘couple's wedding, on 25 January 1533 in a room above the Holbein Gate at Whalehal Palace, was ‘witnessed by just a handful of people and there ‘were no celebrations afterwards It may even have ‘been the second secret wedding ceremony Henry and Anne had gone through for while the pair had decided that nthing could stop their union, ‘there was a very good reason that they kept their ‘wedding to themseives, On the day they made their vows, Henry was stil offically martied to his first wife, Catherine of Aragon. ‘The king’ frst wife had been an inconvenient stumbling block from the moment Henry and ‘Anne decided to marty over five years eae Catherines refusal to agree to an annulment had dismayed then angered Henry, a monarch who ‘was used to getting his own way. Anne had a personality every bit as powerful as that of her uture husband but even so, neither could have {oeseen the battle they would face to wed wien they first el in ove "Exactly when that was is hard to pin down - Henry and Anne were good at keeping secrets. THE WEDDING © ages) The controversial royal wedding that changed the course of England's future forever ‘ten by June Woolton made However, the king’ surviving lve eters to her suggest the atraction was serous, at leas for him, aseatly a 1526, By then she wasa rising star at ‘court, having returped to England after spending her formative years on the continent ‘Bom at some point between 1501 and 1507 ‘Anne had spent her ealy years as lady-n-walting toa seis of royal ladies in Burope Along tint at the French court had introduced her to sophisticated thinking and fashion, which she rade her calling card when she returned to England Her dark har and eyes, as wells ber harm ar personality son Sw men tying Her lively wit and expertise at the game of ‘courtly love i believed to have been instrumental in Henry's attraction to her. By the time he fll in Jove, the king was in his mi 30s and had reigned for over 15 years. He had built a reputation for ‘wise government, miltary prowess anda love of Teaming. but he was also known as a romantic. In the early years he had showered Catherine with affection even though their mariage had been. politically useful alliance. He had aso had a ‘tring of mistresses. inching Anne's sister, Mary. However, when Henry set his sights on Anne, she refused to follow her sister’ lead and refed all, attempts bythe king to make her his lover. WUT eR Be a WUE eT ed ram iiQ) mI “ANNE WAS NOW STAYING IN THE CHAMBERS THAT HAD ONCE BEEN USED BY THE QUEEN Oe ‘This only deepened Henry's passion for her and bis surviving letters are filled with desire Inthe riten in May 1527, be tells Anne he has stricken with the signing himself "your loyal servant, H.R” He tells ‘Anne that “wherever Lam, 1am yours, while another ote is decorated with hearts containing with is ovn name. ‘Anne sil refused to become his mistess and soon they had agreed to marry Bu while the couples relationship was filled with passion, i ‘was also a matter of politics, By the time Anne won his heart, Henry ad already given se thought to ending his marriage couple had just ones named Mary, and the queen was 40 and unlikely to have more babies. Henry began to ask whether his union was realy valid a Catherine had previously been married to his ‘der brother, Arthur. The queen maintained that relationship had never been consummated but Henry, with his deep knowledge ofthe Bible, ‘became fixated on the Old Testament Book of Leviticus which sald if man marsed his brother’ wife they would be childless 11527, Henty sought a papal annulment to his marriage but soon afterwards the pe, Clement Vil, became a prisoner Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, who just happened to be Catherine's nephew. Henry's ‘Cardinal Wolsey, began looking for tions and established a special court ‘examine the validity ofthe marrage with both ing and queen commanded to appeat before i. put aside aternpts alot of sympathy inthe process. Unf Henry a papal legate sent from Rome especial forthe hearing held proceedings up and the annulment fled to matenalise The Kings Great Matter, as Henry attempts to seratch his fist mariage fom the hisory books twas known, continued to ramble on while Anne ‘became an increasingly visible and important par of is life. By 15, Henry had b with Catherine, who was conspicuously absent from that years Christmas celebrations. Eustace noted soon afterwards that Anne was now staying in the chambers that had ance been used by the ‘queen, On | September 1532, Henry made Anne smarguess of Pel oman hha been elevated to the peerage inher own ight. ‘In Octobe, she accompanied Henry to Calais where the king of France, Francis J talked and

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