pea, Ce pis ae I ICONIC LEADERS KEY MOMENTS rt mT MOVEMENTAhAbAbhhMhhaAasAhnaaahsaaaaad. AAMAAhAhAhhhaAahaaaasahaaaad, TVW VV VW VV VV VV VT VV VV VV VV AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA, AAAAAasshhsssssssassadad. AAbAbAhAhhshshsahsasAsaasasaaad. AAAAAAAAAAAAAAasaaaaaad, AAhAbAAAhsahshshsaaasasssaaad. AAAAAAshshsAbshhasssasaaada. AAhhhhahsahshhahsssahsaaaadd, AAAAAhAhhAAhAhaAaAssaaaaad, MAAAAbAAhshshaAaAshssaasasassAadad. AAhhbahshsahsasassssassadad, MAAhhhhahhshshsasAahsaahasaadad, AAAAAAAAAAhAhAaaAasAahaaad. MAAhhAbhhshshsbshsassssssadd, MAAAhAbAAshshashssssssassadd. AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA,Welcome to HISTORY mn rai Te — PAC Me Pe OND. AIW Q) VEIVE i a Marking 55 years since the landmark Civil Rights ‘Act was signed into law, this book takes you ona fascinating journey through the defining moments of America’s Civil Rights Movement during the 1950s and 1960s. You'l find everything from Rosa = Parks and the Montgomery Bus Boycott to Martin — ———— SS bE book explores the origins of the African American fight for freedom and equality, its achievements in the face of intense opposition, the movement's, iconic leaders and their roles, and how it inspired the new wave of protest and activism currently sweeping the United States, = == Luther King’s legendary ‘I Have a Dream’ speech and the March on Washington. Filled with fascinating —— features, emotive stories and iconic imagery, the a i —_ KAT I4 L FUTURE 4 rCIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT HISTORYNW SD yD | 40 46 48 52 60 \\ RRA \ \\\ RS =2.=—_ CONTENTS | Sk Defining Moments: 1619-1950s America's centuries of slavery KKK: The invisible army From emancipation to expectation The founding fathers of civil rights The South under Jim Crow Defining Moments: 1954-1963 The murder that shocked America Rosa Parks: Tired of giving In The Little Rock Nine a Building a dream: The rise of MLK The power of nonviolent protest The campaign that changed AmericaDefining Moments: 1963-1968 “T have a dream” Four little girls gone 80 JFK and MLK 88 Racism and murder ~ in Mississippi 90 The long march to vote 96 Death of a King — 108 Defining Moments: 1965-1968 = 110 A changing mood: Riots & rebellion 114 The making of Malcolm X 118 Black Power, Black Panthers Wah 128 Civil rights: Achievement & anguish 134 Barack Obama: The watershed president 136 Birth of the new Civil Rights Movement Wh \Defining Moments: 1600s-1950s America’s centuries of slavery KKK: The invisible army From emancipation to expectation tock 28 The founding fathers of civil rights 32 The South under Jim Crow1 January 1863 The Emancipation Proclamation ince 1519, slavery had cemented itself iy into the culture and Worl and the would become. drove both trade atc industry and had, quite literally, shaped the ration, became embedded in normality so deeply {at for many, enforced labour was as pes ion in beth the North the South would make ian unwise aventie to during wartime. However, that ll changed bby mid 1862, when thousands of staves rebelled against thei Southern masters and fled to join the he knew that ts deep i invading armies ofthe Union influ ofbumaniy, incon to use the abolition of slavery 18 in a past asan acceptable war © The 14th and 15th Amendments 9 July 1868 [Amended hem, Sgt = = fae waisetk ro ae oe 0 measure. And while a great many Republicans vse opposed to any form of amendrent ‘Savery law became cea thatthe majrty of saveholders were hased i the South and thatthe war cn hem had become ade facto wa on slavery sel The Prodamation sel iy dismantling in the United States, The new aw granted freedom toll slaves rebel st their masters inthe Soh, bat ci not those owned inthe North, ranted them to fight with the Unicn in the wa, hem rights a tien. was a bal 3s butt was progress inthe righ ection nonetheless Pout cana) © The Great Migration 1916 NAACP founded 12 February 1909 fete Arancennt Ged ope eae ‘Arenas moved ro the rural set inthe South the Gest Dees on ral based communities,DR TTS Pen =) 4 Cy Era = ~~ Tey © Double V strategy 7 February 19424 PNM cle@chsneclsluels(ocneme of slavery | America was founded on the principle of liberty 5 and justice for all, but it wasn’t the land of the free for everybody Soke Ds eee eer ened Pore need Peeve et ron cry Rererrerese ena Pen etree eee ener eee ee ets South, There were four milion by 1860, The system eae en rag es per ea aT era ee ‘continved to be brought into the ere oe Pere ee eet td Porte aes toan end Rene eee ey ee se ey ene ened Pe uneEn een ey ee en nc See ean en ed eg een ad eer eres slave without family was thought to have less ee ees reasons atone point there was sucha surplus ‘of slave labour inthe Upper South that a forced pee et ee ee South was implemented, Through all of this, slaves ae es they formed deep kinships with their companions te ere ee ee eres ee ene tose) be used against the slaves. Black preachers were oer ono ens Ce ee Se esd E fae 5 ess Sarat eennene mast et oe Perens remeron eareente TT) ease pests ete teett dogs, sho. The Fuge lve At was a 150 to make it ease fr save owner 0 eee tt amor Pe eeereR cre Perens att ter a cee me eeereet ond Peeters sents peer Ce eet ere Somes ts preemie tan pereroerareen Preece ee Perera perry “i peters ers Perscrerg ets Pe oer ea ey a Beet Penne earner) eee peor) Brome rent TPaiary Pentre cry pearance te preereeerateey ai Peres cen Preteen) peer ey paren a Seat ee See er tiPOR ROOK Bt eaAll f the above took place under the presidency ‘of Andrew Jackson, Abraham Lincoln replaced him in 1860, with ehscomifort about slavery part his platform hough he wasnt strictly aboltonis) ‘The secession from the Union of Il pro-slavery Confederate states rant on slave labour forthe plantation system tok pace the same year. Lincoln began leaning politically slightly farther to te let thanks tothe continuing pressure of abolitonis CCongzess pasted the Emancpation Proclamation, (Gat grt Moverent In 205 hejoned WEB Ou Beis in founding the Nogara Movement the NAACP 1909, 8sa r - Drawing on his experience a Harvard and Atlanta, DuBois advocated the training ofa back eit, a "Talented Tent ‘who could parse the Jotiest of deals and sive fr cultre and character, rather than economic subsistence Inthe Southern sates, he said blacks and whites ‘were segregated andthe police andthe Judicial system funetioned as "a means of reenslaving the backs I backs were to ‘obtain equality i aw and opportunity they must cultate thet own educational, poltical and spiritual resouroes 1n 1968, Da Bois and several ether young Aca American campaigness founded Nagara, ‘a movement whose principles explcty rejected the Aanta Compromise vents vindiated Du Bos critism of ‘Washington's approach. In 1906, President Roosevek dishoncurably discharged 167 black soldiers in response ta the Brownsville Alf, inwich the white resents of Brownsville, Texas had ited aginst the presence of black sldins Soon afterwards, ‘move than 200 backs were mutdered by white mobs at atlanta, The Compromise, Du Bois wrote in Litany at Atlant was ove Me consensus among black activists now swrung towards campaigning or ecu rights, fre votes and educational opportunity In 1910, Du Bois moved to New York and began working as the Director of Publcty and Research fo the organisation that would Jead the next phase ofthe campaign, the National Association forthe Advancement of Colored People (NAACP In ths office, he lee campaigns against lynching, the sepregation of ‘the US Army, and D W Gas 1915 fm The Bir (OFA Nation, which portrayed the Ku Khux Klan as patio defenders of American values. Du Bois had always seen the colour line as a tlobal problem. In Te Saul of Black Fok he had Analysed the “double consciousness of American blacks as a harmful psychological spit between black and American Kentites. Healing this dvsion equied not just equality in American law and society, bat also the strengthening of inks with ‘other non-vnite populations ~ and, n Du Bois cstmation, the embracing of antmperial and socialist politics As early a 1900, he had attended the first Pan-African conference, organised in London by Haitian and Trinidadian campaigns, In 919, while in Pats gathering information on ‘dscrimination in the US Army, Du Bos attended the firs of a series of Pan-Afican Conferences In the ealy yeas of the century Du Bois had ‘outflanked the older Booker T Washington, by advocating immediate legal equality rather than ‘economic integration and accommodation to the existing order. Now, Du Bois found himself accused fof being an accommodations. His new and ‘younger antagonist was Mareus Garvey (18871940) the Jamaicar-bern proponent of back separatism an going Back to Afi 30 Ironically, Booker T Washingtons vision of, back economic independence was ane ofthe inspirations ofthe Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) which Garvey founded in 194, Two years ltr Garvey was tn America soisting ‘nds fra Jamaican technical intttein the style of Washington own Tuskegee Institute Yet Garvey shared none of Washingtonsaccommodationist politi Nor, though he shared Du Bois conviction hatte problems of back Americans were also global ones, ‘ide share Du Bois hopes thatthe equalities ‘flaw and sockalsm would cure racist attitudes ameng wits By 1900, the UNIA daimed to have fur milion members. Garvey had survived an assassination attempt and launched a program to modernise the infrastructure of Liberia, the West ican stat ‘established by ex American saves, and which ‘Garvey wanted to tur nto model back state, HeThe founding fathers of civil rights had also created the Black Star Line, a shipping line intended to ep build up economic inks between ‘Asia and the rest ofthe wok, and to export slaled and commated American blacks to Libera, Du Bis, whose NAACP magazine The Cris was the biggest black publication i An sar brochure solting funds fort tn 1922. Garvey was the mainstream Meas of the DOU imernatonal perspec political views remained subjects of controversy. He died in Ghana i963 aged 95, ois was mote socialist and pan- African in er King I, and less red much of Garvey cxdered his deportation to Jama eventually dein Landon, in 1940. le, Du Bois rose to ever greater rthused about the flourishing ofthe nem i the growing black population in New Th York City - the Harlem Reni and moved between the university and left-wing polis, While and the particulars, marche in the line his sategies for cvilnghts in Amerabecame _‘Bosand Garvey. race in America and the worl and prosecuted ship noc owned by the Blck Star Line ona Arca philosophy. But 3Tf 82 The South under Jim Crow: Segregation in the Southern states of America was legally entrenched in laws unofficially named after a popular racist song heel about and turn about and do just every time | wheel about jump im Crow” So an the chorus tothe Jump Jt Cow song: 44 verses of racist doggerel made poplar by the white Ith century Thomas Daddy’ Rice. Rice performed white politicians, wo quickly political power in almost stamped down hard ‘on the very idea of the cretion ofa lack miele class ‘Segregation meant separate schools and ‘ofthe minstrel shows tat help spread the stereotype ofthe wes or dea The so-called fim Crow hws eval fom the Back Codes America in the 1860s, The came out ofthe preCivl defining the status of save owners, The Bl former slaves recently (of 19611865. Their purpose wa srosely under unsupported. Afrcan contol the ven viewed as cizens, and certainly as sub-class, expect tobe allocated a seat on pli transport ‘movement and labour of blak people. and to keep black people could nt even tly on the zccording to your colour White nurses were not them politically and so essed, They may system when crimes were perpetrated reuited to work on hospital wars upon which have been free, but to white folk ofthe Scuth they them, Lynchings remained commonplace inthe ack patients had been placed. Black hairdressers ‘would never be equa South throughout the frst haf ofthe 20th century, and barbers werefrbidden from cut By the 1570s the period of Reconstruction had taking place n the thousands tt wasst unt the bai. Intermarsage and coasting seen legislation introduced to protect the iil shocking murder of Emmett Til gained widespread rights of Afian Americans. These small postive pres ltntion in 1955 tht attudes finally began steps were, however, almost immediately reversed to shift O fie or sx months in prison tn Louisiana, “Printing, publishing and circulating any * Ie cre material suggesting that black and white ss,aerm people were equal was punishable” tastrere mune:i ERE Ll ES 7 } f TET ea LL Ok 33A Change Is Gonna Come Ske 36 Defining Moments: 48 Building a dream: 1954-1963 The rise of MLK 38 The murder that 52 The power of shocked America nonviolent protest 40 Rosa Parks: Tired 60 The campaign that of giving In changed America 46 The Little Rock Nine9 1954 and almost the entirety ofthe 20th century up unl that point - American ctikren had attended racially segregated schools, Since 1896 the contradictory policy of Separate but equal was enforced forcing students to ide separate school buss attend ferent schools and grow up as divided a adult society The NAACP (National Association forthe ‘Advancement of Colored People) had fought for ‘decades in cours across the nation to amend the Jaw, and t would be ane such case that would eventually overturn haifa century of sgvegation for good, That case was filed by 13 parents trom Topeka, Kansas, led by weklr and assistant pastor Olver Brown It claimed thatthe facies provided by the state for African American stents were far rom ‘equal to those oftheir white pupils and were a5. ‘result unconstittional. Brown own daughter had been batted fom all of Topeka’ all white elementary schools, forcing her to travel much 1 7 May 1954 Brown v the. Board of Education afield to one deemed suitable For peopke Jur, Chiming this was an affrnt tothe th Amendment rights of every Afican American, the US Disc Court in Kansas agreed that such division had caused a “dotrimenta effect upon the colored cluldren” but upsell the “separate Dut equaY doce So Brown and his fellow plains combined their cause witha number of eter similar cases and appealed to the Supreme Court in 1952 under Brown v the Board of Education of Topeka, With Thurgood Marsal. the head of the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund, acting 25 ther chief atorney, the case ‘woul eventually kad toa landslide victory for Brown, with a unanimous decision stating that the sepregatio policy was both unethical and unconstitutional and that by law all schools were only about aan ers con lenotiy the South attended to begin reintegrating races i © Founding of the SCLC 10 January 1957 1257 ling the Mote Bas Boye. ©The Greensboro sit-ins 1 February - 25 July 1960 Grenier Casina wee he mst Netain lara bd ehmond wk ‘ted to mere forever ve months led the Freedom Rider movement 4 May - 10 December 1961 ‘cvs bean ingen bss aoe United States from KK memes nl even some pole pects oypers Pest ey ©The integration of Ole Miss__° JFK's Civil Rights Address © The assassination of 30 September -1 October 1962 ‘11 June 1963, Medgar Evers 12 June 1963Bi PP iia auere Murder that shocked America The horrifying lynching of Emmett Till by two white racists was an important catalyst for the American Civil Rights Movement tek ee ee ert See ae eee ene Soe ee ee eee ee ea eee eae ae ao Cee Ce ener eur ee ee eee ees Important cause. Tragically his death was trying toattact the atention of frend plying his family. Bryant and Milam then forced entry, ee Poon es neta Ce nae ee ee es a ee pe stepfather made sporadic appearances), be Doone ee ee cea ie! re eee ns oy art eee ster oevnrrey Se neers to visit the segregated South eee eee! Pee Pe nen ens environment than Chicago, een Cr company. He promised hed be careful Gee ee nes Fe oto Pets cor ee ee eee ee et a set ey ee ens ere pecan tty one ete ere ee tenn acs eT Perec sae Lets Tascvious suggestions ~ a story she retracted later ee ed Seay ees a ce er ee ee ees ae et ee et CeeOUT om ewe ee ed cre an The truth that Emmet Til dite more than whistle at Carolyn Bryant -and may even have been Se ee ens paca ee eters ee ett cece eee a ere eet eee es . Cie APOES eee) eee eee Cee ag Scene et ey nas seg bare) eee ea ary ees Penns oe eens Ser ee ons See cranes ee eet ed Ce eee oe ee ere ch yee es Sern te EY ee eee Peete iiveper tent Hevea er mame Berean a Eveec roy caer yt ett a ee eure menmnnsrieertee era ent eee ar ee ey the jurors late admitted that they didnt think Emmet murder, 28 August, was charged enough for the events in Money and the king oa black man was worth a custodial also the day in 1963 that Matin Luther King Jt Pee ec ee a eC ed States. This had much todo withthe fact that twice forthe same crime (under the now-defunct Reverend Jese Jackson asked Rosa Patks why Surette tga Pea ee re eee Sean ee ae Re eee) | Dd et mic) ee Se ee ec cr eT ee Pruner) ee er ‘ofthe body shocked the entire waneeesr sale ac) ee sprain) Be ee ay heianpcobasbadil ete repulsed by the crime. dryant {fromthe waterthathe J subsequent, anc Pe ee eet rere ores Poeeeee hen! Pees Perens cere Pee aes poet Een cent Rene ner) et eg in 1980 and Bryant in 1994, eee eee ss ere them, and the testimonies of several witnesses imaginations, his death serving as Se eee Se ee SS 3— I A Change Is Gonna Come SD aso) tcaesie ia —e ony life fora young black family in the Deep South was extremely harsh" 40ired of giving in Rosa Parks: Tired of giving in pushed too far, would be the catalyst for the nationwide Civil Rights Movement hen the Cit Rights Movernent is rks act of defiance is often seen as the stra mentioned, few people would fal think ofthe weman who almost single handedly kicstated the national to se up apd ‘movement: Rosa Paks, Many aspects of ly segresated back twas se chunk ofthe US populate 1950s. and the fist pers who mery, refused to obey the laws, she was the spark that lt 4 February 113, ms, Leona and hes he fe of civil rights throughout the land McCauley. a teacher and carpenter, valued teslcation and w of racial equa ong ad In what was just another day ayoung, ier s arrested, but her cas Rosetta Te Ene eest gous etna oes ‘rganised a citywide bus boycot that 5 upatending segregated ran for 281 days. This nonviolent protest shoals, but was forced to drop aut fained national coverage acting as a catalyst to ot high schoo at to care fr her sick entire grandmother and later her mether, She would retum to school yeas later. encouraged by her Dr Martin Lather King J To attribute husbanel to gain her high schoo diploma. risa thisto the acts ofa single person seems unfair testament to her wil and others sharing her plight. 4ere ‘that despite her oppressive beginnings, she grew authority in thet veicles, being able to move the up with a great sense of selworth, Those that __ segregation line back an force any black person to ‘knew her explained that she was oft spoken but give up their eatin busy periods Failure to do so cated with her aquitstength and determination woul mean geting thrown off the bus and having ‘that saw her ight hard when challenged. the police called, Pats had already had 3 rari Parks fuel job as a seamstress at ‘with the driver, Jamies Bake few years textile factory in Merigorery and in beforehand when Blake had driven off 1032, aged 19, maid Raymond ‘while Parks exited the bus to wall to Parks Raymood, lacking a formal the back deo, ‘education of his on, as ks who had ust finshed actively involved in the NAACP ‘Jong shi, was seated on the and Resa Would soan become ‘rode bus bar na ew with lnvolved as well. Her actions thre other back people. When ‘an 1 December 1955 reflect, Bake noticed a white man her passion forthe eause, as standing he ordered Parks and she was not usta petson the others to give up their seats. cided net o give up her seat, While only one seat was needed but a committed activist working the Iw state that whites and blacks to beter the lives of back people in coukint be seated in the same row The ‘Alabama and throughout the United Sates four at first refused, to which Bake replied, ‘The incident in December was, to many, aoutine “Youtdbetter maleit light on yourselves apd let ‘occurence. Buses im Montgomery were segregated me have those seats: While the ethers complied by cclour with the front reserved fr white people Parks would not budge stating that as she was not Sees Prenat boycott, would receive Cees actions and the bac for back people This meant that 2 inthe white section she didnt think she sbould black person would need to pay for their ticket at have to give up her seat When iemembering hea o I ‘the front of the bus, get off and walk to the back incident in Laer life, Parks said: “When that white SRR et door to finda seat The bus drivers held ulimate driver stepped back toward us, when he waved his SAISSIRISS Women of the Civil Rights Movement Bernice Hamer nace te eee tater, eer Seieenease” Diane Nash rers.cimn. 4, Dorothy Height sisrinietet, — Srecqaip rink owed wit scicaroe Grd ammne eaieene don redo Coneerhag omen for mpemelvngcenatonsin (SES AT racist Hack ate th et cenborasng rie eEpcuriera eeenen tenement ten Mteampe oes a eae condi iei, fe reco Beets craton Grits Howementn Sajna nn oa Sono Hag ssn by many oer sogeston ‘Boneal te ey tgucsat Ch ett ovement. zg &hand and ordered us up and out of our seats Ife determination to cover my body like a quit on a winter ight With steely resolve, Parks refused 0 ‘move an inch, fring Blake to call his superisr, asking for advice. The response was smile “Well then Jim, you doit you got exercise your powers and put her off hear” Parks was then arrested as she had technically broken the law by not saving up her seat. While she was being arrested, she asked the pale fice a question Why do you push us around? The question and response ‘of dont know, but the hw 1s the lw along with Parks actions, are wily creited 3s one ofthe catalysts forthe Civil Rights Movement in Americ She was held in the police station for violating chapter 6 section I of the Montgomen city code that dealt with segregation, She was bled out that evening by the president of the local NAACP chapter, ga Nixon. Nixon saw an ‘ppertunty to use Parks ares © further thet cause and immediately bgan planning a boyett of the ity buses that night The next day the cy was saturated with nemspaper ads and over 235000 handois, produced the night before w Aisrbated around back neighbourhoods. The Dayco called for al black people to avoid using the buses unt they were teated with the same level of respect as white passengers while cn boar, the segregated seating was removed and black nt ni SeaeNeT their fares to the eines teeter rates Rosa Parks. rivers were hited. The Montgomery Improvement Associaton (MIA) was formed to speartead the intiotive and atts head was Dr Martin Luther King ir ecent newcomer to Montgomery’ andthe rman who saw a chance to use Patk case to take the struggle nationwide “The first day ofthe boyectt canecided with Parks’ tral, where she was ined $14. Continuing for another 380 days, the boycott saw many back people shun the busin favour of using Back taxt companies, capoating or simply walking to week - with some people walking up t0 32 tomes (20 mies a day. con began to have the desired effect as the bus company’s profits slumped, lading to much ofthe fleet, siting llefor over a year The successes ‘were tempered by the backlash however, as black ‘churches were burned and both King and Nixons houses were attacked The authorities also tied to break the boycott hough other means wth the tai companies that took blak people to work having thelr insurance revoked and arrests made under antiquated ant-baycot laws. These heavy-handed reactions dd tle wo sway the MIA who went on the legal offensive. Only a year before the Brown v Board of Education ‘Supreme Court ruling had found that segregated schools were unconstitutional. Armed with this their legal team sought o challenge the segregation laws for publi transport. [n June 1956 Petes! Tired of giving in they were riled unconstitutional and despite i by the Supreme Court in Novernber 1956, With the lw on thei side and both the bus company and cty businesses suffering financial losses the city had ite choice but to end segregation on pubic transport. The boycott was formally ended on 20 December 1956, Rosa Parks resistance ignited one of the largest and most successful protests against racial Segregation inthe South. ts nonvoient means sa it gin national coverage and helped to send the struggle for civil rights nationwde. 43Americans were not hited Ee reece ons at the back of the busand Peete tines) pune cosasA Change Is Gonna Come The Little Rock Nine In Little Rock, Arkansas in 1957, nine black students asserted their right to education in a racially mixed school. Their first day did not go smoothly fong wit the Montgomery Bus Boyett and he speeches of Martin Liter King Jone ofthe most resonant events ofthe Aan Ameren suger cl ih tocke ince nit Rok. Arkansas in September 1857 every other way, Cental High Stool was tremble butt beeame the ste ofa cc testo Supeme Cou egiation the begins the story ween 15. ven pens in Topska, Kansas led Slows asin th oa bos ot aan Inthe Southesstes of Amer at that ie aca, Segregation was mandated by Taw The Tope patents, wth ‘heencouragement and sippot| ofthe atonal Asoc fo the Advanement of Clted People (NAACP cal fr the district to revere this pol The name pnnifin theese as Over Brow, ane the soeeqaent ase wns named Bro v Board of Esato of Topeka turned otto be sme ruling the US Stem Cour aking he case lon tether sir lings fom South Carina, Vina Weshingen and elas, concidedn ay 1954 that having separate schools or white and Hack tents wos uncenttonal called fer immedat deserastn and tetegraton of black puis ina allt chook Problema however suggested no procetureby which his rig be achieved in Arkansas os eleshere in the South. the schoo ely ace the ruling. ok Creoair ae) foonaeerroreiner NYCeEEnnL outstanding service erste advice fom the NAACP and began planning for gradual reintegration, beginning in 1957 vith ts high schools, Undeterred by the vocal ‘opposition of sesregationis groups the Mothers League of Central High School and the Capital Citizens Cour nine stents registered tobe Centra’ ist black students. They were Minin Brown, Hlzabeth Eekford, Emest Green, Thelma Mothershed, Mel Patt, Gora Ray, “Terence Roberts, efferson Thomas, and Carlotta Walls. The first day at school made national hesdlines ‘bu not for the reasons they \ ight have hoped. They ) arrived atthe school gates to J ind sate troopers pointing guns at them. Y © the Governor of Arkansas at Pine time was Orval Faubus He wsas.a Democrat who had actually ‘ined office 35a progressive = candidate, By September of 1957 however, he was struggling in te pol finding that he was being stongly challenged by ‘opponents who thrived on stoking the prejudices cf the local white voter Apparently for reasons ‘of slfinerest then, Faubus sided with the segregationst of his constituency. On 2 Septembes, he announced that he would be utlsing the ‘Arkansas National Guard to block the Nines entry to Central High. He chimed that this was for their ‘wn protection, citing the possibilty of violence if they were allowed to attend the school as planned “The Nine cel indeed encounter hastily other than that ofthe military: crowds of baying wiite Tog eThe Little Rock Nine ‘protesters tured out to make sure thatthe Nine ‘knew they were unwelcome. Eckford, who arrived separately from the ocher eight, underwent a particualy terifying ordeal surrounded alone, by 3 hose mob ‘The events arated ni pub, and after on ce days ofthe standot shower was personally snvolved, threatening Faubus that the Federal Constiution wil be upheld by me by every legal ‘means at my corumand: Faced with he ire of the pesient of the United Stats (otto mention possble alltime), Faubus became understandably ber, he travelled 0 Newport Rhode and fra privat with Esenhower the outcome of which saw Faubus agsee to pt aside his apparent personal views on ‘epegation to comply with the Supreme Courts ruling, By 21 September senhower was abe to release a sateen confirming that the ‘was withdrawing his troops and the Nine would be ‘welcomed unopposed to Genta High, with efcers cf the local aw ensuring ther safety. But even then, the matter wast sted, Two cays ater, ely withthe tact approval of Faubes, another organised mob formed ouside the schoo, ‘of such a size thatthe police could not contol it Genuinely for their own safety this time the Sent home once again. isenhower the Arkansas National Guard from conto, and replaced them with, we troops fom the fois Airoome Divison to EEDOMI) enforce federal iw The Nine tended thei USERS) ft day of classes on 25 Sepember. Legal challenges to integration in Arkansas continued, however, and the Nine faced palling hostty within Cerval High’ walls tained in efigy ad on the receiving end of constant violent attacks. Brown retaliated, and ‘was expelled fr doing so. Green was ukimately the ony one of the Nine to stick tout at Central high unl waduation although they all went ont distinguished carers Green and Brown both went Int pls, while Pala became ane and broadcasts. The Nine all ecelved pe invitations to atend Pesdent Barack Obamas ‘inauguration ceremony in 2008 recat still exis 4pee Building a dream: The rise of ML The long, hard road that led Martin Luther King Jr from the segregated South to ‘I Have a Dream’ and the March on Washington tote he history ofthe Civil Rights Movernent isalso the biography of Martin Luther King Jr King was 2 ade a every major protest, fom the inception ofthe civil rigs campaign for legal equality inthe Montgomery Bus Boycot of 1955 to the Foor People's Campaign of 1968, which marked ch rights turn towards socal and economic issues Kings Have A Dream speech, delivered in 1963, at the March on Washington, defined the Gvl Rights Movements sruggie and its inspirations, ‘the twinned promises of the Sermon onthe Mount and the American Constution, Nor follwing his murder in Api 1968, cou the Civil Rights Movement find a leader to replace Kings moral authority and popular appeal Yet the bingraphy of Matin Lather Xing ris more than the history of the Civil Rights Movement King ‘was balan! but trubled man preachers son with daubts about Chris, and a family man ‘rawn to adulterous aff King was born Michael King on 15 January 1929 n Adana, Georgia His father, also Michael King, wasa Baptist past When Michael Jr was two, Michael St became leader of the Ehenezer Baptist (Church. a prominent black church in ‘Atlanta In 1934, after atending the Fifth Baptist ‘Wield Alliance Congress in Berlin, Michael King St changed his and his son renames in honour of the Protestant reformer Matin Lather Along with is father's name, Matin Luther ‘King Jr inherted both his father's commitment to ‘communal leadership through th Black church, and alo his related coramatment to civil rights Marin Lather King Sasa ifelong campaigner ‘agains im Crow laws, He had campaigned for equal pay for black teachers, and boycotted Atlanta bus system because of attacks on lack ‘passengers, He was prominent i the atlanta Noreen) ‘hater ofthe National Association forthe ‘Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and would eventually rise to its leadership. ‘Asa boy: Marti Luther King tsa how the ‘hutches were the moval leaders of Alana Black ‘community He also witnessed firsthand his father’ refusal to accept racism, When father and son were sting na shoe store they were asked to rove to the rear ofthe store, King Sr prefered to walk out I dont care hew long have to live under this system” Martin Jr heard hs father say, Twi never accept it* When a white policeman called King Sr"boy’, the pastor gestured to Marin Jr and replied “This isa boy. Im a man, Until you cll me ‘one, will not Isten” King Se was unrelenting in his determination to make a man of his young son. He ‘sent Martin todo eld work. so that he would understand something ofthe sulfering of his ancestors. He beat Martin unt the of 15, and expected his son to follow him ito the ministry, ‘Martin J wasa child chorister at Bhenezer Baptist Church and his mothe, Alberta, was the organist. But Martin J as he ater admit, had profound doubts bout Christan doctrine; 213, he denied the Resurrection of fests duting a Sunday School cass Stil Martin Jr possessed the moral impulse that made a preacher and the thetorical ably that made a preacher a communal leader at high schoo, Martin r wasa winning debater He was also inteigent enough to skip two ofthe four grades of high school and enter datas histoialy black Morehouse Callege at 15, Leaving Morehouse in 1047 atthe age of 18 witha degree in sociology Martin Jr decided to train for the ministry at Crozer ‘Theological Seminary in Pennsyivanin ‘At Morehouse, King had fallen in love witha ‘white student, but friends had convinced him“Lhave a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed" eet eetA Change Is Gonna Come not to propose maria e an ineracal union would damage his chanoes of cbtaining the pastrship ofa Black church in the South. In 1953, King married Goreta Scot, a black woman from Alabama, n a ceremony on th parents howse Inthe following year, he obtained the pastorship of Dexter Avenue Baptist Church snl, he studied lawn of his in Montgomery, Alsbar asa doctoral student of reign at Boston Univesity, fn 191, an ‘vestigation would conclude that King had plagiarised gnficant partons of his doctoral thesis from the thesis of another student King found his pubic identity 1955, a8. a leader ofthe yearlong Montaomery Bs Boycot The boycott campaign also demonstrated the ri fnvolved in even peaceful protest. On the night of 30 Jamuary 1956 an unknown attacker threw a bomb onto peo. oie ord andiph, tne porch of the king house Coretta King ada (Someone end got out ofthe ng com before the bomb eftetedes exploded: Kings infant daughter Yolanda was of he1963 acen ina back room. Wshingon In 1957 King cofounded the Southem Christan Leadership Conference CLO) with other lading activists including Fred Shattlesworth and Ralph ‘Abernathy, both of whom were Baptist ministers at Birmingham, Alabama; and Joseph Lowery. a minister t Mobile, Alabama, ‘As King ane the SCLC leadership developed strategies for confronting the law without having to break it and fr using the moral authoity of the church against the legal authority of 50 pa SEVER los King travelled more Recep ui ic: Become eel rrcacionssy tury of he government onvilent proves At Morehouse, King ha read Waler Ioth-century Baptist proponent ofthe social gospel - the idea that social problems could be solved by the aplication of Christian rinciples. More recently, he had witnessed the ‘crusade’ fr moral reform by the white evangelist Billy Graham, King also knew Henry David Thoteaus 1849 essay Resistance to ‘Qvil Government’ better known Under reprint tile Civil Disobedience Leo Tastoy had drawn on Thoreau and the Christian reformer Adi Ballou to develop a the (Chistian nonvioience’ of Tolstoy’ reader, Mahatma Gand, had sed passive resstance’ to discredit the Bish Empire in India. King became the Inhentor of this tration At ist, however, Kings tactics were sebuled. In Dscember 196, the SCLC eave ts suppot to local campaigners forthe desegregation of Alun, Georgia. When desegiegatonists peaceably moved into segregated spaces, the police made mass arrests. King, given a choice between fine or jal chose al He was released after a fee days the evangelical preacher Billy Graham paid King’s fine, Te ADbany protests fared, and " King drew upon a Rauschenbusch, a notherBuilding a dream: The rise of MLK the coation between the SCLC al the local campaigners broke up. Albany taught break the salt tax, the SCLC my by occupying public force a crisis that would by revealing them as defenders of unjust In Apel 1963, King and the SCLC applied this insight tothe effort to desegtegate Birmingham, : the aterards formed ‘violence against wites, King was determine present the strugele for iil rights as an American “Such sights pushed white Americans to decide whether they could still tolerate Jim Crow laws. A majority could not’ ol hem ack ate of two veteran campaigners. Philip Rano the Leadership Conference on (CR) and Bayard Rustin. In 194, Randolph and Rustin both of whom were socialists and admirers of Gandhi nonviolence And the Dateh born white clergyman A.J Must, ch on Wasi CMa gine resume ate ed the use of payer t so directed Rustin to mentor King on strategies of nonviolence Ifthe 1963 dream of m: the Washington Mall was the realisation ofits means, the appearance cn the national charismatic pea and emotional inten ‘wellas the conscienere The power of nonviolent protest The Civil Rights Movement in America sought to break down the social barriers of segregation by championing nonviolent and passive resistance in the face of terrible brutality and hate axe begets hate, violence begets violence toughness begets a greater toughness We must meot the forces of hate with the power of love.. ur aim must never be to defeat or humaliate the white man, but to win his fendship and understanding’ These words ftom Dr Martin Lather King J oguently summed up the intentions ofthe majority of Civil rights campaigners in America namely that ther goal of equality was tobe met through nonviolent and peaceful protest, stark contrast, to the violence and hate leveled against black ‘communities over the previous few centuries, One ofthe crowning achievements ofthe movement ‘was its effectiveness in promoting these ideals and aflecting real change in the county while hardly fever rising a hand in anger “Love thy neighbour” was a biblical verse that King took to heart. He and othe activists, believed that love was the force that would win equality and end the racist and segregated laws that Infested the USA. Love in thei mind dit have to ‘bea literal, emtianal bond, but a powerful farce that could be used for good. ‘The 20th century had revealed jst how effective mankind had become in waging wat wth is violent tendencies playing out through a multitude of wars, genocides and cil inequality ‘backed up by brutal repression. In contrast, there ‘was ls a rise in peaceful, nonviolent protest that sought to enforce postive change without the need fr bioodsed. The genesis of nonviolent protest in the American (Givi Rights Movement lay in King’s teachings and ations. (One of the biggest influences (on King’s philosophy care not from wat was happening in ‘America, but ater from actions that oceuted onthe other side fof the worl. Mahatma Gard, the diving force behind Indias independence from the Bish Empire, had championed nonviolent protest 3s ay to fight oppression and win his people's Jot freedom. In King’s ovn words, Gandhi was the person who had the most influence on the actions he took during te struggle to gin civil right for black people in America, Having heard of Gandhs work fom his taining 35a minister, King became deeply influenced by the Indian activists teachings let hearing an old unwersity professor tlk about his experiences sory after visting the county King di not expect that is interest in Gandhis work would ever have practical aplication in his life: never mind forming the core of his ideals and ‘actions during the Civil Rights Moverent "The major practitioners of movicient resistance vere beginning to communicate directly and share ‘het plulosophy. Gandhi and Leo Tolstoy were in comespondence and once the American movementThe power of nonviolent protest ‘were created following the success of the bus The scin movement. ist making national s boyeott were the Student Nonviolent Coordinating. headlines on 2 February 1960, in Greensboro, North in certo lean more of how the independence Committee NCO and the Congress of Racal started by four college stude movement hl operated, After the vs he Equality (CORE) Both ofthese groups were made Dut ‘more convinced than ever before thatthe method up primarily of students who had been inspired by ‘of nonviolent resistance isthe most potent weapon a conference in Apri ed by King. They lunch counter and were refuse service Instead available to oppresed people in their strugse for hoped to use the momentum gained by the actions of leaving, they quietly waited tobe served. The justice and fiman dignity in Montgomery to drive the cause nationwide store was chosen specifically a the Weolwerth The Civil Rights Movement had already made The students were ooking fra way to have their chain was known throughout the courtey and cwstul use of nonviolent ps actions diecly impact peop’ Ives without beng the demonstrators wanted a lection that clear'y detrimental to their cause separated people based on colour alone. The me inchtime rush, the four stde white only designate seating at the @serimination that yeas of Jim Cro supported ‘ver the black population "The goal ofthe resistance was ar end to segregation, and one ofthe ‘ways to achieve that was to ensue thatthe long history of violence Prete | repealed in 1964 with jade Creer teats i foneClAL 4 RAYRLITY a 8 Vv pried Pes Seniy the Democrats were pecan towanted to highlight the hypocrisy ak acepe their money while supplies but woul lunch counter. “The Greensboro Four, as they became known, vowed that they wuld continae this protest and in greater rambers. Wi more and more volunters joining them, they worked in shifts to tay at the counter all day, simply wating for servic. These actions often made these men and women the targets of abuse, and they were shouted at peted with food ‘or drink, thestened, beaten or forcibly removed. Never responding in anger, the protesters were usually arrested and as they wer escorted out, new group woul be ready to take thei place Sitins had been used since the 1940s and now an integral part othe nonviclent protest in the Civil Rights Movernent When the media gt wind of the protests, they quickly spread across the South, taking 54 ces lunch counters by stom ‘Sx months after the inital protest the store finally gated counters, allowing people celour to ea fie fam molestation These aimed to highlight the inequality and hit a sore finances, if thei seats were filed with Protesters not being serve. this would drastically reduce the income fom the lunch rash, This simple and passive form of prsest was extremely cffective and brought the up face of American segregation int the naticnal consciousness. Following the sits, Freedom Riders were an ‘example ofa hopeful and some think nave feem fnerwioent protest that gained traction inthe featly 1960s, participants were made up ofboth ‘black and white activist who were organised by CCORE. Their objective was simple - to travel fom Washington, DC tothe Deep South in small groups ‘a bus to perodialy break the stct segregation Tawson the way. Their objective was ors ofa store that aving choo! them sting atthe Creare i awareness ofthese ls and discver and showcase wiich towns and ces actively supported the Jim Crow laws The timetabe planned fora two" tap through the Souther sats to arive in New (Orleans on 17 May 1961, the anniversary ofthe histori Brown v Board of Education ruling, Ths lan was a controversial one, with even members ofthe Civil Rights Movernent thinking twas too ontational. Segregation was fc of life in the South and the entire pose-cival War culture was built on ts foundations. White segzegationsts Would and dd view it as an attack on thet very way of ie There was a very real possiblity that the Freedom Riders would be attested, attacked or ‘even killed as they made thelr way to New Odean The Riders had thet tala for them by a woman named lene Morgan In the 1940s she successfully fought against segregation on interstate buses, mich ike Rosa Parks had Sought against sepregated city buses in Montgomery & aro Cae ceUt Teun WeROn be etoned partof, called fora Po ercicloE rie The power of nonviolent protest “For the simple act of riding on a bus, they had almost been killed by mobs of locals decade ater. Unfors the Souther states wertuled this federal aw by enforcing the segregation that existed in the Southern state lave The Riders were not sent in wehout instruction, however, the Riders to turn back The buses were heckled, stopped attacked and one ston fie as they entered Alabama, Local police forces, alongwith the FBI, were alo tuming a bin eye to planned KKK attacks on the Riders ‘The Klan Was ven 15 minutes without any police inervention and the and received vaining in sickening pictures taken ofthe mass ra that Washington. DC anhow to ensued were widely circulated around the world deal with confentarion and —_Inthis way, the Preedern Rides had achieved thelr theinevitable violence they _abyctive. forthe simple acto xing ona bus, they vould encounter The riers had almost been killed by mobs of loeals and had were even warned by King, embarrassed the USA.~a county that prided set in Aint that the KKK were on civil iberties~ on the werld stage. Even so, the planning a weleoming committe for Riers became standed in Birmingham when the the uses in Alabama and encouraged bus drivers refused to drive them any further. After Te eg Bd See a et eee eer ee eee ee demonstrations. It also covered the basics of how to respond to pysial attacks and pr epee arent eee tee tenner rn ean en ate eet een ett eet eee rt Pre eons eet Pretest tere rete ts toner pene eee eee ees teen eae eee og Pee eee tee ea eet men ety eee reer reer See ee) Se ee aggression. With training came discipline, nd the goal was to present an organised, unbreakable ee ee a eee 55A Change Is Gonna Come é rs gs . the KKK had re and Malcolm X Reece eM Sn ece ets enrages eons of death, showed thallbus terminals inthe US while passengers ‘were permed to sit wherever they leased on interstate buses and tains. The ri, which had ‘originally been planned asa I-day excursion had been drawn out over many months and gained ‘workvide news coverage The vilence as condemned at every turn and the actions of th Freedom Riders helped greatly to showcase the rampant inequality in the USA and show the power ‘of peaceful nonviolont protest. The poly of "love thy neighbour and pacifism shown inall creumstances was not accepted by all ofthe Gil Rights Movement o the black community. Some leaders thoughs that nonviolent protest was only adopted because of the overwhelming fore of the opposition. There ‘was no way black communities coukl go toe one ‘with ocl police departments or ate groups ike The power of nonviolent protest the KKK and come out on top, Community leaders like Maloim X saw Kings pacifism as ein back people defenceless against white both camps the Deacons were effective in curbing KKK activities and violence against black cornrauities, andl proving securay fr the March Against Fear that ccurred in Tennessee and Misssspp in 1966. Other communities also found that csplays of force or the the enough to stop attacks by the KKK and protect ther familie he Cv Rights Movement contained a fui spectrum o thoughts and opinions but mostly stesso. He even went so far as tocall Kinga modern-day Uncle “Tom: a derogatory and ansaiated term used to describe a back person who sided with thei wh cher back people. Malai X and others who agreed with his moee violent approach to combating segregation could antes ate Per Oreos Poraicteetetas Sueesienied ier ot comprehend a nonviolent focused on nonviolent practice lack communities ‘These were the actions tht sv the had so frequently been the target of state most postive change in beth society and sanctioned violence and cisrimination Despite law. While itd not end the struggle fr equality. it his powerful rhetork there isa schoo ofthought proved that love, bravery and determination could that believes ‘win out ove hate an violence condoned violence inorder to make the peace protests stand cut more. Segregtinists would be ‘more wiling to work with a moderate like Dr King ven faced withthe alternative of Malcolm X an crganisations like the Black Panthers Being targeted by the authorities and exganisscons lke the KKK, black communities took thelr protection into their own hands. Tis ed led 0 groups like the Deacons fr Defense nd Justice being formed in 1964. Mos of veterans fm World War the Deacons provided ly made up and the Korean Wat, med guards to prot the homes and residences of activists, Iwas one of the first sei defence forces to make itself known in the Civil Rights Movement, ands creation was met vith scepticism by the nonviolent majority who either stayed silent aver its actions of spoke out ad iter nin them. Despite the resistance aginst them 57Terese nM eT pura enngercs cael Sure RCs miley counter in Jackson, Mississippi. Danae ooh ino and physically attacked during their nonviolent protest.Thecampaignthat © changed America In the most segregated city in America, the civil tights campaign met opposition that would not back down. The confrontation would come to define the movement tlwere employed in department sor background that Re tesworth paste etl Bs hutch from Christan Sa Rare) 2! SCLC hd aed Toca busine desegregation, “The city government was firmly committed to racial segregation" to tade nad fou ee meow “brng them that attention. A Eat62 isin 1961, Connor made sue Some of the ther leaders suggested that Martin ant the perpetrators had Lather King as the main fundraiser forthe escaped. As he sad tothe press, "Te are not going campaign shoald leave Birmingham to tour the and fr thisin Birmingham. And fn ‘court talsng furs 0 that bal cou be posted fill the jal fll and we dont care w and those arested, release. After prayer aloe in we step on his tom. Kine said“ dont know hat will That was what King and ti happen dont know where the money vere counting on. The val eame from. But Ihave to make he nomviclent protests, with matches kneel ins a sepregated es and sitins at iaries counters The alm spall with vue ou Bree eer coe Api, Good Fuiday led a protest march resedand held in Persist) child, Bemice 0 many protestors thatthe fgovernmental machinery would sind toa halt Bu much of he local black community Was held in prison unt 20 Api The ares his 13) and imprisonment of Matin Luther King Jr had raw national attention nthe president, John F Kennedy, had ingham J infame involved. But to maintain the stention A from ot ad to increase the pressure ont (On 10 Apri the cy authorities cbtained court authorities, Te that end, they decided to up the ‘cider agunst the protests and began arresting sakes, and offer the most innocent members of protesters. The protest leaders decided to defy the thelr movernen as agents of nonviolent potest: the injunction, bu they we cluldzen “ame he iden and, after mu anise, had proposed station, King had ¥ | “students were ready and ere “Se willing to take on the mantle 2 i~\ of nonviolent protest” Persea eros creeThe campaign that changed America approved i Many loa Back fails were chary ofthe econcmic consequences of losing the fay breadwinner ja they tok pari he prot But Bevel was confident tha cl stdens ‘were ready and wlingo take onthe mantle of nonviolent potest. particulaty after he an ‘workshops for them chung howto overcome the alco rea fear of pale dogs Soon, these ‘Moen woul face these eats fo eal ‘On 2 May, more than a thousand young Black people who had congregated at the Ith Steet, Eaptist Church, began a march, 2Childens Crusade; nb dawntown Barmingham n defiance ofthe ety authories and cout injunctions Bult Sonn was caught of guard by the se ofthe retest and ordered the police to make mass rests over 600 were alent jul The cts jis were now overflowing What as more national mea ad (eowerdnay ou acre Spada levebheaded man might have wife from jail, King taken cognisance of this, but not was careful in what he Connor hen the net doy. anche | a cr ar thousand young people began to march towards the downtown, Conner ordered wate cannons be tured onthe marches, These were high pressure hose, povefl enaugh © lock people ying and ly skin rm es ‘Then when bystanders called out against these tacts, Conor ordered that lie dogs be sent ‘The waiting photographers captured searing mages cof German shepherd dogs stacking young Blak eople ho tte othe principles of nonvcence mae no move to protec hemseves, wile reporters wired stories of the nest tothe nations) press imingham had become frontpage nes 3 Sing the way thr chien had ben rested, ee lana thelocl bak community alle behind the aa ere grey protests, which continued during the following — : aa week ut the ls were s full that theencosues : the sate figround were tuned no hing pens snes n dowetown Bimingham ha come oa compete hal On & May business leaders feed to desesepate. And on 10 May the ct Sithontes finaly caved in. agreeing to bring an end a to segregted roles, drinking fountains and a outers the rls on al ofthe peotetrs held C snjul. and a plan to inerese black employment. ° “Te response fom card sesesstomits : was violent ineading bombs simed Kling : King and SCLC leadership and in ely, hey : : autores aged ther fet in mplementing the : o personify he rent tthe Berman Campaign ad Te : succeded in convincing resident Kennedy that 0 : eg could no longer be at state evel On 11 June 1963, the president called fo egslaton to Protec the fghs of every American, regardless ‘ Rights Act of 1964 the landmark lelsation that E arn " : n ‘outlawed discrimination, and it was signed int aw E : : . by President Lyndon Johnson on 2 July 1964, The en ete Birmingham Campaign had trumped, rr , 63: Coke ae ba Ae ek Rin ke 2k ee Me ae rcummmne Rm NPRment68 Defining Moments: 88 Racism and murder 1963-1968 in Mississippi 70 “Ihave a dream” 90 The long march to vote 78 Four little girls gone 96 Death of a King 80 JFK and MLK Wa. itis22 November 1963 The assassination of JFK y November 1963 John F Kennedy had fast become one ofthe most progressive residents to ever hod office. In the months roe co his fateful trp to Dallas, JFK had conducted his famens Civil Rights Adress tothe nation and had bepun the legislative ‘machinations that wou ead to the Civil Rights Ac. His speech had taken the fight for equal rights ftom a lawful standpeint toa moral imperative that the Une States hada responsbilty to address the president himself showing outright support. te Chi Rights Movement finaly had real momentum, So when former US maine Lee Harvey Oswald fied his rifle atthe presidential motorcade at 12 30pm he Senta shockwave through the nation, the Civil Rights Movement and the world at lage The country was rocked as one as news spread ofthe shooting and the subsequent news of JFK’ death Birmingham, Alabama schools integrated 10 September 1963 Soushabegin the cer of dommes ‘Air, Geog Walle ho ede se pen {Store af Bingham see etc Sopeing ackstcets om emerge gnome tele septsothat dengeston coal ain 68 upon artval ata nearby hospital it the headlines Trafic ground toa hal, schools were dismissed and every American ran to every ratio or television ‘se they cou ind, Much ike the Pearl Harbor before it and the 91 catastrophe that would fol decades later, JFK: murder became 2 flashpoint in American history. (Oswald himself would be fatally shot ust two day ater bat {hat woulda stop the sheer pact that the President’ assassination would have an the Civil Rights Movement. His successor, Lyndon B Johnson, as even mere committed 0 pushing through the act than, JFK and while be wasnt as skilled at dealing with Congress 35, Kennedy had been he ensured that, ‘the new laws entered the Constitution, The ight for civil rights could have been derailed by the ‘murder, ut instead JFK's shocking death calcified the movement as marched towards true equal foe Afican Aer © The Civil Rights Act 1964 {oe ek the Gl Ris Mover eed ‘estock ste presen ane support Tgndon Johsen sara new tion Stow thei ihe Atco leet nthe summer of 64 MLK wins Nobel Peace Prize 14 October 1964 Mashing sd is Knee De pech Prise in recognition his ones tpn fohts or fan areca The award vk ared inthe sue ea a he Res Abele ey> pe TR WU " © Voting Rights Act 1965 © MLK's ‘Mountaintop’ speech _« Fair Housing Act 1968 in Memphis 3 April 1968Sk“I have a dream” Me sg dove in history as the for freedom inthe history of our nat te was 28 August 1962 and wh ‘confidently. no oe realy kn role and the weds he was yet 0 iconic dream, would bein bring 3 The March he day's evens - known officially a m- had b ‘on Viashington fr Jo and soon a song and prayer had been werfl vision of racialprvi site Sr ea ee os nce isthe mest potent ies preeng tee ter “King was aman who had e oe death threats, bomb scares, multiple arrests and prison sentences’ Marion Brand, brandishing an electric cattle pred officers pated the ares Liquor sles were ‘lessthan subtle symbol f police brutality Soon banned thoughout the cy, hospals socked blood plasma and cancelled elective surgeries, and prisoners were moved tooth taken to prepare fo the civil hough an neta consequence of the et ‘march of ks kin in US hist Mi stenting the march feared fo ahead fearing an atmosphere of sists promise ofa peaefl readied th 6 188 feTmetmancpation Black Codatravelled to the march from Greensboro, Neth Carolina, sai that many attending the march fl lai, "We didnt know what we would meet. There ‘was no precedent Sitting across from me was a black preacher with a white collar We ake. Every row and then, people on the bus sang Oh Freed And We Shall Overcome, but fr the mos part there ‘wasrt a whole bunch of singing, We wore secretly praying that nothing violent happened Kulimanjro uaveled over 480 Klometes (200 mies) to attend the march. Many fom Birmingham, Alabama - where King was Particularly prominent figure -ravelled for mare than 20 hours by bus, covering 1200 lometes (950 miles) Attendees had invested a great deal fof time, money and hope in the march, and antipation~ nervous r otherwise - was high, ‘The headline speaker, Matin Luther King, orient activi, revered pastor and dligene resent ofthe Southern Christan Leadership (Conference (SCLC) had yet to finalise his speech, despite retiring to bed at 4am the previous night after long and wearied debate with his adviscs, The logistical preparations fr the m for confidante ad speechwriter Claence B since admitted, ‘individuals, including Jones, gathered King give their input on the final was Jones job to take notes and turn them int a powerful adress that would capavate ‘66 (em crow Laws ‘ere ofnneorto thse (¢ Thecitnights Act {ve feces govermet he “I have a dream” 08 ‘The rst black president © Bs aly ape the Ov ‘orgie entre Fes aw baton ater BPL ey DrCatherine Brown, head of faculty paper yan eee ee era ee Pee e tara coment ereers ety Coe eee eyes eon rs Pee ae ea tea See eae Conca’ eo tet ney eer eer Petter cee erty fees en eee etd eee Pete en) Se eee ee mek ea ey eee cee Sets preety * Behind the shetoricof al these American eC tat See) Pe eee et ofthe Bile, are mul-ethnic white supremacy Rete ote toed to summarise the varios points made b of his supporters Inhis book. vices fm every inmy head A milion, Ki ned platform fo was finally called 0 the podium, twas placement on the ill ad put im at antage. An oppressiely ht hen he clear an immediate disad infor the dy, but an act of sabotage before the event meant that even with hep from the U inal Corps in cto heat the hd endured onstittion. Early on, be gave ano paham Lincoln Gettysurg A as ago.” an equally leon ats previcusly, set down the ther president sion fr human equality. King use rhythmic Jangtage, eigious metaphor and the repetitionSRN e if DA Pitt ley heey laaaad Wits Peo ad Baa) ° RK ecco Pa cette ed ee eed While many reported on the march oresiy Pee et ees ee ee eet ete net nr ns Sen eer eg ee eee bree Cre etree Se eee ey Beginning” is somewhat scare mongering. any a san eared Sra uy Oe Re eens iereiaeie ‘ofa phrase atthe beginning of ech sentence Then ne hundred years ater he cries highlighting brief pou al’ es he annous ven th bveathed a sigh of rele “Ape 2s I veallsed that he seemed t0 nt shoe italy reciting th paragraphs Thad scrawled ¢ in my hotel roo he reveal vggested opening wn the night bef ream, ile ands Fone Jones sensing what wa petson nex dont kno ina hearth formal ares es ace Tad ar er eer fawn i in er rast Pra) ipted happened. During a el singer Mahalia Jckson, wh csber inthe day shouted “Tle arin” King pushed his tal in front of his audience out to happen. tok the 1 him, “These people out there toda ye, but they about to go to church 3. King had done away’ wit his t preach fom his heart, B“King was targeted as a major enemy u of the US and subjected to extensive Sekt surveillance and wiretapping by the FBI" : kings speech was a defining moment in black legacy that would change cv rights forever pave a dream’ he aid one of the specch's most history andthe fight fr civil rights. “Though be famous lines, "thr my four lle cen wil was extiemely day ive ina nation where they wil the lectern’ Jones wrote,“ by the colour of their skin but y the other side of his ve used it armed, Indeed, King too many times already’ hit use the retain on several occasion before at fundraisers and rallies but, crucially in the days before mass media ithe not been paid, To he milo watching en TV and in pee. the speech wa When Ki tad bee of Negroes We must ‘done so before asthe most dangerous Negro [in this nation from the standpoint of communism, the From this point on. King was targeted asa jor enemy ofthe US and subjected to extensive to Marshall Frady in his biography B“I have a dream” By eee la te ee was lgely forgotten afterward, due to the =p Pein ee hore een es eee Sioa See ee ce E Se eee) ce Se ee Lee pee eae eer Pee are en fe the FB even sent King intercepted his extamaral affairs in a thinly veiled attempt King believed to intimidate and rive him to suicide Ie scems incredible to believe, but contemporary criticism not anly came from the establishment but fom King’s pees Ci rights activist and author Anne Mcody made the tip to Washington DD from Mississipi fr the march and real sat onthe grass and listened to the to discover we had dreamers’ nstead of leaders leading us. ust about every one of them stood u there dreaming. Martin Lather King went onan ‘on talking about his dream. sat there thinking thac in Canton we never had time te sleep, much less dream: Human rights activist Maloim X abo famously ‘condemned the march, aswell as Dr King’s speech ‘with gospels and guitars and ‘Tlhave ‘ream speeches? Whatever some of the cities might have sid, though, there was no doubt that him out asa ade. is oration has as one ofthe greatest ofthe 20th century, ‘ames him the tite of Man ofthe Year'by Time Magazine and subsequently le to him receiving the Nebel Peace Prize. At the ‘youngest person to have been h both the march and than a yer after King shared his dream Halfvay through the speech, befre doing avay woth is notes, Marin Lather King Ir delaed to his thousands of brothers and sisters inthe ‘crowd: "We cannot walk alone’ That he his heart in such a poetic and unrepentant way ensured tht inthe coming years, nobody di from 1__ I Have A Dream 4 Four little girls gone The terror bombing of the 16th Street Baptist Church in Birmingham killed four young girls and fuelled the ardour of the Civil Rights Movement soe and an enue natn, indeed the w In honor. How could sueh violence, such tenor Pnappen in the United States of America? Heywevern the segregated South of the z heinous at of racially mot 1960s, and particulanly the ety of Birmingham, ‘Alabama, white supremacist terror ‘commerce also became its epicentre of racial ‘unrest when leaders ofthe Gil Rights Movement chose the ety as for for their efforts to ene the era of Jim Crow and segregation Rene ‘While segregation was way of ite across the South Alabama governor George ‘Walle and Birmingham commissioner of public safety ‘Bull Conn: wee staunch adversaries of the desegregation effort Terr public denunciation of equality among the races fomented ‘urmoll,Connar was wellknown fo employing brutal actis ta suppress demonstrators, Images of Birmingham police officers wieking Clubs fre hoses playing on crowds, and vicious ‘logs straining against leashes were commen fre on nightly network television news broadcasts Dr Martin Luther King J the acknowledged. Jeader ofthe Civil Rights Movement and the nonviolent Southern Christian Leadershin Conference, recognised thatthe increasing violence sn Birmingham was the by-product ofthe cty’s ‘adst reputation, not only de to the hostity of Ponsa nonsit government and ts malitarty active Kx Klan (KKKO chapter, bt als the fact that the desegregation effort was centred there. Demonstrations and local meetings of vl rights activists often originated atthe ih Steet Bapist ‘Church, a predominantly back congregation in the heart ofthe city. King himself had experienced the toxic local ace relations in Birmingham in the spring of 1963, arrested there while kading ‘onwilent protests. (On 28 August 1963, King stood on the steps ofthe Lincoln Memorial sin Washington, DC and delivered his string Have a ream speech, Scarcely two weeks later, on 15 September, about 200 members ofthe Ih Sst, ‘Baptist Church were attending Sunday School and preparing forer services, At 1022am, a pawerful explosion shatered the ‘morning calm, interior was ofthe structure that had oocupied the corer of Ith Street and 6h Avenue North since 191] were demalished, shards of brick flew in every ciection, stained glass windows 10 fet away were ‘smashed, and an angry cloud billed skyward Atleast 5 sticks of dynamite had been planted on the eastside of the church with a detonator se for Sunday morning, at atime when innecent people would surely be present. Four young gis, 1-year olds Carole Robertson, ‘Adate Mae Collin and Cynthia Wesley, and 1Lyenr ‘ld Denise McNair were killed thet battered “At least 15 sticks of dynamite had been planted on the east side of the church, with a detonator set for Sunday morning" The Civil Right of 1964 bec yard Teed teats reFour little girls gone Aitreome EMM occ cere emer ent ees Cee een hd eee ery ee ees Se ee ets ee ered eee tot ee foe t tc teeteeeed Pe er ene) eeepc eaten ee) in 1977 and die in prison in 1985 while ornare ees Te second conviction did not occur for Pee een ns esa ee as en se RUS Rene Saeed Peete cr ats also sentenced to life in prison, Considering vy aca at the church that einen sos emesis Neen Porciel forncres) eye ata Pao en ee ety testified against him at tril fourth probable eect teats eae Se ees Pei overed from a basement ers were injured, including yah Colin, who last an eye. Apparemty in ponse toa federal court order to desegegate the public schools in the stat of Alabama ‘the blast was the third teror bombing in Birmingham in te span of I days In the wake ofthe tragedy. Dt king addressed gathering of 8.000 mourmets a the funeral for thee the gil: He remar chikren- unofendi beautiful - were the most vieiou perpetrated nce erupted actoss Birmingham. Two black stators were killed, and the National Guar entually deployed to restore oder ugh the perpetrators ofthe murder probably well kno pecific individual affliated withthe Birmingham KKK were ‘Mentified, the wheels of pstice turned slowly. The Federal Beau of investigation (FB) gathered ‘incriminating evidence against th Title was done under the administration of FBI slirector J Edgar Hoover a ofthe Civ supremacist suspects wen enced to fe in prison, the last, ant 38 yeas after the ect ded before he could incident. The fourth sus be brought total The martyred children of the 16th Sueet Bap uch didnot de n vain. The bering raised uch an outery against segregation that sure! hastened the reform we inthe turbulent cate ofthe 15 880 JFK and MLK How John F Kennedy and Martin Luther King Jr became allies of convenience, and laid the foundations for the Civil Rights Act resident John F Kennedy and Matin Lather King shared an era anda visionary alee for inspiring Americans. Trageally, both JFK and MLK viere, like Kennedy's brather Robert, assassinated before they could realise ‘hele promise as leaders, Yet Kennedy and King. the Catholic fom Baston and the Baptist from Atlanta, were never particulaly close either a friends (ras politica ales. Kennedy ara King met for the fe ime in June 1960. Xing was the leader of the black churchmen ofthe Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), a major evil rights organssation. His txavery fn the face of itimidation and ‘mud teats and the eloquence and conviction of his appeals for moral justice hhad made him the most prominent voce ofthe cov rights campaign is enemies, the people wha kept Southern blacks in second-class status, were Democrats rights and, according EVIE ue Cian Eomtens tI Kennedy was a Democratic senator fom, Massachusetts, seeking to secure his paty's nomination a the Democrat Patys nominee forthe November 1960 presidential election. This forced Kennedy into a delicate balancing ac and at just cause some of the civil rights leaders had communist or socalist pasts. In 1960, the Democratic Pay was two paris. Inthe ‘ties ofthe Northern sates, the Democratic Party was the party of labour unions and ethnic ‘minorties,incloding Je, Catholics and the back workers wn had migrated northwards during the Depression and Would War in the South, however, the Demecats remained the Democratic Party ofthe Civil War and Jim Crow a racist anti-Semitic and ant-Catelc ary. 1960, the fag ofthe Democratic Party in Alabama carried the words "White Supremacy. Many Southern Democrats were open racists, ike Bull Connor who, as commissioner fr publi safety in ‘Bumingham, alabama, was oduect the police to se fire hoses and atack dogs against unarmed vl rights protesters in 1963 ‘ter meeting King, Kennedy openly praised civil rights campaigners for thelr ‘moving examples ‘of moral courage’ a called their peaceful protests ‘a sgn of esponsibility, of god ctizenship of the American sprit, When asked about the ‘tins, which black customers entered whites only restaurants and demanded 1 be served. Kennedy defended their ambitions and methods “Is in the American tration to sta up for anes hts even if the new way to stand up for one's nights is To win the Demecratie nomination, Kennedy needed the votes of whit Southern Democrats. To win the presidency he needed the votes of black Norther Democrats So while Kennedy cultivated the bck vet in the North by public statements, his aides urged King to suspend nonviolent tess forthe remainder of 1960, King refuse to compromise Civil rights protests continued ‘ough the autumn of 1960, and the pre-lectoncentr if 5a on UM Oy, BETS Sub am ned ts Pres cana Fs ; yKeerees Beapolls showed Kennedy neckanc:neck with the Republican candidate, Richard Nixon, jo weeks before the election, King was arrested ‘nasivin at an Atlanta department sere. The police held him alleging violation of the penalty for a prior trafic offence. and then moved him 320 kilometres (200 mikes toa maximum security state prison. AS Kennedy and Nixon held ther final TV debate, King began a sentence of sx months’ hard labour Kennedy chose not to speak ou, but he and his brother Robert tried discreetly to secure King’s release. Overuling Robert Kennedy's advice, JFK advisers Sargent Shriver and Harris Wofford persuaded him to phone King’ wife Conta, who as six months’ pregnant. King was released on ball the next day He ‘thanked Kennedy for his intervention, and noted that Nixon had not helped at all, Although King didnot endorse Kennedy, news ofthe phone call may have helped swing the black vote in the North to Kennedy. certainly altered the vote of King father, Martin Luther King St, who hha previously refused to ve for Kennedy because the was Catholic Kennedy won the electcn, but did he manage {o win Martin Lather King rs feedam? King appeared not to believe sa. In 201, the National (Civ Rights Museum in Memphis, Tennessee ited a reebto‘eel tape recording in which King creed the Kenney brothers efforts but was somewhat "Now ts true that Senator Kenney did take a speci stp King tol an interviewer. He was in ‘contact with oficial in Georgia during my arrests and he called my wife, made a persnal call and ‘expressed his concern, and said to her that be was, ing and trying todo something to make my release possible” Robert Kennedy. King said, had also helped, “His brother, who at that time was his ‘campaign manager also made direct contact with officials and even a judge in Georgia" But King did ‘nor beeve that che Kennedys alone had secured his release "So the Kennedy family did have some part in the release, but I must make it clear that many other forces worked to bring It about alsa Although John F Kennedy belived that ws ranting minorities equa acess to housing and voting were inevitable, he knew that civil ngbts tas a partisan isue ~in his own party as much 3s in the country at lage He belived other issues ‘were more pressing axes, stee prices Fide Castros hostile government in Cuba, and the pursuit ofthe Cold War. He wanted o secure the support of lseral Republicans for civil rights legislations. That meant backroom negotiations. Wary of spliting his party inthe frst months of his presidency. Kennedy avoided taking action on ‘lights. Although King was the most prominent civlrights leader he was not invite to Kennedy's nauguration orto Kennedys sop to cl rights fist meeting athe White House with civil nights Jeaders. The Kennedys wanted to contol the pace ‘of cv rights, so that it cid not upset the broader strategy of JFK first term, including the key 82 The FI spied on Martin Lather King Here eat tites Eats eS Sean) ee ice Seaenir oreo is aera rar reereey eter Apa i could pressure JFK's successor L ery Peretti Perea ne e empire rivera enrnegomy ferent er Seer ie rT en ents tty ene nee tea ee a Seed Ser Se ete eet oe Say ee es “Wary of splitting his party in the first months of his presidency, Kennedy avoided taking action on civil rights’ tyclement of any president’ fisttetm sate, the winning of second term, Soon, King conclude thatthe cv rights campaign must force Kennedy to act. AS the Freedom Riders spread across the South they encountered physical danger and hostile policing In May 1961, King went to Montgomery Alabama to preach in support ofthe Feedom Riders a the ‘church of fellow SCLC leader Ralph Abernathy. Robest Kennedy, now attorney general personally co1dered the deployment of federal marshals to protect King, King andthe civil rights leaders, however, ti belived that the Kennedys were not pressing civil rights withthe urgency it deserved. Ina speech ‘in July 196, King sid that Kennedy should se moral persuasion, by occasionally speaking out against segregation Kennedy rep tat his ‘ommizment tothe equality of ll Americans was ‘eat But another year passed befoe he would ‘demonstrate that commitment by legislative proposals. When he dit was because the civ rights campaign had forced the American people to become spectators ofa moral crisis. The spectacle of protestors being attacked with cubs, dogs and ‘water hoses in Alabama, and back children klled fn terns attacks on churches, caused widespread public revulsion Kennedy was compelled to acknowledge that repressive police action and “token moves” were ‘ot the answer, In June 1963, he finally proposed legislation against Sim Crow ws inthe Sout. Al Americans with awadeschool education up tothe age of 19, would be allowed to vote. There would be no discrimination in public places ike hotels, and restaurants Despite initiating these watershed proposals the Kennedys kept ther distance from King. “They knew thatthe most powerful man inthe government bureaucracy. J Edgar Hoover of the FB} loathed King and the Civil Rights Movement ‘hey also knew that Hoover had used four cdecades of warrantless survellance to amass secret files not just on the private Ives of organised crime basses and more than 400.000 suspected political subversive boutalso on every American in Dubie, rom Hollywood to Washington tothe SCLC, That Included the Kennedy brothers and Martin Lather King e ‘Apart from an obsessive interes in his suspects’ politcal associations, Hoover bad a particular meres in sexual gossip. political past could be disavowed, but a sexual past was less easy tw escape. Hoovers investigation into the poltical lives of John F Kennedy and Martin Luther King bad generated material on the secret sex lives of both men, and with Robert Kennedy's knowledge Hoover had witetaps showing Mafia donations to John F Kennedy’ 1960 campaign for the Democratic nomination in West Virginia apparently disburse by Frank Sinatra, Hoover tha heard the rumour that JFK’ fates, Joseph The killing Citrenciien Sirhan was the first Prec ee tener in America motivated Peat Poe JFK and MLK Kennedy, had secured the help of Chicago mob ’boss Sam Giancana to stuff ballo bas in ook (County inc, a tate crucial to Kennedy’ arrow victory in the 1960 election. Heals had evidence of inks between Judith Exner. one of IFES ‘mistresses, and the Chicago Matis, As attomey general, Robert Kennedy was committed toa drive against the Mafia. FEL surveillance of the Chicago mob boss Sam Giancana led agents to Judith Exner she turned out tbe one of Jon F Kennedy’ lovers, ate, she claimed tw have acted as ago‘detween in te president’ dealings with Giancana. In March 1962 Hoover presented JIC with evidence of Exner testo Sam Giancana and his Los Angeles leatenant, ohn Rosell nd that her telephone records showed that she had called IFKs secretary atthe ‘White House on numerous occasions. JFK would goon to end his relationship with Exner soon after this ‘Meanwhile the FB had been tracking Matin Luther King ir and the SCLC sine 1957 Hoover disked black people in general. In private, he called King the buthead’ He was opposed to cul rights as a ferm of eisorder and radicalism, and detected signs of organised cornmunist ‘conspiracy in the campaign for equal rights. The FBI investigation deepened in 1962. focusing on King aide Hunter Pits Dell who had been a Peer 83member ofthe Communist Party in the 19505 his yer Stanley Levison, whom the FBI considered to have been a major funder of the Communist Party USA inthe 1950s and Bayard Rustin wh had introduced King to Levison. and who apar roma communis: past also had conviction for homosextal activity ‘When Kennedy received King tthe White House in June 1962, he tld him thatthe FEI ‘vas bugging hi. Atte same time, Kennedy publely disapproved of the March on Washington anne for 28 August 1962, We want success in he Congress, ata big shown the Capital” he explained When A Philip Randolph, the bead of he March on Washington, asked Kennedy to kead a ‘crusade’ for civil rights, Kennedy explained that he preferred to wok for legisaive progress ina bypartisan deal with iberal Republicans Kennedy also had to neuyalise J Eagar Hower. The White House recruited white union graups to the March, to preempt claims that civil rights was an issue for ‘hack radials, (On 22 November 1963, Kennedy was assassinated in Daas, Texas. "His death fa America andthe world” commented Martin Luther “The finest tute that the American pele ean pay to the late President Kennedy ent the progressive polices that he ‘stair sought ointiat in reign and domestic polices’ Kennedy's vice prsiient. Lyndon Johnson, tok ‘over and won the 1964 election Uke Johnson had a deep commitment to civ rights, He was determined to push throug essation, regardless ofthe cost othe Democratic Party. The 84 result was the bipartisan Givi Rights Act 1964) nd Voting Rights Act (1965) We have lst the South fora generation. Jonson is reported to have Sad after signing the Civil Rights Act. Johnson was prepared to pay that price Historians contin to argue over whether JK would have risked his partys uny and the presidency over civ rights an issue that ranked Tew among his prenties and on which be only acted due to public pressure While Johnson worked forthe Gil Rights Act, Robert Kennedy permitted Hoover surveillance of King Itappears that when Robert Kennedy collaborated with Hoover against the Mafia he had no idea about his brother’ inks to Exner and Giancana. Rober Kennedy did. however, know bout Hoovers surveillance of Martin Lather King4. In December 1963 ust weeks after the killing of TFK Hoover secured Robert Kennedy's permission to bug Kings hotel rooms and tap his phones. The pretext was that Kings lawyer, Staley Levison, had previously been member ofthe Communist Party Hoover real objective was to desttoy King and the iil rghts campaign. Although Kennedy hha authorised the surveillance on“ ral sis for a ronth osc actually continued ntl King’s ‘murder in Ap 968, Although King ertcised him and the Department of lustie for nat prosecuting evil its vilations during JFKS presidency, King thanked Robert ney for hs work in securing the passage fhe Cul Rights Act "Your abe courageous and effective workin guiding the Ci Rigts Act (of 1964 though bath Houses of Congzess has ‘eared for you an even warmer spt inthe heats of freedom iving people the world over [add to ‘ets my sincere and heartet thanks In September 1964, Robert Kennedy stepped dwn from the attorney generalship. Two months later, Kennedy won a senate race for New York, and began to postion himself forthe campaign for the 1968 Democratic Party nomination In 1956, ‘when Kennedy ciessed Johnsons involvement In Vietnam, King congratulated him A year er King gave a detaled ants Vietnam speech. The two seemed likely to represent te furre of America, domestically and internationally. Instead they came to represent its tragedy On 4 Apri 1968, a white racist named James atl Ray shot King in the head a he stood onthe bakeony ofa metel in Memphis, Tennessee. As rots broke out in major ities across Ameria, Robert Kennedy pleaded with a mosty black audience in ovntown Indianapelis indiana to flow King’s ideal of nanvilence. ‘Over the following weeks, Kennedy surged tovrads the Democratic nomination. On 6 une 1968, Kennedy, having delivered a speech at ahotl ln Los Angeles, was shot and ke, His assasin, a Palestinian immigrant named Suhan Suhan, ‘ted American support for Israel as the motive for Kennedy’ iling he tiple assassinations of JFK, MLK and RFK profoundly damaged American soe pushing American poles onto diferent track, Richard Noson who had narrow lost the 1960 election to JFK, won the 1968. ‘lection with a promise to extricate America ffom Vietnam, and restore order at home PETE Brie) American tee politics Pee eres eer ey Sen neers earns es me he mx eco er kes candidate Barry Goldwater. The passage ofthe Civil Rights Act Inter that ye Se eee een re JFK and MLK “Hoover secured RFK’s permission to bug King’ te among black ere at errr Peet eee te etd ee eee ee ee eee ane eores peaking about prceneen array Pee a eens ra ene Comm et aetna ea cent cet to shake eee eee ee ee eee ee rete 85& 5 ] Sy = oe |nets b} pMrerea comOO coal o Peeeceunie aati} Terenas Rene eRere ney EON O oats ESaresmiaretg Rac dmurderi The murders of three civil rights workers in Mississippi gained national ETAccvle Oem U noe HOM eMCCN LUN ecB ULB OM tae e no alael Ce ed Pe ee ed Seed ened be tees cee eet eee ene erent een ert Pee ees eee cero pee ee eee eres ‘numerous reviews and charges against more ‘than 20 individuals resulted n seven federal ere eee eee es ey De ee een PU nates oR ey oi So eet! et ee ea ned ‘The summer of 1964 was pivotal in the progress eon re eee eee aos South, As the Council of Federated Organizations con erent ae cemet ten) eee eee ee eer tren er te rent Pee ees ocean serene tet {descending upon the state during thelr ‘Freedom eet Ino this smouldering cauldron, 24-yearold Cee ed ea en od eee Se ee ee ety eee ets Se cetera oe eer ete ey ee eee Pee eee eee cy cee ene ee eas ee er eee reais Ce eas Prete te ect ers eo Cy eat Cmte eee Sree eyRacism and murder in Mississippi Bele one id etn Esco intimidation and murder, Among conte te Preeti ed corns Sena Sere) eam eee ens eres een oe eee “In further insult to the victims, no one was ever charged with murder” near the town of Philadelphia. Price pulled the The Je was ston ie along an aac ar ever, atesed Chaney for speeding. and handed loging rsd twas found on 23 June meee ne also handcuffed Goodman and Schwerneron 2 daring an exhaustive search forthe missing men. hperpsemnrnnterr ane ttumped up charge of possible collusion inthe ‘The bods were transported toa nearby farm and ; ‘Church burning Late inthe afternoon, the men called in Phiadelp I agents acting ona tp from an informant final s tomake phone calls were denied, and located them, mple eet eee eet sy are eerie tot and throu dctments followed and in Travis Barnette, Alton Rabe Billy Wayne Posey, James Atl James Snowden. and Samuel Bowers were convicted of violating the slain trio's civil rights, Sentences ranged from three to ten years; however, none of them served longer than six years in prison. Eight defendant ‘were acquitted, and thee resulted in a hung jury-Kilen remained free for decades In further insult to the vieuns, no one County line and aftr two mote ged with murder Vehicles stopped at Price loaded Sometimes referred 0 as the "Misssipp the three men in his pattol cat. The three cars| Burning’ or re proceeded toa dit ane called Rock Cut Read and needless and tage stopped, Schwemer and Goodman were surnmarly in June 1964 a sh in the heart. Chaney was beaten and then shat influencing te passage ofthe landmark Voting three times. Rights Act of 1965 1967 wating fra justice ofthe peace to handle the speeding fine Around 1pm, Price loved them to leave without ‘coming before a cour offical, A rember ofthe leal KKK, Price had alerted other conspirators the men were in custo Fe followed them out of tov and then returned to Piledeipi to drop of another police officer before ai turing in pursuit. Price up with the men neat the 89The long march to vote While the Civil Rights Act had outlawed discrimination, in the South many black people were still effectively disenfranchised. In 1964, the struggle turned to the right to vote sk 1.2 July 1964, President Lyndon Johnson had signed te Civil Rights ‘Act outlawing discrimination an the basis of eolow race, eligon or sex. But while the passage of dhe act through Congress and the Senate was a historic achievement lacs in Souther sates stil faced entrenched ‘@iscrimination, n particular with respect to voting righ. Fr instance, the ‘Alabama state legislature requied people registering to vote to pas literacy test and pay a poll ax. What made the vas the test being administered by white people whose judgement was final and often arbitrary. Every effet was made to make it ficult for back people to even attempt to register, ith escted opening hours for contes of registration (often only one or two days a month) intimidation and threats of sacking to anyone wito di ty to reser to vote, The end result was that Dallas County, ‘Alabama, according to 196 epar. only 130 Blacks were registered to vote, ‘ut ofa population of 15000 eile ‘voters Dall County, with Selma 2 its county set, had a maioiy of black ‘zens but because so many were disenfranchised, political power there layin the hands ofthe white minorty and they intended to keep it ‘Local activists in Selma ana Dallas County had made repeated attempts to register voters but when these ald ‘ght people invited the Southern Christian Leadership Conference {SCLC) to assist in gang local black people ther rights. One of the factors that led the SCLC board including Dr Martin Lather King, accept the invitation was the reputation the Dallas County police fore, under ts serif, Jim Ca, had for brutally Clark employed 200 deputies, some ‘of whom were members ofthe Ku Klux Klan, arming them with electric cattle prods. Dr King and the SCLC ad leamed that time-honoured rule ofthe news medi: ft bleeds it leads, To ‘gamer the national tention they needed inorder to put pressure on President Lyndon Johnson toring forward legislation against the sot of tsrimination back voters faced in pares ike Sema, they needed to find city authates that ‘were bral enough and stupid enough to atace and beat nonviolent protestors under the lenses of TV eameramen. In Sherif im Clark, King and the SCLC had found their man. A the fist stage in the campaign, Dr King the SCLC and loca activists organised mass voter registrations o highlight the invidious restrictions placed on back voters. Unable to ‘suppress ther violent bigotry. Sen Clark and his men responded brutally and aver 3000 ‘were arested through January 1965, nc King. But despite a court ruling in favour ofthe cv rights protestors by February Dr King could still say, ina letter to the New York Times, "This is Selma, Alabama. There are more Negroes nail ‘with me than there ae onthe voting rolls” Then, on 8 February 1965, police broke up protest in neighbouring Perry Courey Trying tw escape the Alabama tate police. Ammie Lee Jackson a poor farm werker who was also a ‘acon in his church, took refuge in a cle but the police fellowed him in and then shot him, Jackson ‘managed to stagger out, but died eight days ater fom his wounds Jackson's death stoked emotions that were already running hgh. In order to stp the protests ‘uring violent, SCLC organiser James Bevel proposed a march fom Selma, the county Sea to Montgomery, the sate capital, distance of 80$1Wemares CATHOLIC JEWS PROTESTANT Now! ‘dometres (60 mies) to present ther grievances to the governor Dr King was in Atlanta so the march was le by the Reverend Hosea Willams along vith student actvs, John Les (On Sunday’? Mach, about 600 marchers se out from Selma and came tothe Bdmund Pettus Bridge cover the Alabama River. The bridge as a central hhump, so twas only wien they crested the hump that the marchers elised thatthe police and state troopers were wating for them on the other sie. “The governor of Alabama, George Wallace, had cored that the march was tobe prevented frm reaching Montgomery by any means necessary Serf Jim Clark needed no further encouragemet With his mounted posse, Car charged int the ‘marchers beating them with clubs while police fred tear gas, Even when the protestors tried to retin, the mounted police charged after them, stil fang with their chs ‘That evening, ABC one ofthe national networks, stopped its programming to show viewers fm of the brutality visited, by American lawmen, ‘upon nonviclent protestors, The following day, the rational press was covered with pictures of pice beating women and men. Sherif fm Clas, to stupid to stop himself or his men had fallen for the trap that had been set fr him Inresponse to the violence, Dr King called cnlecal religious leaders to pin him ina second march from Selma to Montgomery ‘that would take place two days later on Tuesday ‘9 March. But when Judge Frank Minis Johnson placed a temporary restraining order onthe march Dr King and the other protest leaders vere faced with adlemma, Judge Johnsen had given many rulings favour of black cl rghts and it was ‘thought that he would ft the der. In the end, Dr King ed some 2000 marchers to Edmund Pettus Bridge where they knelt and prayed, in sight of Alabama state troopers, before turning round and returning to Selma. Asa resul the day became known as Turnaround Tuesday. ‘Bu the protestors nonviolence vas again met by violence - that evening James Reeb a white Unitarian Universalis minister who had joined in ‘he march, was set on by sesesationists and beaten badly. He died two days later from his injuries ‘On 15 Mare, President Lyndon Johnson sxidressed a jeint session of Congress, and the whole nation via television, saying, “Thee Defining moment Freedom Day 7 Oct 1963 Zeon s00tokpee vest Dias @ bring asad Timeline ee Coperisone the people wang Inline The resets wk soy But redo Day mars the bepaning of the ‘ta mote gene ‘cause must be our cause toa. Because it snot just Negroes, bt really itis all of us who must cvercame the crippling legacy of bigetry and injustice. And we shall overcome® Two days lar, the president brought new legishation to ensure voting rights for black peopl before Congress. Meanwhle, Judge Johnson had lifted the restainng ater against the marchets while also duecting local hw enforcement that they were not tw haras the marchers, (On 21 Mach, the third march to Montgomery left Sema protected by FB agents Among the ‘marchers were Joe Young, a bind man fom Georg, and Jim Letherer from Michigan, who did ‘the march on crutches The marchers took four days to reach the state capital and the weather was often foul, but bythe time they reached Montgomery the rumber of marchers had grown to 225000. On ther lst night asthe marchers camped in the grounds of St Jude, Catholic establishment ‘on the outskirts of Montgomery. entertainers such Poti progress Preise onan sane eon byconeess (rabrary 1965 18 is strtofthecampsign —@Firstattemptstorogiter © Further attempts © Punching back Crererpecres, "Orregiens00 | rg, manta ret teamestraat own Chapel Toatenpttonepserisr —peopecometoty —ShenfGakeanen he 92 derogie se rebrary i965as Hanry Belafonte and Nina the excited crowed. On the morro they knew they ‘would be making istry (On 25 March, Dr King led the marchers through Montgomery In response to reports of supers ereymen who looked like King walked abreast of him atthe fret ‘of the procession. However, when the marchers the marchers and, via television, ce nation. “Our aim must never be to defeat or umibate the white man but to win his friendship and ‘understanding, We must come tose tat the end ‘we seek sa society at peace with isl a society thar ean ive with ts conscience. And that wil be a day not ofthe white man nt ofthe black man, That willbe the day of man as man" Less than si months Intron 6 August 1955, President Johnson signed the Voting Rights Act, with Dr King ard cther civ sights leaders by his side Defining moment Bloody Sunday 7 March 1965 Sim Clk et and his depres murders oad Sandy ge fant stron, conned fertar ste paces 2 ‘Soren 96s The woman who did not turn the other cheek ee on Se ne eee nearer: oni us hd told his disciples, andthe mo err eee ree et under the sorts of provocation people faced, eet Teeny hee eee Pee Oe ne) Pee ey eer te’ be pn Eee eae reer To eae etd Tee an err) ‘the mat See ee rere en ee ee ee mee ere cca eet ee gee ree al in hem, ea roa? oe eee iets cere eee eet ect Seer cs Peer a Perens! eee tet Perey pee er es oeeeene eee ssa cere see cn permet oe Pannen et Peres rater ager Test Seer eet got Defining moment March to Montgomery 25 March 1965 ‘ty ech teense Seaton an Ste opto bart tern Swati her iit te Theater Nt ne ba ns ont te ( Desthinthenight fea hsdcome toMomanmey | bythe Kar br BWarehs estrom eres two marc 965 83I Have A DreamFreestate cents cl) Nenon especial e cer ace entcertriiy reece ey cts Pusecsm ee neces labelled Turnaround Tuesday.Death of a King Death ire eters Martin Luther King Jr rose from a simple Baptist minister to Eeab emo presale ose cetoce- nsec a clace lec inate atts death resonated around the world Saeed De eee oe nE LD political upheaval that change the United States, and ee en ey ee el segregation and create a new nation of black supremacy, while SE een! Se ee ener Pen eee eo ce ee as coe ee es aac Ue ener een oe eee eet ae een tre ‘fis fe. Asa figure campaigning for change ina country ee eer ee ees ene Urea) eee ee enon promoted a manta of nonviolence - his postion as aminister Sg eed ee eee ener black activists ofthe movement and the white traitionalists eo eee eee eee St eee on Inlife, King was the voice ofa new er, one that wanted Cee rr rete Constitution, peaceful force ina nation ready to blow like a pone a gee ea etet eee cnn eer eee ny for African Americans, but his death helped secure the last and pethaps the most vital - legislative change ofthe Civil Rights Movement: the Housing Act. The wave of mourning et Ree ee ans eee ee nee eee ee ‘of colour or creed ~ could have a home that was protected esThe rise to fameDeath of a King THEDAYSBEFORE [aga As Martin Luther King Jr made the fateful steps towards i (Te Le Wh) that final evening in Memphis, the years-long Civil Rights Movement was reaching its crescendo cade 4 acuvism, ‘making some influential foes Pear economic dei that alien eas of society. More : importantly t was a multicultural cause. King was ‘et withthe bill mere months away om being determined to addres the poor living conditions of signe into a, those inal days 1s, regardless Merc c Pre the cause. “Nothing in made but os wrebecomng il] the world is I more dangerous than sincere towards Memphis and the ongoing Memphis cmeddmenaroener, ignorance and crens into an even switr conscientious “ stupidity’ ance consderble negative toute bi ne Senate His rights activist Bayard Rustin assassination later the campaign be essed the pres and unt as passion widesprea for American citizens as hi mn 3 April King fle into Memphis the path of the bill with eat proper in order speech at the ‘sence in many cfthe Senate Mason Temple (he world headquarters of nistence bain the the Church of Go in Christ) his light was intlly delayed threat but he rade tin time to make the adr he speech ve Heen To The Mountantoy =p mp te es of he USA pose.THE ASSASSINATION Froma simple stroll onto a motel balcony to the 4 April 1968 flight of an unsuspecting assassin, we break down the murder of a civil rights icon + By A968, atin tater King 5 =, Sra the Gi gts Movement 7 Agia ae a the Ci igh Act ha born Sane ino lnwa nee wo dye conse fates and the Housing Bll Ac, ‘ ‘which protected the homes ofall cetlaens, was coming into eect. quality was fast becoming realty, broadcast across the airwaves of every TV and radko around the world, and King remained the triumphant face of {to Memphis forhis last push tothe mountaintop, ‘Peaceful activism in defiance of age-old tensions and domestic ‘uncertainty. And so, with victory al but certain, King traveled OLA LT ESOS 100Death of a King“Tn the end, ea nvlll remember not What » ~ the words of » MECN CNAs Bro tioeaniocy pueteunic ace erg fbtiaeeeesl sles 1 cg ae of our friends” Rrra ore 2 Hewas, and Pied evelOUT RN ROM Cd TRIAL AND AFTERMATH — With the country ina state of shock and national mourning, the attention of the world turned to the man who took the fatal shot Within moments of unleashing the bullet that would take Martin Luther King 3 if, fames Bal Ray packed his rifle and other effect into a box, ‘wrapped iin an old cloth and fled the boarding ‘house held been using to Salk the outspoken minister: Dumping the bundled box outside a nearby amusement arcade, Ray had run to his ‘white Mustang and sped out of Memphis as King lay dying on the fst oor ofthe Loraine Hot! Tn the days that followed, Ray acquired a ‘Canadian passport under the false rame of Ramon ‘George Sney ane took shelter in the city of (Ontario. The FI issued a warrant adding him to ther notorious Most Wanted list ‘hile also putting an APB out on all his known alaes. Two months late, on June, while he was alempting to leave the United Kingdom, ‘checkin staff realised the name Sneyd was on the Royal Canadian Mounted Police watch Is. Aiport officals also discavered a secand passport an Ray under another assured ala. Ray was immediately anested, and extradited tothe United States a few days later: In the two months since his light, the FBU had begun what ‘would atthe time, become the mast expensive investigation in the Bureas history. The manhunt to find Ray had spread across five counties, bolstered by an international ctcry atthe senseless death of a pro-nonviolence campaigner. Now, with Ray finaly in custody the judicial process could begin So what was the case against Ray? Did the authorities have ref utable evidence of his involvement Infact. what the prosecution had was purely circumstantial evidence, tall of laced Ray atthe scene of the murder. ‘The nile used to gun down King bore Ray's fingerprints as (dd the binoculars hed bought eater that day and a newspaper he had rad o gain information on Kings whereabouts ay initally confessed to everyting to avoid 2 death sentence. but three days late he witrew his guilty plea Acording to Ray, a mysterious ma called Raout (whom Ray had met in Canada) had cxchesitated the entire operation, directing Ray to purchase a nile and reserve a specific oom atthe Betty Brewster boarding house. Evidence of a figure, beyond Rays own testimony, was found, and with Ray’ troubled history withthe lw, the prosecution was assured of is confidence in Ray asthe kl ‘ut what hal ed im int tis postion? ver since his teenage years Ray had been a habitual criminal. Bold but predominantly unsuccessful in his career, his rap sheet vasa pockmarked road of armed robberies and theft Hed escaped fom ison a numberof times sncuding an excursion foom Missouri State Prison the year before King was gunned down, Unafrad of wielding a weapon, Ray was described as fealess- but his crimes Thad never gone as far as murder. petty the, undoubtedly buta killer? Ray adamantly denied he killed King (a stand te kept unt hie death in 1998) However, despite the purely circumstantial evidence ~ineluding ‘witnesses who identified Ray fleeing the scene - be was convicted of Kings murder and sentenced to 99 years in prise ‘So why was Ray convicted on such a slim case of evidence? Conspiracy theeces continue to run rifle asto the inner machinations of the prosecutions ‘case but one fact was clear: someone had 1 be ‘made accountable Five yeas ear, the president himself had been guns down ina similar fashion. Captured on film and immortalised in the ‘minds of al it the nation shocked at che simple yet barbaric at of assassination, Much ike King JFK was a popular and charsmati figure and his very public execution galvanised the US intoa ‘common desire for us JFK death was a shocking twist on a Cold Wat buackcop, King’s assassination, however shocking, ‘united the nation in collective mourning didnt ‘quell the violence perpetuated bythe movements dca elements, butt dl accelerate the rad equality Three months after his death ‘the Civil Righes Act was signed into law finally ensuring the constkutional nights of every citizen agains unawful persecution and segregation. (ees eja elaine (oy ENaC eect eia The Nacsa ty BSc Pato Bes ordered the hit later’ government hitSay It Loud... 108 Defining Moments: 114 The making of 1965-1968 Malcolm X 10 A changing mood: 118 Black Power, Riots & rebellion Black Panthers— +5 a —— Ea TT Moments 21 February 1965 The assassination of Malcolm X hen prominent civil ih and Following pilgrimage to Mecca, he formed the Malcolm Little beter known Organization of Afro-American Unity and preached Malcolm X-visted the Manhattan that rai thoughts, not white people a 2 Audubon Ballroom to ales the whole. were the enemy Organization of Afro-American Unity And so, dtng his fateful speech in three men fom the 400-strong ati forwards and shot him 2 times in the was a shocking moment, and a public blow ‘Manhattan three members ofthe Nation of slam (Noman 3X Bulle, Thomas 15X Johnson and Talmadge #ayer) e crowd armed witha un and two automatic bodyguards al three men opened ire joxng hishame had been frebombed inthe on the activist, He was pronounced dead 3X. He knew he was a contentious figure Shy ater Hyer was eae severely by he he embraced bis postion asa prominent ma amend to racism, gers it brought. Much ofthis hate in Mah 1966, The reaction to his members ofthe Nation of slam. an death cased outrage. mainly due tothe brutality organisation that Malcolm X had lef following his of the act, but a number of detractors were quick to dlisilusionment with ts anti-white propagand recall he was once a vckent activist himsel © The Watts riots © Stokely Carmichael © Black Panther Party 11 August 1965 transforms the SNCC founded 15 October 1966 ‘Wien an isan Aer rt a May 1966 Det Het pplrty ca the wo th Pulsdovery poleeon spon feiss er umsatbcane an besa ping a ae URN eth. mony an theese he {ohuthrs cane faye dso ean ce ed wi mono he aad ‘ats ar ange deende eae mice naer tinct wach spe Avan Ameren cee Cone tndlosng Atoale94dedand inet Uhmutay stun dwances hood se tens eres bh eokonary an deep oie he rp 108Say It Loud... ly nd ieee rei Cet etroy Cente! eerie arly Pottery cre © Thurgood Marshall appointed « Civil Rights Act 1968 © Black Power Olympic salute tg Supreme Court 11 April 1968 16 October 1968 june fen eredto asthe a sng ett pase ‘When Aan Areca letes Toe Smith and 109ee é Esse aA changing mood: Riots & rebellion A changing mood: me Riots& The passing of the Civil Rights Act did not bring an end to racial tension. During the mid-to-late 1960s, a disenfranchised youth became ever more angry, sparking riots across the country be insurgent Cuil Rights Movement of the In addon, police and fre services in these areas | aly 1960s brought an end to segregation __yemalned almost exclusively populated by whats, tnd booted backentancemert ocring anf rary towne and cies cnt the Cotied vans wth te Cv igh ct on cntanment ates than ont poles Er talline rab dct, to many bck Ae these vison seed Soret radon ‘events acrdne tone omnes <10 milo Tur nf ures nbn seas In spite of the new laws, Se continued to simmer, for African Americans in the Meee ge ce aia ‘Then, from 1964 onwards, jrth and the West ofthe Peace tiem | ist unres: the migration out of the South August 1965 ‘Harlem neighbourhood of New inthe pecsing eats a York cy bee msocming : into six days of violence that spread tnd thee wee now instep deine : ino neat Belo tyes The ns tat remand tele frou 8000 fot ook othe sees tected sab (ne person was ie 8 ee ned an 465 Che whites Te wereaested eve io tak ace Hotere nothing ren the US hag good scans and efi pi pro he bes a white poption had ai ‘unig a blind eye to crime in black uiban centres slong ast didnot sil nto we residential ‘ones, Fr al the success of the Civil Rights Movement, most young blacks sil faced an economically bleak and the Vot mH