Answer:- The various data delivery methods are as follows:- 1. Server Data Transfer 2.

Image Pixel
Delivery 3. JSON Return Tag 4. User Data API * In Server Data Transfer the campaign data is

User selfishness and incentive schemes

Almost all the routing protocols considered in this chapter assume that users are willing to help each
other in data delivery. However, network and device resources such as energy, cache and bandwidth in
real applications are limited, and a user might not be interested in relaying messages for the other
nodes. In other words, some nodes may have selfish behaviors in relaying data, which could significantly
degrade the performance of a DTN routing algorithm. According to (Li et al., 2012), two kinds of selfish
behavior can be defined for a non-cooperative node. In some cases, a selfish user wants to help other
nodes with whom he has social relationships (e.g. friends, classmates, colleagues), because he received
help from them in the past or will probably get help in the future. This kind of selfish behavior is called
individual selfishness. A selfish user may show a different degree of selfishness (or cooperation) to other
nodes based on social tie strength. This behavior is called social selfishness. An example of data delivery
in DTNs with unselfish, individually selfish and socially selfish nodes is shown in Figure 11.3.

User selfishness and incentive schemes

Almost all the routing protocols considered in this chapter assume that
users are willing to help each other in data delivery. However, network
and device resources such as energy, cache and bandwidth in real
applications are limited, and a user might not be interested in relaying
messages for the other nodes. In other words, some nodes may have
selfish behaviors in relaying data, which could significantly degrade
the performance of a DTN routing algorithm. According to (Li et al.,
2012), two kinds of selfish behavior can be defined for a non-
cooperative node. In some cases, a selfish user wants to help other
nodes with whom he has social relationships (e.g. friends, classmates,
colleagues), because he received help from them in the past or will
probably get help in the future. This kind of selfish behavior is called
individual selfishness. A selfish user may show a different degree of
selfishness (or cooperation) to other nodes based on social tie
strength. This behavior is called social selfishness. An example of
data delivery in DTNs with unselfish, individually selfish and socially
selfish nodes is shown in Figure 11.3.
User selfishness and incentive schemes
Almost all the routing protocols considered in this chapter assume that
users are willing to help each other in data delivery. However, network
and device resources such as energy, cache and bandwidth in real
applications are limited, and a user might not be interested in relaying
messages for the other nodes. In other words, some nodes may have
selfish behaviors in relaying data, which could significantly degrade
the performance of a DTN routing algorithm. According to (Li et al.,
2012), two kinds of selfish behavior can be defined for a non-
cooperative node. In some cases, a selfish user wants to help other
nodes with whom he has social relationships (e.g. friends, classmates,
colleagues), because he received help from them in the past or will
probably get help in the future. This kind of selfish behavior is called
individual selfishness. A selfish user may show a different degree of
selfishness (or cooperation) to other nodes based on social tie
 strength. This behavior is called social selfishness. An example of
data delivery in DTNs with unselfish, individually selfish and socially
selfish nodes is shown in Figure 11.3.

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 Data Delivery
VADD is analyzed in three packet modes: Intersection, Straightway
and Destination based on the location of packet carrier.
From: Vehicular Communications, 2014
Related terms:
 Energy Engineering
 Unmanned Aerial Vehicles
 Internet of Things
 Wireless Sensor Network
 Sensor Node
 Multichannel
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Connected Computing Environment
Sriram Chellappan, Neelanjana Dutta, in Advances in Computers,
2013
7.2 Protocols Design in Uncontrolled Sensor Mobility
Applications within the scope of uncontrolled sensor mobility are still in
their incipient stages of development. Currently, the major focus has
been the design of effective data delivery protocols under uncontrolled
sensor mobility. In the following, we discuss data delivery protocols in
the realm of uncontrolled sensor mobility. While the protocols are also
contingent on issues like mission scale, bandwidth, energy
consumption, etc., we focus on those protocol features that are
contingent on mobility patterns in the mission.
7.2.1 Publish-Subscribe Data Delivery Protocol for Patient Monitoring
Data delivery in the patient monitoring scenario [44] is based on a
publish/subscribe framework where sensors publish data to a specific
channel and end-users (i.e., medical caregivers) subscribe to
channels of interest. Due to transmission energy constraints multi-hop
communications among the nodes may be the only choice. However,
it may also happen that both patients and caregivers are mobile. This
twin mobility scenario means proactively maintaining routing paths will
not be feasible, while discovering paths reactively may incur too much
delay.
In [44], the data delivery protocol is based on the Adaptive Demand
Driven Multicast Routing (ADMR) protocol [45] that takes a middle
ground. Nodes are assigned as forwarders through a route discovery
process that periodically occurs. Every node maintains a node table
indexed by the publisher node ID. Each node table entry contains the
shortest path cost from the publisher to the current node. While
several metrics can be used for path costs, in [44], the radio’s Link
Quality Indicator is used as well as the previous hop in the best path
from the publisher, that is updated periodically. When a subscriber
wishes to receive data from a specific channel, it sends
a unicast route reply message along the reverse path from itself to the
publishing device, using the previous hop information in the node
table. Upon receiving the route reply, each intermediate
node configures itself as a forwarder for the requested channel and
subsequently rebroadcast received messages for that channel.
Simulations have shown that the ADMR protocol can effectively
handle mobility of both the patients and care givers. The performance
though depends on the periodicity of route maintenance, which again
depends on how rapidly mobility compromises existing data delivery
structure.
7.2.2 History-Based Protocol for Habitat Monitoring
In the habitat monitoring application in [3], the data delivery protocol is
designed to specifically take advantage of the mission’s mobility
patterns for more efficient data delivery and energy conservation.
Here, sensors placed in the collars of zebras collect information on
animal movements including position, speed, temperature, etc. Data is
logged by the sensors and should be periodically reported back to a
sink (researchers traveling in vehicles in the habitat). Clearly, the
energy limitations make broadcast type protocols unsuitable. To
enable scalability, and take advantage of knowledge of
movement patterns of zebras, the authors propose history-based
protocols, where each sensor periodically updates its hierarchy level
depending on its proximity to the sink. The closer the sensor is to the
sink, higher is the hierarchy level. Since zebras are slow movers, it is
likely that the sensor (and zebra) currently close to the sink, will also
be close to it in the near future. The data delivery protocol here is
simple where sensors forward packets greedily to sensors with higher
hierarchies, thus taking effective advantage of mobility patterns of the
mission.
7.2.3 Data Delivery in Ocean Monitoring Application
In ocean monitoring, thousands of sensors are deployed. The large
deployment scale, coupled with large scale movements precludes the
chances of scalable run-time data delivery protocols. In this mission,
sensors only sense, aggregate, and store data. After the mission
lifetime, the sensors will automatically float to the surface and data is
then recovered individually from them.
View chapter Purchase book
Applications to Improve the Assistance of First Aiders in Outdoor
Scenarios
Enrique Gonzalez, ... David Munoz-Rodriguez, in Intelligent Data
Sensing and Processing for Health and Well-Being Applications, 2018
10.6.2 Emergent Connective Technologies for WBSNs
Emergent connective technologies are introducing innovative ways of
networking and cognitive data delivery [33]. The potential of
connective-based architectures for enabling the specialized delivery of
health-related information is introduced with technologies like cloud
services, vehicular ad hoc networks (VANET), Internet of things (IoT),
multiple BANS networking, and centralized and distributed services.
•
Cloud Services. A named data networking (NDN) technology is
implemented to deliver rich media content from the cloud, such
as healthcare video adaptive streaming [34]. Also, the cloud
services support a range of capabilities of storing, processing,
and networking. Cloud data offers the possibility to scale up the
system with the number of monitored patients, increasing the
size of data and interconnected components, as in Ref. [20].
•
VANETs. This type of technology offers more stable
communication in the presence of high mobility, as in vehicles.
The mobile network could be employed inside the ambulance to
 support mobile connectivity between the hospital and the
ambulance in the case of critical cases [35].
•
IoT. This novel paradigm is the pervasive ability to interconnect a
variety of things that cooperate with each other. This concept
enables intelligence capabilities for real-time monitoring
uninterruptedly, allowing emergencies to be detected
immediately. The physical devices and patients become virtual
interconnected entities and can be monitored from web
services [22].
•
Multiple BANS networking. The network is formed by clusters
consisting of mobile devices to distribute the data traffic until it
reaches a nearby access point (AP). Only the emergency data is
transmitted directly through a cellular network with a reserved
channel [31].
•
Centralized and distributed services. In this architecture the
connectivity is adaptable. In centralized mode, the WBSN only
connects with the healthcare station. In distributed mode, the
WBSN connects with the healthcare station and sends the data
to a medical display coordinator, which visualizes the
information [36].
View chapter Purchase book
Using social network analysis (SNA) to design socially aware network
solutions in delay-tolerant networks (DTNs)
B. Jedari, ... Y. Najaflou, in Advances in Delay-Tolerant Networks
(DTNs), 2015
11.4.4 User selfishness and incentive schemes
Almost all the routing protocols considered in this chapter assume that
users are willing to help each other in data delivery. However, network
and device resources such as energy, cache and bandwidth in real
applications are limited, and a user might not be interested in relaying
messages for the other nodes. In other words, some nodes may have
selfish behaviors in relaying data, which could significantly degrade
the performance of a DTN routing algorithm. According to (Li et al.,
2012), two kinds of selfish behavior can be defined for a non-
cooperative node. In some cases, a selfish user wants to help other
nodes with whom he has social relationships (e.g. friends, classmates,
colleagues), because he received help from them in the past or will
probably get help in the future. This kind of selfish behavior is called
individual selfishness. A selfish user may show a different degree of
selfishness (or cooperation) to other nodes based on social tie
strength. This behavior is called social selfishness. An example of
data delivery in DTNs with unselfish, individually selfish and socially
selfish nodes is shown in Figure 11.3.

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 Figure  11.3. Data delivery in a DTN in the presence of unselfish, individually

selfish and socially selfish users.

In the past few years, several incentive schemes have been proposed
to stimulate selfish users to more cooperation, in spite of the fact that
this issue is extraordinarily challenging in DTNs due to intermittent
connections between mobile carriers. The existing incentive strategies
can be categorized into three classes: tit-for-tat (TFT), credit-based
and reputation-based schemes. In the following, some pioneering
incentive schemes in each category are highlighted.
In TFT mechanisms, two encounter nodes exchange the same
number of packets with each other in a “give one to get one” manner.
Consequently, message selection is a very important issue in this
method, which can significantly affect the performance of a data
delivery protocol in terms of data delivery and delay. MobiTrade
(Krifa et al., 2011) is a prominent scheme in this class which uses an
optimal buffer allocation policy to split the buffer of a node to each
channel. In reality, the amount of data for exchange between two
encounter nodes is not equal. This issue can lead to some problems,
such as fairness issues or deadlocks when some interesting content
cannot be disseminated between the relay nodes. To resolve this
problem, a trading mechanism was utilized in MobiTrade that allows a
node to buy, store and carry content for other nodes so that it can later
trade it for content it is personally interested in. Similarly, barter trade
(Buttyan et al., 2010) discouraged selfish behavior based on the
principles of barter. In this method, messages are classified into two
types, namely, primary messages and secondary messages, which
can be traded between the users. First, encounter nodes send the
description of the messages that they want to exchange. Then, a
message selection process is applied in such a way that the nodes
agree to download from each other one by one. The message
selection process is considered as a two-person game to increase the
message delivery ratio in this method.
Credit-based incentive approaches utilize the concept of virtual credit
to resolve the unfairness problem of TFT strategies. Practical
incentive (Pi) (Lu et al., 2012) was one of the first proposals in this
class, aiming to improve the performance of data forwarding in DTNs
in the presence of individually selfish nodes. In this method, some
incentives are attached to each message, which is not only attractive
for relaying nodes, but also fair to all network nodes. To achieve
fairness in Pi, the intermediate relay nodes get credit from the source
node if the messages are delivered to destination nodes successfully.
Otherwise, the intermediate nodes will get reputation from a trusted
authority which aims to guarantee fairness. SMART (Zhu et al., 2009)
is a secure multilayer credit-based scheme which is based on the
notion of a layered coin to encourage selfish users to cooperate in
data delivery. The first layer of the coin, called the base layer, is
generated by the source to indicate the payment rate (credit value)
and other rewarding policies. Furthermore, each intermediate node
adds a new layer, named an endorsed layer, which implies that the
forwarding node agrees to provide forwarding service under the
predefined forwarding policies. In summary, in credit-based strategies,
source and destination nodes are required to have access to a trusted
third party to manage their payment policies.
Reputation-based schemes have also been considered in the
literature to stimulate selfish users to cooperate in DTNs. In MobiID
(Wei et al., 2011), a node is allowed to manage its reputation evidence
and show this to demonstrate its reputation whenever necessary.
Furthermore, the concepts of self-check and community-check are
defined to speed up reputation dissemination between nodes and
allow them to form consensus views towards targets in the same
community based on a social metric. IRONMAN (Bigwood and
Henderson, 2011) utilized self-reported social network information to
establish a trust mechanism in order to detect and punish selfish
nodes. In addition, a reputation method is used to allow nodes that
have been deemed selfish to improve their trust score. Short
descriptions and important features of the discussed incentive
schemes are outlined in Table 11.3.
Table  11.3. Comparison of incentive schemes in delay-tolerant networks (DTNs)
 Algorithm Characteristic Properties

Single- Multi- Fairness

copy copy

Tit-for-Tat MobiTrade A trading mechanism that × √ –

(Krifa et al., allows a node to buy, store
2011) and carry content for other
nodes so that it can later
trade it for content it is
personally interested in.

Barter trade A game-theoretic model √ √ √

(Buttyan et al., based on the Nash
2010) Equilibrium strategy to
discourage selfish behavior
based on the principles of
barter.

Credit-based Pi (Lu et al., An incentive model in which √ × √

2012) selfish nodes are stimulated
to help forward bundles.

SMART (Zhu et An incentive scheme which √ √ √

a l., 2009) stimulates bundle-forwarding
cooperation with thwarting
various attacks.

Reputation- MobiID (Wei et A user-centric incentive × √ –

based al., 2011) scheme which allows a node
to manage its reputation
evidence.

IRONMAN An incentive mechanism that × √ –

(Bigwood and uses pre-existing social-
Henderson, network information to
2011) bootstrap the detection and
discouragement of
selfishness.

Note: √ if the model satisfies the property, × if not, and – for ambiguous cases.
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NB-IoT
Olof Liberg, ... Joachim Sachs, in Cellular Internet of Things, 2018
7.3.1.4 Paging and eDRX
The monitoring of paging during the idle mode has implications on
device battery lifetime and the latency of DL data delivery to the
device. A key to determining the impact is how often a device monitors
paging. NB-IoT does just as LTE uses search spaces for defining
paging transmission opportunities. The search space concept,
including the Type-1 Common Search Space (CSS) implementation
used for paging indication, is covered in detail in Section 7.3.2.1.
For now, it is sufficient to note that a device monitors a set of
subframes defined by the Type-1 CSS to detect an NPDCCH
containing a DCI of format N2 that schedules a subsequent NPDSCH
containing a paging message addressed to the device. The P-RNTI is
the identifier used to address a device for the purpose of paging and
is, as described in Section 7.2.4.5, used to mask the NPDCCH CRC.
The starting subframe for the Type-1 CSS candidates is determined
from the location of NB-IoT paging opportunity (PO) subframe, which
is determined based on configured DRX cycle [17]. If the starting
subframe is not a valid NB-IoT DL subframe, then the first valid NB-
IoT DL subframe after the PO is the starting subframe of the NPDCCH
repetitions. The Type-1 CSS candidates are based on only NPDCCH
AL 2 described in Section 7.2.4.5. A search space contains NPDCCH
candidates defined for repetition levels R up to a configured maximum
NPDCCH repetition level Rmax. Rmax is typically configured to secure that
all devices in a cell can be reached by the paging mechanism, and the
relation between the possible repetition levels R for a certain Rmax is
given by Table 7.18.
Table  7.18. NPDCCH Type-1 common search space candidates

R max R

1 1

2 1, 2

4 1, 2, 4
 R max R

8 1, 2, 4, 8

16 1, 2, 4, 8, 16

32 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32

64 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64

128 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128

256 1, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256

512 1, 4, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512

1024 1, 8, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512, 1024

2048 1, 8, 64, 128, 256, 512, 1024, 2048

Figure 7.40 illustrates possible paging configurations in NB-IoT. Either

DRX or eDRX can be used. In case of DRX the paging occasions
occur with a periodicity of at most 10.24 s. For eDRX, the longest
eDRX period is 2 h, 54 min, and 46 s, which corresponds to one
hyperframe cycle. After each eDRX cycle a paging transmission
window starts during which DL reachability is achieved through the
configured DRX cycle.

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 Figure  7.40. Illustration of possible Discontinuous Reception (DRX) and

extended DRX (eDRX) paging configuration in NB-IoT.

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Energy-efficient paging in cellular Internet of things networks
O. Vikhrova, ... G. Araniti, in LPWAN Technologies for IoT and M2M
Applications, 2020
12.4 Applications for paging in cellular Internet of things
Device manufacturers need to perform device update in order to keep
IoT infrastructure secure and up-to-date. In most of MT applications,
IoT devices are receivers of the same content (e.g., firmware/software
update, configuration file, schedule, routine task, etc.). Such
applications may greatly benefit from point-to-multipoint (i.e.,
multicast), rather than unicast, communications since multiple
receivers can be fed by a single data transmission.
More general, the use cases where MTC devices might benefit from
the group communications are [8]:
•
Planned data delivery,
•
Initially unplanned noncritical data delivery, and
•
Initially unplanned critical data delivery.
Initially unplanned noncritical data delivery:
When an update file is available for download, the network shall
inform MTC devices about the new schedule when they are
reachable, that is, at the very next paging opportunity or right after the
waking up for the periodic TAU procedure.
The time interval between the subframe when multicast session
schedule was announced and subframe when the announced session
starts must be bigger than the longest PSM cycle in the multicast
group to ensure that all group members are informed about the
forthcoming data delivery session.
Initially unplanned critical data delivery:
A critical software/firmware update, when available, must be delivered
as soon as possible. However, the eNB can inform devices about a
new multicast session schedule only when they are awake and listen
to the PDCCH. Data can be repeated in several transmissions until all
devices receive the content. The time between two successive
transmissions is assumed to be fixed and is called a critical interval.
The time between when a schedule for the critical file delivery is
announced and when the first group-oriented transmission starts shall
be less than the shortest PSM cycle of all group members. eNB can
repeat data delivery only to devices that have not received the
schedule in the previous sessions.
12.4.1 Group communications
Cellular IoT supports multimedia broadcast and multicast services
(MBMS) in the form of single-cell point-to-multipoint (SC-PTM)
communications. In the SC-PTM framework, a new single-cell
multimedia radio bearer and two channels, namely single-cell
multicast control channel (SC-MCCH) and single-cell multicast
transport channel (SC-MTCH), were introduced for group-
oriented data delivery. The bearer service (and multicast session) can
be identified by the group radio network temporary identifier (G-RNTI).
Newly designed channels are scheduled and carried by PDCCH and
PDSCH, respectively [9]. Multicast transmissions related to the MBMS
specific procedures, such as service announcement, session
start, data transfer, and session stop [10], are scheduled with a
periodicity specified by SC-PTM DRX cycle and delivered to the
devices in idle mode. A new broadcasted System Information Block-
20 carries scheduling information for one SC-MCCH per cell, while
SC-MCCH contains scheduling information for SC-MTCH per
multicast service. This information contains SC-MTCH scheduling
cycle, SC-MTCH onDuration time and SC-MTCH inactivity timer.
The periodic monitoring of the SC-MCCH required for service
announcement is an extremely energy and resource-consuming
approach for NB-IoT. In fact, devices have to listen to the channel
even if there is currently no available service for them. On-demand
paging for the service announcement might be an efficient solution to
avoid continuous listening to the SC-MCCH and improve the paging
reliability.
12.4.2 Solutions for improving battery lifetime in Internet of things group
communications
In this subsection, we present two group-based delivery strategies for
critical and noncritical firmware/software update applications. The first
strategy can be generally applied to any noncritical delay application
with a low-periodic (planned or unplanned) MT traffic. When the new
software/firmware file is available for download, the RAN informs a
group of devices specified by device owner or device manufacturer
through the paging procedure and initiates data delivery after the last
device of the group receives MBMS configuration and session
scheduling information. The second strategy deals with the class of
delay-sensitive IoT applications characterized by a sporadic critical
MT traffic. In order to communicate update file with a reasonable
delay, RAN initiates a multicast session at the beginning of each
critical interval only for those devices that has been successfully
paged in the last critical interval.
Any of the paging strategies (SP, GP, or eGP) can be utilized by RAN
to inform IoT devices about upcoming data delivery session. Note that
each member of the same paging group must follow the same DRX
cycle in order to simultaneously listen to the PDCCH opportunity.
View chapter Purchase book
Smart Sensor Data Stream Delivery Technologies
Tomoya Kawakami, ... Yuuichi Teranishi, in Smart Sensors Networks,
2017
5.3.2.2 Grouping of Nodes
On the basis of the idea in Section 5.3.2.1, we explain how to divide
nodes into groups represented by the combination of sensor data
streams and delivery cycles.
In sensor data stream delivery, the amount of data to send/receive
varies among different delivery cycles. The shorter the delivery cycle
is, the larger the data amounts and loads are. Therefore, the proposed
method first generates circular hash spaces for each sensor data
stream and puts nodes on hash spaces based on the distributed
hashing of the combination of sensor data stream and node ID. After
that, the proposed method divides each hash space into partial hash
spaces as groups for each delivery cycle so that the partial hash
spaces of shorter cycles have more nodes. The size of each partial
hash space is determined based on its cycle. For example, in the case
where the selectable delivery cycles are Ci=i (i=1,2,3), the ratio of the
sizes of partial hash spaces is 1/C1:1/C2:1/C3=1/1:1/2:1/3=6:3:2. The
proposed method treats each partial hash space as circular and
assigns related times for each cycle to nodes on its partial hash
space. In the case where there are no nodes on the partial hash
space, the proposed method assigns the partial hash space to the
nearest neighbor node in the next partial hash space. In addition, the
proposed method determines the root node on the partial hash space
of the shortest cycle based on distributed hashing such as the least
common multiple of cycles. The root node first receives data from the
source of sensor data stream.
Fig. 5.12 shows an example of the case where the number of nodes
is n=8, cycles are Ci=i (i=1,2,3), and the size of a hash space is 2p.
The beginning values of each partial hash space
are 2p×0/11, 2p×6/11 and 2p×9/11.

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Figure 5.12 . Assignment to a group of cycle.

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Novel Architectures for Streaming/Routing in Optical Networks
Vincent W.S. Chan, in Optical Fiber Telecommunications (Sixth
Edition), 2013
19.8 Transport Layer Protocol for New Optical Transports
The Transport Layer in the current Internet performs several important
functions in conjunction with the Network Layer:
1.
End-to-end data delivery reliability.
2.
Flow control to prevent congestion in the network.
3.
“Fair” resource allocation.
TCP carries out these functions for the current IP-based Internet
rather successfully using the following major design features:
1.
Segmentation of files into packets and reassembly.
2.
Error recovery via sliding window ARQ.
3.
Window flow control.
4.
Use of time-outs to terminate dead sessions by estimating
round-trip time, RTT and delay standard deviation, σ.
5.
Work together with Layer 3 to perform congestion control in a
distributed fashion with no direct knowledge of network
congestion.
While this works fine in most cases for packet switching with routers,
this protocol is not best suited for flows. If the TCP feature of window
flow control is used, its slow start mechanism (even with acceleration)
will prevent the full capacity of the optical path being used until
many round trips (can be in the 100 s) between source and
destination have elapsed. Often by the time the big transaction is
finished TCP has yet to allow the source node to use the maximum
rate resulting in extremely inefficient use of network resources. In this
OFS architecture flows are scheduled or reserved, Figure 19.25, the
function of congestion control is performed by the MAC and the
scheduling algorithm, and thus the function of fair resource allocation
via windowing is not necessary and will be eliminated. What is left is
the end-to-end reliability requirement which in the case of TCP is
provided by ARQ. The OFS architecture needs to have a new reliable
transport protocol, Figure 19.26. The idea is to arrange the file to be
transmitted in a multiple N-dimensional, “N-cube.” At each surface of
the cube the protocol uses a parity check plane to check for errors.
Each binary digit in the parity check plane is the parity of the
corresponding row/column of the cube. The number of parity check
planes must be large enough to determine if there are any errors
incurred during transmission of the file. The dimension of the
cube N is chosen based on the error performance of the underlying
optical transport. For example, if the link is very error-prone, N will be
large. If the network is error-free, N will be set to 1. The code can also
be made to be robust against burst errors which in dynamic optical
networks will be the toughest problem to tackle. This detection
mechanism is of very low rate and the computation effort is low.
Instead of the complication of requesting specific packets to be
transmitted upon error in transmission, retransmission of the whole file
or large segments is done if there are any errors. The size of the
segmentation (found to be >1 Mbytes) is optimized based on delay
and resources utilization. With the reliability of optical networks
today, retransmissions will not occur very often and the slight sacrifice
in theoretically maximum throughput is more than compensated by the
simplicity of not having to segment a large file into many small IP
packets and use per erroneous packet ARQ retransmission.
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Figure 19.25 . Transport layer protocol for OFS.

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Figure 19.26 . Low density parity check code for large OFS files.

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Power line communications
L. Lampe, L.T. Berger, in Academic Press Library in Mobile and
Wireless Communications, 2016
16.2.3.2 ITU-T G.hn low complexity profile and HomePlug green PHY
In terms of data rate and silicon cost the full fletched ITU-T G.hn and
IEEE 1901 systems are targeting primarily in-home data delivery,
web-browsing, as well as audio and video distribution. To offer an
alternative to automation and energy management tasks with respect
to HDR NB-PLC, ITU-T G.hn includes a low complexity profile (LCP),
while on the basis of IEEE 1901, HomePlug developed the HomePlug
Green PHY (HPGP) specification.
The ITU-T G.hn LCP operates in the frequency range from 2 to
25 MHz and is still interoperable with the full G.hn profile. This allows
for reduced component cost and power consumption in case G.hn
nodes are embedded into smart grid home area network (SGH)
devices in the future. Example SGH nodes could be heating and air
conditioning appliances, as well as PEVs and electric vehicle supply
equipment (EVSE). Together they form a multidomain home area
network (HAN).
Similarly, the HPGP is a subset of HomePlug AV that is intended for
use within smart grid applications. Optimized for low power
applications and costs, HPGP uses the most robust communication
mode of HomePlug AV technology. OFDM carrier spacing, preamble,
frame control, and FEC are identical to HomePlug AV/IEEE 1901,
resulting in identical coverage and reliability. CSMA/CA is used as a
channel access scheme. Further, nodes may use long power save
periods if a higher latency is acceptable. In the sleep state, modems
have only a 3% power consumption compared to the awake time,
resulting in an average power reduction of more than 90% with
respect to standard HomePlug AV products. In order to reliably
perform PEV/EVSE association, a special feature called signal level
attenuation characterization (SLAC) was designed into HPGP. Details
of how to use HomePlug GP SLAC in automotive applications can be
found in ISO/IEC 15118-3 [37].
View chapter Purchase book
TV White Space Spectrum Administration
George Mastorakis, ... Nuno M. Garcia, in TV White Space
Communications and Networks, 2018
6.4 Conclusion
This chapter proposes two algorithms that are able to be adopted in a
Cognitive Radio networking architecture to support efficient TVWS
utilisation, as well as consistent data delivery through optimum
energy-efficient paths under the RTSSM scheme. The work presented
in this chapter also elaborates on the development of an energy-
aware radio spectrum broker by exploiting decision making methods
based on Simulated Annealing. Several experimental tests were
conducted to evaluate the performance of the two algorithms, where
cognitive radio systems concurrently exploited the available frequency
slots among multiple time durations. The recommended mechanisms
were enhanced by an energy module to offer optimal energy-aware
path assignment to the SNs. The experimental results confirmed the
efficiency of the radio spectrum broker to optimally allocate the
available radio spectrum resources under an energy-efficient
approach during the resource exchange process of the SNs. Several
open issues were identified after the successful completion of this
research work, which will be investigated in the future, including a
quantitative and qualitative comparison with other optimisation
algorithms/mechanisms. Future research also includes the expansion
of the proposed scheme to an energy-efficient motion-aware
streaming methods, exploiting cognitive radio and peer-to-peer data
resource exchange approaches.
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Reliable data streaming over delay-tolerant networks (DTNs)
E. Lochin, ... J. Leguay, in Advances in Delay-Tolerant Networks
(DTNs), 2015
9.1 Introduction
Current delay-tolerant networks (DTNs) research has mainly
addressed the problem of routing in various mobility contexts with the
aim of improving bundle delay delivery and data delivery ratio, leaving
aside the applications requirements. However, transporting data in a
reliable and delay-efficient manner over a DTN is a tough challenge,
as most Internet applications assume a form of persistent end-to-end
connection. The support of streaming-like applications over DTN is
complex: first, due to the dynamic nature of the topology and second,
because mobile nodes observe frequent connectivity disruptions. In
other words, and from the application point of view, there is a very low
probability that an end-to-end path exists between a given pair of
nodes at a given time, and data transmission has unpredictable
performance due to the network topology dynamic.
Due to these constraints, common ad hoc transport approaches
cannot be used and, as a result, novel alternatives must be
considered. This leads to the design of specific transport layer
mechanisms able to provide both full reliability and fast in-order
delivery services needed by several kinds of applications. To cope
with these intrinsic characteristics, the use of redundancy recovery
mechanisms seems inevitable [1], and some schemes based on
erasure coding have been proposed to improve the data delivery ratio.
Among these proposals, two classes of transport protocols are
commonly envisioned in DTN, depending on the existence of a
feedback path. The first class does not use feedback messages, while
the second considers both the use of feedbacks and various
acknowledgement strategies, as explained in the following.
The first class is intended to improve the bundle delivery ratio and/or
delivery delay with mechanisms such as replication, erasure codes
and multipath. The benefit of erasure coding with various path
allocations has been studied by Jain et al. [1]. In particular, the
authors show how to obtain the optimal successful delivery probability
of a given source data thanks to erasure coding schemes. In another
study [2], Liao et al. propose to combine an erasure coding-based
scheme with a routing protocol based on the predictability of node
mobility pattern. Later, Altman and De Pellegrini [3] proposed an
analytical approach to assess the effect of Fountain codes on the
overall network performances. In the context of communication in
sparsely populated areas, Kutscher et al. [4] proposed the use of both
forward error code (FEC) and rounds of source-
based retransmission to achieve full reliability with a probability near to
1. Even if network coding techniques do not belong to the transport
layer, Zhang et al. [5] demonstrated that involving intermediate
nodes in the coding process allows delay to be reduced in the case of
a network with constrained resources.
In the second class, we find the works of Harras and Almeroth [ ],
which investigate various acknowledgement strategies: the hop-by-
hop partial reliability confirms that the bundle is transmitted to another
relay; the active receipts are disseminated as new messages; passive
receipts progress through the nodes of the network to acknowledge all
nodes previously infected by a bundle message; finally, they propose
the network-bridged receipt that transits through a cellular network.
Their use depends on the trade-off between affordable complexity and
delay. At last, and in the context of deep-space networking (DSN),
transport protocols such as Licklider Transmission Protocol –
Transport (LTP-T), proposed by Farrell and Cahill [7] for large delay
links with connectivity disruptions, or Saratoga [ ], a simple file transfer
protocol that can be used to transfer DTN bundles, rely on Automatic
Repeat ReQuest (ARQ) and/or Unequal Error Protection to reduce the
amount of non-mandatory retransmissions.
All these algorithms and protocols are designed to carry bundle units
with a reliable or unreliable service and, for some of them, only in a
hop-by-hop fashion. For instance, Saratoga only enforces reliability
between two DTN nodes in contact and not the whole transmission
over a DTN path. Furthermore, they have been designed to carry
stored data and, as a result, they can only enable a stored data
streaming service because the whole piece of data to transfer must be
available at the beginning of the transfer to effectively start the
transmission. This fact simplifies and allows, for instance, the
generation of erasure code blocks which can be spread or routed
among the next set of contact opportunities, such as in Jain et al. [1]
and Altman and De Pellegrini [3]. However, live data streaming raises
several other issues that these mechanisms cannot solve.
Furthermore, and as shown by Jain et al. [1], these algorithms require
a challenging configuration closely linked to the network
characteristics without providing any guarantee in terms of delay and
reliability. Indeed, none of these solutions tackle how to carry streams
of data bundles. Finally, in this context, if an application seeks to
maintain a loss rate below the maximum threshold it can tolerate, the
complexity of this configuration increases significantly and might even
become impossible.
The so-called streaming-like applications which produce continuous
data over time and require to be consumed in sequence (data must be
ordered) at the receiver side require the use of adapted mechanisms
to correctly perform over a DTN network. A possible solution has been
designed in Tournoux et al. [9], where an on-the-fly coding scheme is
proposed to cope with the numerous issues raised by a live data
streaming. This recent class of coding scheme [10,11], which
 considers an intermittently connected feedback path, allows
redundancy packets to be built on-the-fly. In other words, it means that
the content does not need to be stored to send the data, making this
kind of coding scheme a perfect candidate to enable reliable
streaming over DTN. In the following, we illustrate why on-the-fly
coding overcomes streaming support challenges without delay
compromise while remaining independent of any mobility or routing
schemes.
This chapter is organised as follows. We first detail in Section 9.2 the
challenges raised for streaming support in DTNs.
Then Section 9.3 presents how on-the-fly coding schemes allow a
robust DTN streaming service to be enabled. An evaluation of several
coding schemes is given in Section 9.4. Finally, Section 9.5 provides a
discussion on the previously tested mechanisms,
while Section 9.6 concludes the chapter.
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