➢ Sources

➢ Impacts

➢ Preventive Measures

Air and Water Pollution

Chapter- V

Er. Bikash Adhikari, Ph.D.

Contents

 Water Pollution: Sources, Effects and Prevention

 Organic Pollution
 Inorganic Pollution
 Fecal-Oral Infection Transmission Route and Preventive Measures
 On-Site Sanitation
 Eco-Sanitation

 Sources, Causes and Impacts of Air Pollution

 Mitigation Measures
 Indoor Air Pollution
 Severity of the problems in Nepal
5.1 Water Pollution and it’s Sources
 Water exists in the atmosphere as lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers, groundwater, water
vapor, icecaps and glaciers, in the ground as soil moisture and in aquifers. Water
bodies are the most crucial part of the environment.

 Water pollution is the introduction of organic, inorganic, thermal, radiological or

biological contaminants in natural water bodies to an extent that they become unfit
for use, usually as a result of human activities.

 Anything that leads to a substantial decrease in water bodies’ quality increases the
risk of their human use.

 Water pollution is mainly divided into Organic Pollution and Inorganic Pollution.
5.1 Water Pollution and it’s Sources
 The main categories of water pollution sources include:

• Point Source • Underground Pollutants

• Diffused (or non-point ) Source • Invasive Species, for eg. Water
• Trans-boundary Source Hyacinth.
• Solid Waste Mismanagement
• Sewage and Wastewater Disorder
• Thermal Contamination

 Putrescibility is the process of decomposition of organic matter in water by

microorganisms using Oxygen.
 Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), and Chemical Oxygen
Demand (COD) are parameters that help identify the quality of water bodies.
5.1 Water Pollution: Effects and Prevention

Effects: Preventive Measures:

 Disturbance in aquatic Ecosystem  Solid Waste Management

 Negative Effects in Human Health
 Leads to ground pollution
 Eutrophication
 Biological Magnification
 Acidification and Coral Bleaching
 Fecal Waste Management
 Sewage Treatment Plants
 Responsible Wastewater Management
 Organic Farming Adaptation
5.2 Organic Pollution
 Seawage water
• Pollutants such as human and animal excreta, food residues, cleaning reagents,
detergents, etc. connected to local sewerage system from commercial houses and
industries.

 Agricultural runoffs
• Phosphates,ammonia,toxic metal ions and other organic compounds.

 Disposal of Pathogenic Microorganisms from domestic and hospital waste without

Treatment.
 Organic Wastes from Industries

 Solid waste disposal in natural water bodies.

5.2 Organic Pollution

Fig: Marine Biological Pollution

5.3 Inorganic Pollution
 Toxic liquid waste .
• Inorganic Wastewater from Industries linked with Petroleum, Paper Manufacturing, Metal
Extraction and Processing, Chemical Manufacturing, etc. often contain toxic pollutants.

 Heavy Metal Disposal.

• Elements with density > 5g/cm3
• Mercury, Cadmium, Copper, Lead and Arsenic are major pollutants of this kind, present in
polluted water bodies.

 Nuclear Accidents and Radioactive Discharge .

• Fukushima Daichi(2011),
• Chernobyl Disaster(1986).
5.3 Inorganic Pollution

 Thermal Manipulation of Natural Water-Body Temperature.

• Large water bodies used by thermal power-plants as coolants increasing temperature of
natural water bodies by 10 to 15oC.
• Dissolved Oxygen (DO) levels decrease significantly.

 Pesticides.
• Pesticides include Insecticides, Fungicides, Herbicides , Nematicides, Rodenticides and Soil
Fumigants which contain toxic chemicals such as metallic salts, carbonates, organophosphates,
thiocarbonates, derivatives of acetic acid, etc.
• For eg. Chlorinated Hydrocarbons (Endosulfan, DDT)
• These non-bio-degreadable pollutant residues carry a very long term effect.

 Oil Spills in major quantities.

 Plastic Pollution.
5.4 Fecal-Oral Infection Transmission Route
 Pollution of soil or water bodies with fecal waste particles leads to humans being
infected with waterborne or soil-transmitted diseases.
 The fecal–oral infection transmission route (aka oral–fecal route or orofecal route)
defines a specific course of channeling of a disease from one individual to another
where pathogens in fecal particles pass via distinct oral means.
 The main pathways of orofecal transmission can be condensed as 6-Fs:
•Feces, •Fields,
•Fingers, •Fluids,
•Flies, •Food.
• The transmission route via all 6 pathways are elaborated by the figure in the next page.
 Main causes of orofecal transmission include lack of adequate sanitation (mainly open
defecation), poor hygiene practices and fecal contamination of food is another form
of fecal-oral transmission.
5.4 Fecal-Oral Transmission: The F-Diagram
5.4 Fecal-Oral Infection Transmission Route
 A table of carriers of major diseases that pass via orofecal route is presented.

Bacteria Viruses Protozoans Helminths

Vibrio cholerae Hepatitis A Entameba Tapeworm
(cholera) histolytica
Clostridium difficile Hepatitis E Giardia Soil-Transmitted
Helminths
Shigella Enteroviruses Cryptosporidium
Salmonella typhii Norovirus acute Toxoplasma gondii
gastroenteritis
Vibrio Poliovirus
arahaemolyticus
Campylobacte Rotavirus
gastroenteritis
5.4 Orofecal Transmission Prevention

 Can the coronavirus spread via feces?

• There are evidences of COVID-19 infection leading to intestinal infection and being
present in feces. However, only one study has cultured the COVID-19 virus from a
single stool specimen. There have been no reports of fecal−oral transmission of the
COVID-19 virus to date. (WHO, June,2020)

 Preventive Measures:
• Absolute end of Open Defecation
• On-Site Sanitation including Eco-Sanitation
• Clean Hygienic Culture Development
5.5 On-Site Sanitation
 Advancement with time: Traditionally, Fecal Waste Management had received no attention
from concerned bodies. But now, Sanitation is no longer neglected in any water supply and
sanitation projects with the acknowledgement to it’s benefits and historical evidences.

 On-Site Sanitation is the sanitation system in which excreta and wastewater are
collected,stored and/or treated on the plot where they are generated.

 There are two main categories of on-site sanitation technologies: ‘Wet’, which require
water for flushing; and ‘Dry’ which do not require any water for flushing.

 Onsite or decentralized technologies are considered as long-term viable options, and

the most viable alternative in many ways compared to sewer-based systems which
are expensive and resource intensive.
5.5 On-Site Sanitation
5.5 OSS: Advantages and Disadvantages
 Advantages of on-site sanitation are:

 Simple to construct,operate and maintain;

 Less expensive to install and maintain;and
 Surface water pollution is eliminated

 Disadvantages of on-site sanitation are:

 Not suitable for substrata with hard rock and high water table condition;
 Possibility of pathogens leaching into groundwater and contaminating it; and
 In densely populated urban areas crucial groundwater resources can get
contaminated.
5.5 On-Site Sanitation
5.5 OSS Technologies and their Requirements
 The following on-sanitation technologies are being used around the world:
 Pit latrines
 Ventilated Improved Pit Latrines
 Composting toilets,
 Ecological sanitation (Eco-san)
 Two-pit Pour flush toilet
 Pour-flush toilets to septic tanks

 Requirements for adoption of on-site sanitation are:

 Adequate space for locating toilets and leach pits;
 Porous subsoil to absorb liquid content of excreta; and
 Groundwater at depth greater than 1.5 m from ground level
5.5 On-Site Sanitation Technologies
5.6 Eco Sanitation (Eco-San)
 FS contains significant concentrations of nutrients, which can be harnessed for
beneficial resource recovery, but if not properly managed can result in environmental
contamination.

 The nutrients in FS can supplement synthetic nitrogen based fertilizers that are
heavily dependent on fossil fuels and phosphorus.

 Ecological sanitation,(aka EcoSanitization or EcoSan), is an approach to sanitation

provision with the main aim to safely reuse excreta in agriculture.

 It major inclination is towards "closing the loop" mainly for the nutrients and organic
matter between sanitation and agriculture.
5.6 Eco Sanitation (Eco-San)
 The following on-sanitation technologies are being used around the world:
 Pit latrines
 Ventilated Improved Pit Latrines
 Composting toilets,
 Ecological sanitation (Eco-san)
 Two-pit Pour flush toilet
 Pour-flush toilets to septic tanks

 Requirements for adoption of on-site sanitation are:

 Adequate space for locating toilets and leach pits;
 Porous subsoil to absorb liquid content of excreta; and
 Groundwater at depth greater than 1.5 m from ground level
5.6 Eco Sanitation (Eco-San)
5.7 Air Pollution
 Alike other pollution types, infusion of pollutants in clean air leads to air pollution.

 Six pollutants are identified as “criteria” air pollutants because it regulates air quality
by developing human health-based and/or environmentally-based criteria (science-
based guidelines) for setting permissible levels.These six pollutants are:

• Carbon monoxide
• Lead
• Nitrogen oxides
• Ground-level ozone
• Particle pollution (often referred to as particulate matter)
• Sulfur oxides.
5.7 Air Pollution: Causes and Sources
 The main causes of Air Pollution are listed below.
• Natural causes: Volcanic eruptions, forest fire, pollen grains of flowers.
• Man-made causes: Deforestation, emission from vehicles, Rapid industrialization, wars and
explosions, Aircraft, mining.

 The main sources of Air Pollution follow.

 Industries
• Combustion of fuel to generate heat and power produces smoke, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen
oxides and fly ash. Petrochemical industries generate hydrogen fluoride, hydrochloric acid and
organic halides.
 Automobiles
• Vehicles are a major source of air pollution. They emit hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, lead,
nitrogen oxides and particulate matter. In addition, diesel engines, when misused or badly
adjusted are capable of emitting black smoke and malodorous, fumes.
5.7 Air Pollution: Sources

 Domestic Sources
• Domestic combustion of coal, wood or oil is a major source of smoke, dust, sulphur dioxide
and nitrogen oxides.
 Tobacco Smoke
• The most direct and important source of air pollution affecting the health of many people.
 Miscellaneous
• These comprise burning refuse, incinerators, pesticide spraying, natural sources (e.g., wind
borne dust, fungi, molds, bacteria) and nuclear energy sources.
5.7 Air Pollution: Impacts
 Air Pollution on Health
• Respiratory illnesses, skin allergies, eye infections, etc.

 Air Pollution on Property

• Metals corrode faster in polluted environment, paints do not last as long, tires and other
rubber goods fail due to ozone cracking, acid precipitation damages sandstone, marble statues
and monuments.

 Air Pollution on visibility

• Photons scatter on dust particles causing visual disturbances, NO2pollutants

 Air Pollution on global warming and climate change.

 Air Pollution on aesthetics
5.7 Air Pollution: Mitigation measures
 Dispersion of flue gas from industrial plants should be improved, possibly by using tall
stacks for effluent or relocating the plant in case of settlement nearby.
 Resource Recovery: If the pollutant has higher concentration of fuel or valuable
material, reclamation could be done. For eg: SO2 pollutant can be reacted with
Oxygen over a Vanadium catalyst to produce SO3, which can produce marketable
product H2SO4.
 Primary particulate pollutants can be agglomerated in a solid wall by using Gravity
settling chambers,cyclones and ESPs by driving the particles to a solid wall.
 Condensation, Adsorption, Absorption(scrubbing) processes can condense, adsorb
and absorb particles from the waste stream before releasing as flue gases.
 Human Behavior changes to mitigate:
• Change in energy consumption behavior • Biodigesters to prevent emission of Landfill
• Reduce material consumption Gas(LFG)
• 3Rs • Use of energy efficient devices
• Electric vehicles • Awareness
5.8 Indoor Air Pollution
 Indoor air pollution is one of the most critical global environmental problems,
probably exposes more people worldwide to air pollutants than does pollution in
outdoor air. Rural people in developing countries may receive as much as two-thirds
(2/3) of global exposure to particulates.

 According to WHO, around 3 billion people still cook and heat their homes using
solid fuels in open fires and leaky stoves. About 2.7 billion burn biomass (wood,
animal dung, crop waste) and a further 0.4 billion use coal. Such cooking and heating
produces high levels of air pollution with a range of health-damaging pollutants.

 In poorly ventilated dwellings, indoor smoke can be 100 times higher than acceptable
levels for small particles.
5.8 Indoor Air Pollutant Sources

Pollutants Sources
Respirable particles Tobacco smoke, Stove,Aerosol sprays
Carbon Monoxide Combustion equipment, Stove, Gas heaters
Nitrogen dioxide Gas cookers, Cigarettes
Carbon dioxide Combustion, Respiration
Formaldehyde Particle board, Carpet adhesives, Insulation
Sulphur dioxide Coal combustion
Organic vapours (Benzene,Toluene, etc) Solvents, Adhesives, Resin products, Aerosol
sprays
Ozone Electric arcing, UV light sources
Radon Building material
Asbestos Insulation, Fire proofing
Mineral fibres Appliances
5.8 Sources of Indoor Air Pollution
 Smoky Cooking Fuels:
• Open fire cooking stoves produce heavy smoke containing Fine particles, Carbon monoxide
(CO), Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)

 Carbon Monoxide Sources:

• Gas, kerosene, wood stoves, coal from fireplace, furnaces, Leaking chimneys and vents, Room
and water heaters,Vehicle exhaust in closed garage and Tobacco smoke

 Secondhand Tobacco Smoke:

• Children whose parents smoke: 70% more respiratory problems, Pneumonia and
hospitalization in year 1 is 38% higher, Infant mortality is 80% higher, 5 times higher risk of
sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)
5.8 Sources of Indoor Air Pollution
 Pesticides:
• Spraying pesticides at home / school: Higher concentrations near the floor, Persistence in some
surfaces (carpets, soft toys), Overuse and misuse. Children’s behavior and inhalation of
pesticides: Crawling close to the floor, Plush toys, Hand-to-mouth, Object-to-mouth.

 Mosquito Coils:
• Major active ingredient – pyrethrins, whose long-term exposures linked to asthma and
wheezing.

 Solvents And Volatile Organic Compounds:

• Alkanes, aromatic hydrocarbons, alcohol, aldehydes, ketones. Their Sources: Solvents, fabric
softeners, and cleaning products, Paints, glues, waxes and polishing materials, Spray propellants,
dry cleaning fluids, Pens and markers, Binders and plasticizers, Cosmetics: hair sprays, perfumes,
etc.
5.8 Indoor Air Pollution: Adverse Health Impacts
 Irritation of the mucous membranes (eyes, nose, throat).
 Cough, wheeze, chest tightness.
 Increased airway responsiveness to allergens.
 Increased incidence of acute respiratory illness like pneumonia, tracheobronchitis,
etc.
 Chronic diseases’ development.
 Long term exposure decreases lung growth.
 Impairment of pulmonary functions.
 Susceptibility to chronic obstructive lung disease.
5.9 Severity of Air Pollution in Nepal

Figure: Outdoor Air Pollution in Nepal (2015) Figure: Disease-wise distribution of hospitalized
patient in Kathmandu Valley (2015)
5.9 Severity of Air Pollution in Kathmandu
Thank You