SUMMARY Adequate dry strength is a principal preventive of dirt, cuts and washes. In excess, it may contribute to casting cracks, hard shakeout and possibly seabbing. There is every reason why this test and positive con: wol should be part of Uhe daily routine sand-control program, Dry permeability is the venting capacity of the mold fee in the enly stages of pouring wher she gits {low is greatest. It is logical that this is the permeability that should correlate best with ven andl gas presstee problems, BIBLIOGRAPHY, 1 Pouert, HE, Saat Con oss, yo Jd, ps2 2. "Scahhing Tetulecies OF Molding Sant, American Found 3. Simlers, Clyse \. Fowndsy Sand Practice, American Ont loll Cou, Skokie, HL. th Bad. 151) & Newton, FTL, Befoartnies, dud lps TE MeGrawe. tlt Mock Cin, New Youk (91 3 Whittaker, Il “Eilect OF Particle Size On Plasticity OF Kaolinite” fowna, shave, Gennes Society. 22 pe Wi (198). 6, Grim, R. E& Cuuhert, F Leiveser, Phe Homing Action fof Clays: ast 1. "Claye I Greeny Mol ft) Past 2 "Clays tn Dry Muling Sand” 015). University of ois, Urbana, 10, Wail, James Cy Soluble Silewtes, Publishing Garp, New Vouk” 1053). A Goetr, Wier, "A Citieal Analyse of the. Cliewsieal Stan for Fowry Samba” AES Tiassa pe APD Reino AES TRANSACTIONS ic 8. Asatans or Gasint: Deviets, Ametean Foundaymen's Soe tiewy 1917), 0, Tals Pe Contend, No 17, HW, Dieses Cin, etal, H Reb HL = Glyn, Their erarrene, Prupesine amd: tse Jeli Wiles © Sons, they New YOR IPH 1 Forspay Stor Hasinoon, Gil Tal, nei’ Noudayanen Ines pT — Drs Scat Convo Nad iG — Day Hardness est Piveesuee. pe 13 — rnublity ‘est Process, S1-— Ise Senge Test Proverare. pbb = Dry Pevnicabslty Beli 1K Heine, RW, and Roventhed, Milip Ga Pionriples of Meat Castings Ist Fake p WUE” Merah Hl Book Co Ine, Neve Vente i833), 1, Gaoseany Fowsimy “Pots, Is fl, pe 27, American Society (9509 19, Meat Penetration tuto Fuamdry Molds, American Calla Gat Shaki, Ih 05). M, Danlwck, N. fy, Amieritan Synthetic Sand Practice, Exchange re ah Ammer Foxmteymnnrs Society tothe ast Fonalsyae fof its, Fowdeyamen IT, 17, Fowiy Sand Prartce, Sane School"Vest, Haury W. Dieter 1 Sysieourat os ANeeMrMLAQHiOs AND AnHLtCAttON OF SAND Vist Duin teat ite Paentesuos oF Qiaeany Sith Castine Anericine Fonadryimens Society 851, 1 Lannte, Willian, Suit Testing for Engineers, Job Wiley Sime. te, Neve Vouk, Seb Piating (N65) Natnval Mone Moll Sls —~ Dry Strength «Factor itive Sand MotcngTanustsiat Minera Coy Lancaster Onin (iat Dunbock, X po epi What Is Dry. sive F The Foundry, Disses HW, "The Mouwesingg OF Molin Sane” Amerk cn Tvamgmien's Society Haatsactns, 062, p. 1 (M5. HOT PROPERTIES OF MOLDING SAND INTRODUCTION When the surface of & mold fails, the casting produced from it will be characterized by one ob b, vattail, buckle or scab, ted tem these: cut, wash, erosion s¢ These casting losses are linked to the eleva perature properties of sancls and may be predicted, nl therelore concrolled, high temperature testing. Jn onder to identity foundryman musth mechanisms. cuusing, fe many unknown ment regarding the causes for rejects. well therefore (0 present brictly the theories in cont When molten metal enters. dhe mold cavity, a member of resultant forees tend to destroy the mold ‘They include hot gases produced in heating the mokt, expansion of the sand getiny and the work done on the mold by the Howing metal itsell When met) flows into a mokd cavity, its curbus lence and its shearing action against the ‘mole walls tend fo seour the mokt surface and tear the sad rrins trom one another. Wherever the intergramt Iw bond fails, and the grains are displaced, th will be a void im the smooth mold tice and ave sultant imperfection inthe casting requiring addi tional cleaning elfort. ‘This type of sersp will gene rally appear where the metal has the highest ve locity, especially where there is a “nore” etfec watt nul prevent casting tosses, the some understanding of the he scrap, Untortunately, there ut there is some general sree It might be This sev is due to crasion and can often be idemtilied by its location and by the presence of sand Imbeded in the casting at some other point dovn: sinew, oF above the original void. Cuts, washes and erosion, oF Iype "BR seabs fall inthis group. By viriwe ol its kinetic energy and static: pressure the molten meta) also tends to deform the mold dy and tw change the dimensions ot the Gony. This will, ob couse, allect the weight and sve ol the Hnished casting. This growth or distor ion ix seldom considered Tace Tailure and since much of the mokd delormation occu in the cool subsurlace sind, the proper approach to this problem Ties in room emperature testing, Vhe destructive elfects caused by the temperature ul are especially serious, as many sting, losses aire due to the instability higher temperatures. Heat pro: jon in the binders ot dhe molten a of the comnion of the sand nis dues a breakdown or an ake and promotes expansion of the sand grains. Thi pansion may produce intemal stresses two great lor the rammed sind mass 10 withstand, and te mold will fail Failure cur occur ik number of forms stich as rattails, buckles or scabs. ‘The relationship: between these Failures is ilustrted in Fig, 115, Jn eliminating serap, the lowndeyman nest reduce the magnitude of the diseuptive lorees, or increase the magisitinde of the restraining Forces, Sa any event, the foundrymnan must be able to measure the temperature rexetion of Ideally, the sunfac Iasie properties and the sath ay guide to proper contolPig. ELLIS — Mold wurince defects thal vnuse scr same tests should ade he af value in predict osses 9 that the fonutryman cian ctke corvertive measures Tefore the sand becomes an iannediate prabtom, A nutiber of testy have been developed! that seas ane dhe ability of a sand te withstand vampressive loading at high temperatures, the ragnitande ul dhe expansion at unious tanparatures and the gyno OF detonation that st eunt welll HRSG! hee collapse EQUIPMENT To messin the properties of fauniiy sans at elevated temper tures the foundsy laboratory should Fig. 13.116 — High lemperatere dilatometer tests ea for hot properties te equipped with sents, The basic nie should be « high temperate frricie aeith a fading, system capable of breaking, ‘he suid sperimeny siv-rompression_at_any tempera bite np to the pouring temperatase. Swieable equip: ment shoul alsa he provided for micastiring hot de Lonnation aed pansion, Figure [3.116 shows onc type of basic ses insire igh temperatin uber of specialized insteu ment comntercially available for esting, jovnace having a range from Foon temperature to SIME. I is equipped with a sensitive temperature. controller and ‘the fwnace is constructed so that the hoe zone is accessible from the site o from below This model has 2 hydraulic loading system capable of applying, a compressive load as high as 5000 psi on a Lin. diameter specimen. ‘The load is applied This anit is hythaulically but yweasured mechanically: for max mnuns aecumicy. “Through a simple adjusunent of the mechanical linkage, whe riage Gar be varied tome 0 10.100 or 8 10 1000 psi The hot deformation, oF movement under loud at clevateal temperatures asuiyedl with att in. dicaior or a tecorder asiaehed ta the Larnace. Pigare L117 shows # tot delormation recorder as it would he mounted on a west furnace for hight temperacae testing. Delormation of the sand specimen and: the lnnicl applied ae each measured as a change in the position ol the core of a differential tansformer. Free and confines’ expansion tests can be made through he use of a unit Tike the expansion mico- rieter shown dy Vig. LNB. ‘This instrument consis of a quartz Tame equipped with » quarts stem dial judicator, ‘The specimen to be cested is inserted in fone end of the frame with quariz discs at each end, 2 vod is slipped between the specimen and the “De end of the micrometer ame is fiserted inte the test furnace chamber Hnongh the horizontal port and the change in length of dhe specimen is read front the diat indicator. aoiel a eu indicatora famace heated. bya hitmen of siticon cable elements. ‘The specimens are bouglt to tenypersiure by radiant heat fon the ht fupnace wall atl fron the elements themselsey With this method ol high temperature lestinge the rannned snd spectien ab face of 4 mold or eure, ‘The outer | hace nod Hb the md is heated fom dhe ace inward. “The comeltion between casing. surluse st high temmperatuye test data late -che aan hesting, method parallels the. voitans foi i Biol, “The atmosphere sirronnding a old oF care Solace will alec the hot properties of tsa pa ticularly that of 4 core honed wih an orga Iinwer ‘which wil buen reallly A tinea nt is ingpie Dieders in urder to preveat raph oxidation ‘tine core binder the use given oft by che sand sperinen athe speciiten is therelore tested fn an atmosphere ot ils Gum gates, THis sulaes mold conditions clay theta, ut these Wil be ented nae iy yon that fees prone by the mld, on core stlaee fer in the Cur EXPANSION Phe expansion of wiolding sand may be deternnined under avo methods of heating. Much of the dace Found in Fiteratnre refer to the expansion of materials uader slow heating of the west specien, ‘This is Frequently relerred 20 ay dilation. Another meth! whirh is Givoted more for miolding materials is shock heating, Ju the case of slow heating, « temperature vive of TD per mmigis often employed. “Phe speciuen is L Fig. 19.118 — Expansion micrometer used on Tree ancl Bon- Fined tests 319 ozo z SILICA 018} ~ =e 16} I o1at-|-+—+ OLIVINE ore 2000 F HOLLOW SPEX 2 S | SHOCK-FREE EXPANSION IN, IN/IN. 008} 006} f+) 004) 909| ol 1 =e oO 2 6 8 10 12 4 16 18 TIME, MIN. Fig. HILLY — Shock expansion of various bese molding, sands al 2000 inserted! fn) cold formiees Ror seek heating, the Thane ie ested to, Ton esate, 18 Fe ane the specimen inverted iota i oT aoe heating €8 siicetnne suds having the greatest Tn decreasing sin in aldtion to the ey» snethords of heating. the The Tiedt sv dn, vials, When the test gpukenr of ss Tee expansion, either slow or shock heated, ‘The sand specimen may be ranumed within toler slow or ahork heating Vint condition that Ins good practical applica placed ner a load, For examples LE pss This tat ally made under shock heating and i termed Shock. Tnudest expansion. It docs, hot employ the Cxpansiometer shown i Fig. 13.118 as he oer ex pranion wste don The shork loided expansion, te Employes simple durable sep es shown in Fig Thao sleternination with tap stanionary post ana {M6Cale hottom past. “The movement of the bottom BO is shown on a dial indiewor set urider the dirt pan of the bation post assesibly! “The bottom post is loaded seal Iyrautie presare fran and oll pp ie heated IID FA specimen rammed tot harness used indhe foundry i It ta IB sec ti Ci Aone pai Toad is applied to the specimen by paup which my. be vider three more conditious ob the test speci equipped with a dilatometergee = = Fig. 13.120 — Dilatometor setups used to meascrr shock Toad expansion. Phe dial indicator yeading at 22y4 see sts one see, is recorded as shock Towed expansion at one psi and 100. This expansion value is aseftl in conntatian ind for itn castings hereby eliminating wold wall Fracterre serapy sie as seas, buckles or racials, The magnitude of expansion depends kargely: ni the coi positintr af die sand yysains, as shown in Pig. 1118. Shaimty aire male that certain addiivey vedere the As at rude they aerease the hoe dete ‘expansion sion and do not nstcerially chan a the expansion. Pig. 138121 — Typical 1% x 2 sand rammer equipped with adjustable ramming deviee RaMMING Sand specimens ssrd jay elevated temperature tes ye ustially the Lig x 2 in. size. “he hardness to Species are staned is cither the Standard hardness abtsined with duce deops of a7, Tieweight, fling 25-00 the founchsy baud “ohich the sd vanined fi the molds. “The joundiy hatstiess weliod is ake proper one tivane wehicn one wishes fo ake at diveet corres tion hrerneen elevated (emperatae cost wales aud costing quality AF ise thr the AfS¥i foundry hardnew when the sand row mre is eapnipped with an adjustable tamming device Fig Wii21. 7 nat hsiciness method may he aed to Phe gest specimens may be tt 1s show The stan under standard conditions af constant ramming ep ergy, It is well to show the specimen green tardness with the test dt dewrmine the bor properties of moiding » SPALLING The standard 114 x 2 in, specimen is a good one for the visual spalling test. ‘The specimen may be onumied te the stnuhird havdness, or better, ta Hardness cqualling tbat used inthe foundry. “The peciner i inserted fate the dilawometer Itnnace at 2500 F jw clther she green, dried or baked state, de- ponding on how the sand ts used in the toundry The cracking or spalling of the specimen is ob server! through Hie observation port at Linte intervals fof cae and 2 min, and the approsimate total fength inn inches of cracks observed at each time interval is revonded, Photographs may also be employed record, in which case, the photogesph is made im mediately alter the specimen is removed trom the formace (Fig. 13.122). HOT STRENGTH “The hot stength of molding sands is macte on the Ing Shin. specimen (double end ranming) either with stand! or foundry hardness. “the test. data Should show the hrurdness of ramming employed. adrmayggl det fetperataees, for Mou strength are G6 TRE RE AOD ena BAUR The cme the test specimen 6kEs inthe furnace is usually 12 min, alter which time, the specimen is loaded ac a stand hid rate. ‘The loading rate as sct with a ceramic Specimen is from 30-to 780 psi in 16 se. The magnitude of the hot svength varies accord. iayg to type of bond, grain size, moisture, additives, degree of ramming, atmosphere and degree of spall ‘ing In practice the hot strength is usually controtled tiv ihe selection of bond, fines aad adit lew examples ave given to lt prucice. Maximum hot strength is obtained fer huge leet oF iron castings by mixes of fireekay and western emonice pliys an addition of silica Mowr. Media hot swength is secured hy using # mixture of western Iemtonite, southern bentonite and an addition of cellulose material. Low hot strength is seeared for Castings that hot cear easily by a mix bonded with Southern bentonite ples cellulose material Wiguve [L123 fy a graphical vepreventation of hove hot strengal of ad pet-cene western bentonite bonded rare foundry321 Fig. 13.122 — Photograph of nanspalting fand badly spalling saad. Lis affected by additions of seacont, wood Hour and cereal, All of these additives reduce dhe hot |. 4% WESTERN BENTONITE irength. ‘The hot strength of a hs 18 3% Sebo eho i strengi fe hot strength of A per cent southern 18 82% Sooo rcour hentonite bonded sand is also shown in Fig. 15.125, 2a. 2% CEREAL ‘The grain fineness of « sand will markedly ulfect 26. 4% SOUTHERN SENTONITE the hot strength. ‘The graph in Fig. 13.121 shows fhe hot strengily of various sands composed of if z ferent gra ties bonded with 4 percent western bentonite g Neglecting the 2600 F wemperauure, which sofia most of the bonds and sone at the sand grains, one eur ngake this statement “The smatiey the grain sce bo the higher dhe hot strength Lor temp rt y voit 8 greatly change the hot stengih of the sand This Felt ittstrated in big. 125, where the bot & Steengih incress.at all tampeeananes thence’ — B29 Hea POSE.) increas ‘ : 2 S00 1609 -~ 1800-2000" 2500, TEMPERATURE, Fyles fons 71 five of bowl fad adelitives on hot strength, HOY DEFORMATION “The hot deformation of a woleling sine sob a the same time that Hot srenggh i determined. 4 (Feeling hot deformation unit) Fig. 15117) or aw Inteating deformation sccesvory ay We wie Phe shortening per linear Inch. "Thus. high hot-defov Ioation vale describes se ha his igh degree Of hor plasticity. A sid ot this nature will cin rodent Tange expansion without sok will Tea “The control of ot da sion needs much more sinks by foundrymea fn ede w@ put this hot prop: Sash be recognized he exposed as the ulti te detiratainy, 6 rp rave toael at prewne Knowlédge does not he snaeh prieHcn! infarmation. A byetor dit tenes iisell to pruesicn! appllention ts the het cofavisation rate “Tho hat deformation rate is romped by dete anining the deformation at some relatively low load, for exile, 50 psi oe a (Torna: Hot deforination vat = Hot deforma \ at predetermine fod 310) predetermined st good Ww at hot defaciiatiam way ‘AES GRAIN SIZE aga aives showing how hot strength cecreases50 "400, SQUEEZE PRESSURE, PS! Pig, 18.125 — Corves showing how hot strength increases fag aqienre pressure inereases, ‘he graphs in Pig. 18126 show the hoe deformation ures of dilferent bonded ‘ate at vations temper hs. The hot deformation vate at 2000 PF is tabulated! in ‘Table 1B fora 4 per cent western bersonive bonded sand’with nies additives, “The order of hot deformation vate from low w high is — 13 per cent silica Howr, no additive, 2 per cent wood Hour P per cont cereal, per cont pitch and f per cout seacoal, Additive ysatcrials sucht as cellulase, cereal, pitch nud seacoal inerense the hot deformation allowing the sand 10 accommodate all, or a port of the expansion. Tlie, combustible additives reduce mald wall fracwure avlie is serap producing: Moisture to which a sand is tempered also alfects "the magnitude af the hot deformation race, Tu order to demonsaraie this, select a western bentonite bonded sand, mis one bitch to lew moisture, one co temper ind another te high moisture. Determine the hot stiengllr and lot deformation xt 2000 1 under staud ard humming. Using a recording deformation wees sory one will obeainy soessstyain diagrams 2s sown in Fig. 19.127 Ti order to study these graphs fom a hot defor anition vate view point, fisse determine hot detoama- tion at 50 psi. "This 50 psi load is shown: by a dotted Hine in Fig. 13.127. ‘The hot detormation at 50 psi Tote is The sand at high moisuere has a 50 psi hot de Jormation of B401T in, and a hot deformation xt of 422, “The said vr temper has 50 psi hor delor mation af 0.021 in, aud 0032 hor deformation rate. The sand at low moisorre has a 50 pst hot defor on af (085 7H, ase hot deformation rate of 0.70. Thus a sand mised to a igh moisture will have alow. hot deformation, 1 Tas a low al ‘commadate any grain glows due «@ expansion, sand tempered 16 the dry side of temper will have hore hot deformation and dius have tess tendency to scab, buckle or wttail dan a sand tempered co igh moisture, coekitt TABLE 13.29 — HOT DEFORMATION RATE OF 4%: WESTERH BENTONITE RONDED SAND WTR VARIOUS ADDITIVES AT 2000 Wer Deformation Rate Adie La + ig. 19.126 — Curves showing ef {ect of additives on hat deforma don at 50 psi load HOT DEFORMATION RATE FACTOR IRVAR ‘gaa a oye bein | Ss ic iam BE aT BY,Fig. 18.127 — Curves showing how hol defor: mation ts affected by moisture HOT SAND TOUGHNESS The product of aleinate hot stength and ultimate hot dolormationimer TO). gives tor. terme “hot sand gyghpessty Hemay he used to expres. the sinaunt of PARNER a mold yell will take in ach renee to waghness. Figure 13.128 gives graphical preseneation ob the hot tuggnesy vat ious bonds he hot toughness of the various bonds at 2000 F from iow 1 high order is 4 per cent southern bet tonite, per cet western bentonite, 12 per cent fie 1S per eeu of sence bentonite with 178 pet teat of southern bentonite phn 3.0 per cent feck The blend af bemonives and fivectay giving the toughest sand mix, ‘This is foxund to be tre in prae thee whtere a blend Bf bemtonites ani fvecay hy en ployed for fewyy exstings agersos scan Sonar Scrap caused by scabs should be classitied ws being. of two types, the crosinn scaly and the expansion scab “The erosion scab is sm aren of the casting where sund Fig. 13.128 — Hot sand tong nest of sand containing diforos onde, HOT TOUGHNESS 829 020 040060080 oll 021 036 HOT DEFORMATION, IN/IN. an metal are mvived, while in the exp V"thin ieee metal i separated oom the bexly of the vialing bya layer of and whieh may not be ee eene eee eevee oe eS Wipe sets lm Fig TB 29. Lhe controt at erosion scabs_solely_by_dry_com. orgie ancarcurate Pelton ef the bond wc high UCenfnauress igure 13-130 lgarates the variant fe aera eee ane fered lfsentiy by temperature, st while a ete ee cant eeeee eran eesreece torrie ee ae ine Duin the pouring operation, the walls of the ee ae eee (quickly, Dn ae 10 the ARE properties ofthe eect tre ell bea Tange tberma? gradient Aeros, the fit tans of sande She surtace lager wil in soumediacly behind24 ‘The hot sitiea grainy will expand sapidy: and buikd up great conpressive stuesses Gor Unis tin Eager, the sais "cot rena neven relieve the stresses, IL there is no SeHe4? he suntace layer wild ruptar.|One fom of supusie procs the expan sion, oF type ayygeth. “This scab is chinaeserized hy prowuding aula raised above the casting suetacc Pig, 11129 — Cross-sectional view of an expansion type scab, ‘ 00 i 5 3 sore, Hi Seen recent — Se | Fig. 19,100 — Chart showing that hot strength, and try alrongth are not necessarily rolated Fig. 18.131 — Dilatometer setup for restraining load test. and separated front it by a layer of displaced sane, as shown in Fig. 1812 be pried or chipped ofl The ABS Comiteees 8° Aeloped ta simple tests to mcwure the scabbing endent ing sds. test tat if well lo boih iron amd steel sands is. the restiaining ‘Whe dilatomewr is setup as iL for bot that x dial inal Gutor or a foe delonsaion recorder is used! to 1c Ure any movement ol the bottom post A schematic diagiwn of the dilatometer setup for this test is shown sh Fig. 15181. A diab Indicaior as shown in the sketch is adjusted to measure ay Imovemennt at the feaver post. This indieaior of 3 revording hot deforotation unit will show any. change inv length of the test specimen. Purpose of the test is wo apply sulficient toad to the sand specimen tw restrain the expansion, thus holding the sane specimen to a constant length auc Livnginig inte play hot delorration 1 accommodate the expansion of the sand. Amount of Load requived ty proxlace sutficient accommodating hot deformation sansies sith different sands. “‘TPh@ve sands ahat requine to 9. This type of seah mn Teaving a depression in dhe and 88% have gle tests, wiih dhe except louds to produce su! out any, espansis Vill be freer of mold_wall fracunces. TRE? shose sands requiring, high toads to procuce sufficient hot delormation to cancel. out. the expansion of the ‘sind will have more ancl Jonger mote. wall fractures For ivon molding sands the duration of the test n dusing which time the load om the specimen nic pump. lormation recorder is held at zero (indicating con: stant specimen length, 320.001) by adjusting the toad applied Ata 3 min interval the operator records the fond iv psi that is required tw hold dhe specimen constant length. The relationship between the 5 tinin yesuaining load and total length of scabs, rat ils and buckles for the wn castings made during 3 mecting of the 8J Conunittee is shown in Fig. W132, Phe test data for 10 sands fall close to a tine which shows sha increasing mold wall eactures occur with an inevease of the 5 min restraining load. "This test hhas practical application for measuring. the scabbing,.. gauiaifing and buckling tendencies of iron molding sands For steel molding simds, the restraining toad is vecoreled at ymin ancervals. An average of ten nin restraining load test values may be used to de- termine whether sand will scab or will not seab using 50 psi load as the dividing ine. Sand with a resiraining load above 50 psi will seab on most molds. ‘ing test is the shock load ex: add is based on a study of test data by wines Camaittes‘ 325 sands which were sed 1 cast gray iron test castings © under closely controlled conditions. ‘Their resules in dicued that shock load expansion ust data may be used to predies whether a sant will cause a old fr cure sera scl as a rata! or seal on a gray iron | ‘casting. a ceor >| “The Wlighiéhtde of the scrap may also be Preaeied Nox a given sand condition. ‘The furnace af the dit tenner ste 311800 forthe shock wo expausin ten The dilatomneer is se up as i lo how st : but with a dial indicator under dhe {dint panto meee a sire, noveqent of tie bottor post. A one psi load i f BLE En ihe sand specimen and expamnion sis |g reat! ftom dat indicator aier-22yese of Heating i "The greater the shock expataion, expres in : inches of expeinsion per Hincar inch af spvimne te : treater the tual length of elect) A graphical pes at Tie ree aus aa Entation of this conelation is shuren a Fig 13138, Trahoatd be noted aie an exceptionally Bid 90 felation exists Sas with @ shock, Hau expac mis a int Tatating tentencles. of Tes than O08 are eiay to mold hee of mold fracture fron mule san fon of a phe 11 in. tong, 9 jn wide nd yin RATPAIL AND BUCKLES ieee Jos, Ue : Rattails shown in Fig. 1058, and buckles shown Tine 1AS6 may be vst a» gh reference for in PAL TR are eapitainn typeetap tha ave sab apphrisions similar he ravi casting. The sand ject close contol terongh high temperature ting, tm he tested. Tor fot comprenive strength ac 1000 “The ATS Comiice 8) ales found govt certele, Frans clined expausion at 2500 F ayghthe vale dion better pstrsp cid. hae campresae —ploied-on diy graph to deteteine whetRer oF not strength ‘CR, guy eliionsipe Aouad the sand Tay ting tendencies, owt a high RABE PE Spansion au 2360 Fav a Atte cst data lull cose to dhe Line dividing the High tei congpresige stvength a 100 F will tend ravtil sual nomatail une, the sanel-mix should be tor prodice rates ov bicbleey ey Cnaidered. te aubjeet (a seeap. andthe composition Figure T3136 shows THe MARBSAR AM ecween dese should be change ws inyroxe the mix p rene ihe rattal para developed. by AES in a tst furmave wing a it. diameter, 2 in, long Cannntees 8. This pattern produces eyatings in the speciniom. "Phe specimen i soaked at 1000 for 12 ig. 18158.— sherk oad expan- i ead many hecwsed to peat whe and wail enuse BSc Toate detec such an goa clase 3 re 5 coal HEE are LS TOTAL LEWOTH OF DEFECTS IN INCHES.1B. Pig. 18.135 — Typical buckling type expansion scrap. hin before the toad is applied, give: EAS 9 fennmed thyce thes ith 7 "The cantined expansion tests made om 14 Thole through the cener. The species samedi a tased ur tube 90 that the radial expansion i The um therefore, fnew to expand ‘omg. the long anit ony of the tube. The specimen Tanned wih a yp Bole 0 chat Gc will rear itor wemperature quickly. TR nets ations al 2500 Fhe anivenvetes ta in the hot sone of the furnace nist be stppor from blows to, prevent Ware! fe sould ee tnembered thst the graph way constructed the diameter restrained STUDY OF THE EFFECT OF VARIOUS BINOERS AND ADDITIVES ON HOT STRENGTH OF MOLDING SAND Published with permision of dhe U.S. Navy Dept withont cutnsemenss of staremen's or opinions of the wiles, The Gudhors. ive no the staff af the Neal Research Laboratory of the. Office of Naval Resenveh, Washington. D. 6 “rie opinions contained herein ave those of The authors and are not to he eomtroedl as officio selecting the views of the Navy Dept. ot the Naval Sersice at lasge Moleling sand must possess am unusual combination ‘al properties to suceesshitlly {uifill the requirements fof the various steps in the molding and casting cycle, Initially the sanel anust be relatively weak and “How, able” soins to conform readily to the patter daring the molding operation, After amoliling the sand should have sulfieient gieen strength to withstand ay (Q=c000 CASTING FISH ner ereers soo fe ’ | | we - Fe | ce MNJ Hi ‘ | | o ft | ° 8 a a cOUrIED EXPANSION Inches Pen eH or Loar 2:00 Sands roprosented by black eireles are the provduced inom castings with rattails Pig. 18.196 (ype whieh basis of a fixed sie and Shape of gray irom casting: For otlier metals, ober pacers, or any other com divians, the relationship between the physical prop- yy he somewhat altered. erties and the scrap Sands represented by the black circles are sands thar produced ion castings with rattails Since the expansion of molding sands is not readily reduced, ie cheromes necessary to lower the hot strength, in- crease the hot delormation by additives such as cereal hindevs, cellulose amteerials, seacoal and exercise con: Gol on mold hardness and moisture 15,138 show cies of gray Phe iilustiations in Fig. (3.187 and Fi exaniples of returding rattailing tend jon molding sands handling, Diving pouring, swface hot strength must he developed rapiilly to resist severe thermal shock ind erosion by heavy webulent liquids; somewhat tier general strength mist be developed by the en niold to support the fluid pressure of the liquid metal and yemaity (rue to pattern dimensions. After the metal has solidified dhe sand must revert toa Liable material whieh will allow casy removal of the castings. The wsed sand should then be amenable to vemixing and use for another cycle. Most molding sands actwally develop the general sequence of characievistics described in a qualitative serise. However, successful casting requires that the sand have specilic quantitative values of strengdh and ductility for specific types of castings. Inasmuch as Title basic information is available relative to. the cellect of varios sand components on sand characteris: ties it is necessiry co develop specific mixtures by trial and error. ‘This report presents such basie information| jeer a7 | reneuniage Big. 13.137 trol rat Fig. 1.138 — Photo sho of wood flour and seacoalaaa nthe effect al sania ies snd bites ane ot RS BRE NS Tee eee to tablish che suena aes to stioeaing nes castings OP PRESENT REVORT Vhe simplified synthetically bonded sand mixtures used in this study of hot compressive strength consist fof graifed sind, selected sind bincleas, aditives amd water. Clay may he comidered as the primary binder for mixtures of this type. Additional materials, bell in the general extegories of aiysinie bindety ane! add tives, ashich may he inttadicedd to contra texte strength, ers may be cunsidered seconcliary sand binders or ancl ifiers of the primary clay binder, Additives serve as Fibers or in sume other nonbinding capacity and are not considered! eo ateld coherence nd other characieristies. “Phe anganie bind The vious commercial ery binders vary consider ably in the amount aud nature of the privieipal day minerals present. For example, the prineipal miners in western bentonites is sodium mantpioriltomites in southera bentonites i js caleiiom morinenillentite and in Greckay it kaolin, with sitaller amonnts of ether rvinevls such The strengtits ol dic Tn this investigation ay snonimoriflanite or ildite various clays caver 3 wide range the amount of clay binder for study way selected se as to have practical Toundsy wenksbility, a gycem strength sutequuate for handing, amd a hot strengely within ihe Timits of the testi vis well known that the strength of sane clay water mistires can he varied by changing die clay or water coments. Ly ater to evaluate these elfeets quanti Lively, western -hentonite was tested in saintis com. \ elon used 16, sae ais centeations and with various warer contents ture af western be ‘evaluate the effects of a number of meslitiers 9 tives. Foundry experience les shown dist tne co monly used! clay binders ae alfected simikanly by like modifications. “Phus, while any one al the yrious clays could have been selectex! For detailed! stily, west ern bentimite was chosen becanse i€ represeats the best Water content in all anisnaes passible to 3 per cont except in those mixtures of Wester bentonite concerped with she study of water as 3 variable wn stn mart commonly used fairy «lay ek as lose ‘The moditiers were tested as single hinders in a one per cent mixtie widh sand anh warcr as well as fat mixture containing sau, 2 per cent western bento: nite, one per cent of the organic binder aml 3 per cent water. ‘The effect of the modifier alone as well as its eflect with cay Jn the case of the various additives stndied, ane per cent wits sot enough co produce a definice collect on the sand mixtare therefore tested in a 5 pe silica Hour in both 5 and 20 per cent concenviations Additives of this type are sed in synthetically bonded sands only when required by unuestil molding condi ions, binders was shove. Tran oxide sand sao Hour were cont concentyation sand PREVIOUS WORK ON THE PROBLEM \ fitcratnre survey aes made of investigations on rehucuny munerials, conanies sind mnoeling sands at elevated tenmperatures: st selected bibliography is apy pended i chronologic! order. ESpansion and von. action en stow hewing antl on shock heating sualiten finmersion inva hot furnace have been savdie hy various investigations" Bodin! studied compre sive sbengih of refractories using small cube spec Dietwet and his enewerkers,°> developed» humare heated hy silicon cubide elements and ie vestigated ranges of Stengthy at wavious cemperaures, which comelate with che production of good castings A project concerned With improving elevated lemperature testing proce dlavey has bee cevied on at Carnell Universi: by the Sand Division of the American Foundrymen's So: cicty and reports of this weak have been presented b Yook” Hlohiart.” Young.” Williams" and Ries” Expansion and compressive strengths of 4 per cenit western bentonite aud IP per cent Tizeekay ani lines have been studied extensively. Grim and his co- workers" have made important fundamental convitmtions to the knowledge of clay minerals and the mechinsisns by which clays develop green and dry Shength in molding sands. Kleber and: Myer" studied practical applications of high wemperavure tests in tbe Steet foundry. Sal studied Tigh eemperaiae tests in rekuion 40 Cast jo founding. In spite ef dhe large amount of material written abous refractories snud molding sands, thee is little iifarmazion on the elfcect af speciti, ronimonly uscel materials on.she hot strength prop. cities of sandbclay aggregates, far various metals aud alloys. EQUIPMENT AND METHODS Standard meihous for sand testing as specitice by dhe Amwrican Faundiymen's Society were used wher plicable methods were available. "The sand le up ay cuctully weighed #000 gran (dry weight) batches. "The sand useel was ARS Secondary Standard Test Sand. Peveentages of sand aud hiner or ode aelitives were basedt om the tot weight before adding water. AIL batches were placed inn an 18 in, faboratony nailer and dry mixed 2 vin, Water was added in die miser after whieh mix vvas Comtimnec! for 8 mint, Moistre content was deter snined after mixing by the loss ia weight on dying 1 221 to 2M) B, and expressed as a percentage of the moisc sample weight. Te utived sand then was passed through a1 wes foxsndry screen into. hallgalion tiasor! jars which were imriediacely sealed wiht rub ber stoppers, care being uaken ta avoid compacting the sane inthe ja The jas were invented oceasionsily to prevent concentiation of moistine. “Test specimens were pre pared by weighing owe sufficient sand to make a Ssfinibiel specimen I4in. in diameter by 2 in. long. The sand was compacied by three biows of a Lyin dliameter sand ramnrer in specimen tube with a high quality ground! sinel polished inside surface, AUL «tolerance of nained within specimens were a OO inae excompressive Sent 8 he ile of ny oo camps Fig. 13.139. Two different furnaces were used for meaking dhe compressive strengeh testy-one avis heated by at ca horundam “globe” and ae other hy a group of sis “globars." ‘Phe furnaces were compared by: testing, several duplica harmaces at sey eval cemperacares, and dhe yes in close agreement. “The globar furnace was much prelerred, however, because it Tis an observation port so that specimens may be seen atid esimnined for cracks a other delecis during heating, amd also because it hiss un impraved loading sna weighing systen. Weighing fn the glotube furnace is accomplished by a Bordon cube gage with rider, aud in dhe globsar Carnace by a mercany manomeser sacl check valve. Lin most cases uw to four hot compressive strengilt tusis were made at each semperaimre. A total of Ot tests were made, at 31 temperatures. AC ten ot the temperaunves tan made, iat uvelve temperatires dhree tests were made, at ewelve temper © male sui! at one temperature only one test was made, “Phe standard deviations from dhe average at each teneperacare shows bot in psi and asa percentage of the average test value at Thiet temperate The sveragy Hof the temper aines two tests we standard deviation in per cone for hues is $19 per cent. This sta Listic: implies that che chance of x single test Calling, in the rage of the average per cont is beer than 2 to one, After the oFiginal cesis were completed the graph was examined critically and [points were suspected of possible inaccuracy. ‘These points were checked with # total of 47 additional tests agg Most of the checks points were so close to the orig final points dit in nine of the 1 eases the original werages were arsed, In the other gwe eases the check text vahues were nsed becintse they were more nearly in aggeemont with the values Jor nearby tensperaiures, and it was asumed iat some of dhe specimens in the first group of tests were detective The outlived procedures were Jollowed dvoughout luion. Smiooth curves were draws throug! Inv few eases, this invest the plotted poines wherever possible the points were somew fied mages, ane the curves were therelore shown as outed lines indicating some seucertainty in this range. Hea the fret dot dhe average deviation was Found <0 ye S19 por cent of the west value, deviations bl a point from a snot curve considerably greater dian this sunount shoald be given cousidesation of wlility dee _peuding.on the getters form of carve at dhe point hawever «erratic over lin The tena “vy soength and) “maximum hot strength" have been adopted to simplify the dis cussion of esta engeh” relers. wo the highest strength Jevel de inthe rauge of 200 to 500.7 hy hectiayg a sdhose temmperstuves for 12 ania 1 should he nated Uhat this definition does not correspond te Unit given in dhe Fouxoey Saxn ‘Prstese Haspoon as stcngily produced by drying at 221 © 240 F for 2 he fox practical purposes the to valuename equal Maximum hot stengih reters to the highest svengil developed in the range of 1500 to 2200 F whieh parcedes extensive lusion PROPERTIES OF SIMPLIFIED WES BENTONITE. MIXTURES BRN General Strength-Temperature Relationship nel mistare wid ave, t simple In) order te establish a standard which other miscues could be cos souotieally bonded sane was prepared containing, ON por cout APS Secondary Stindard ‘Test Sand and 2 per cent western bentonite, Waier was added dvitke thi) 2. O21 per cent basecl on che moist weight, The hot compressive strengilt of this mixuae is shown as the quiddle curve in Fig. 13.589. A rapid inersave in strength occurs between 200 woul 1D Bo Te is ie this range hat Tree maistune is cvapornted. It has beer found that il the specimen. is exposed Hor a long time at kemperatine of 212 F it attains the sume suength. Ta these tests the shore mXposuve tine of only Lwin required 3 considerably higher temperature lor complete evaporation of free Imaisture, AS the temperature is inerased from 0 to S50 F the suengih drops slightly. Fram 850 to 17M) F the suength again increases steadily and shuayply As tenmperature is raised above 1750 F, the strength Alvops slowly fron 1750 to 19K F cued then vpidly fran 1900 to 2500 F where the tests were Cscontinued AU 2A F the hot strength seas reduced to Gt pi The nis by which clay binders develop ageiduilly inereasing swengtty iy the rasige of 200-10 TSO F fy not been ascertained, Ay a working, by pothesis extension may be made of the aissic invest gations by Grin and Cuthbert" of dhe process by hich “ey suengeh” is developed, “The esseutial Fe wd'ol_ dus process depends upon the gradual elimi nec ela Compressive ven. pk : ea 309° 309 16D a0 1ya0 1560" THan Foo [40D JOD oe soe Pig. 18.140. En tt Compressive heength 28 Fig, 18.140 ation. of water ananged as_mulilayers of oriented dipoles between crystal phates of montmorillonite, The interaction of the Takes and water are assuaved to develop strong, bonding torees which resist volati iewion of the water ae tensperstuaes considerably in excess of the normal boiling point. AL ce guciner dian 800 F, che atu rive forces me consitered toy be grachatly averconte gnel successive layers of ¢ water molecatey sae eisvupted dhus diawing ie ays! plates closer cogetber anerrty give OO The bonding forces between flakes < ipa progressive. increase of hott x The scewrence of physical chemical reac Tins in this range should also be considered. No in. lovmation, however, # available in this connection, A geadual lose of weight over this temperature range has heen noted fox both southern and western Ihewionite sand mistenes. This nay he imerpreted as evidence for gradual volatilization of water inthis Tange as pastulated by dhe mechanism described, py wae Efject ef Water Content tn order to study thy elfeet of water, the standand relorence mixture of 2 per cent western bentonite and scoondary standard test sind was nixed with a low warer content (160 per ceng and a high waier con: Cenk (5.58 per com). hy Fig. 13.159 dese curves ae compared with the stundard osixtare with QOL per cont water. “The shape of the cunves is approximately the same regardless af water context, except that dhe lowe water sample seems 10 be slightly more erratic. Doubling dhe water content nearly doubles the hot strength iv the range frem 400 «1900 F. Prom 1900 £0 2500 F the effect of water is still apparent but nor pronounced. “Phis may he dae to improved mobility ft dhe clay aystals in the green state in the high aeaier mistines, resulting in more efficient position ing af che clay crystals 1 is apparent tha water coment fas # strong effect on hor strength and that ig must be earetutly controlled. Ar the Jow temperature end, ie curves cross. This is because snore waier must he evaporated frou the high moisture speciniens and they are therefore slow er in developing chy strength. Effect of Clay Content Figive 19.140 shows dhe effect of varying the day content on the Form of the stengthstemperature eurye. “The contral eave is that of the relerence mis. tune containing 2 per cent western bentonite SOL poy cent water. Mixtures were prepared half and uviee dhis amount of bentonite, keeping the waler content constant. Vese mixtures, contained fone per cent hengonite with 4.[2 per cent moisture, snd 4 per cent bentonite with 5.10 per cent moisture In onder to sundy the elfect of high and tow clay contents with proportional amounts of water Uo further mixtuves were made, and the test yesults are shown as the top and bottom curves on Fig. 13.U01 These mixtures contained one per cent clay, with 1.70 per cent water and per cent clay with 5.46 per cent water. “The general shape of all the curves is the same in thata level of dry strengtlt is achieved at some temperatire [ron 300 10 500° F and as temper-inure is raised, the strength docs not change appreci ably for several hundred degrees hereafter, at wbout 900 F an inevease in strength Degins whieh continues rwitil tempers of anasimunt strength is reached. For western bento: nites the zone of maximum hot suengeh is relatively broad and extends from 1600 tw WOOF, At tempers tunes above 1900) F the strength drops sharply to less than 10) psi at 2500 F From the ewves for 1, 2 and 4 per cent bentoni at approximately 8 per cent water content it wiry be scen that doubling the bentonite increases the strength aboot 5D per cent in che temperuiure range fon 00 to 1900 F. If, however, the water is inevensed propor Voniely with bentonite (one per cent bentonite with LJ per cent water, 2 per cent b AOE per cent water and 4 per cent bentonite with, 5.96 per cone water), the effect of increasing dhe ben- tonite is much larger; doubling the bentonite con: tent then approximately doubles the strength inn de 400 co 1900 F zone. It should be recognized that these relationships hold only for the limited range fof water aad clay contents specified. ‘The strength carve for ane per cent benton 170 per cent water seenss to be somewhat e1 eral onal] maxima may be seen. ft was chought du occurrence of the peaks might be due to experimental error but the variation amounts (o 10 to 40 per cent of the test value, and the indication of similar max ima in the one per cent bentonite, 8.12 per cet 1,0 curve suggests chat the maxims may acinally occur Indications of such multiple peaks inthe other carves may slso be seen in the range from 1600 1900 F, COMPARISON OF VARIOUS OTHER CLAY MIXTURES WITH WESTERN BENTONISE MIXTURES Since clays other than western bentonite are some Limes used as the primary binder in foundry sand, sev eral other clays were studied for comparison with western bentonite. ‘These included :t commercial fire clay from Akron, Ohio. (cons kaolin as its prin cipal mineral), whieh is used! by stect foundriey pa Licularly for heavy castings. White kaolin shows the elfect of the minetal in as orm as it is readily available, -\ southern bentonite is used extensively for cast iron sands, and an Albany sand contiining the clay with which i occurs fie matey Ohio Fireclay Figure 13.111 shows the stvength-temperature re Iavion of the Ohio Hireclay in x 5 per cent mixture with sand as well as die western entonite relerence mixture. Water content sas $2 per cent, Although tivo and x hall times as nach Fireckay as western bentonite was used in order © make « workable mix tome, the hot swength ac most temperatures was well helow that of bentonite Drying produces a strength of 25 pst at 400 F. _ Liteie altange in strength occurs (rom 400 to 1400 F, From 1400 to 1800 Fa graclual in in strength takes place, From 1800 10 2000 F the str creases rapidly to x maximum of 146 psi. From to 2500 F the fireclay excoeds the strength of the bentonite reterence mixture. 831 The principal difference in these clays, aside Grom ie general lower strength level of the fitvelay mis. tury, is in the temperature at whic the maxhuuun hut suengeh vecuns. ‘The fireclay maximum occuts at shout 20 F higher dian that of bentonite, White Kaolin Figure 12.112 shows the hot styengeh vange for medicinal white kaolin, fy a3 per cent prixuare vith 4 water content of 298 per cent. ‘This nsixeure reach sengi of 13 psi a KR F, “Phe strength is somewhat cratic, without the usual phiteau from WO wy YOO FE dhe inereases rapidly frome 1800 to. 2NU0 P reaching a maximinn of 100 psi, alter which it again eeereases in the range rom 2200 ty 2500 K. This clay develops its maxinum hot srengely at a we than any of Ue other clays whielt were studied, having its maxinwn 200 F higher than Ihe facckiy and 150 F higher than the western ben: Irs general streugth, however, is relatively low. Southern Bentonite A commercial southern bentonite, principally cal chun monunorilionite was scudied in a 2 per cent misenve at 3.12 per ene water content. The results Fig. ILE It bas voughly one-fourth (© one-half of the hot strength uf western bentonit \ chy strength of 40 psi is reached at 450 F which de Suength increases eapidly fom 10 F to a masini of 98 psi at 1600 F, and hen decreases Lo Sel psi at 2500 F, Phe suengib-remperstune relation of southern bens tqnite has the sume generat features as western ben ane shown fexeases «0 30 psi at 80 F tet Compressive streng bl Pig 18.142,ST Pig. 19.149, eves poh ' STUB CAO EHaN i [Ee Lt, Pig. 18.144 aes tonite, Ie is characwerized, however, by a relatively low hot strengith and a maximunn’ hot strength at 1400 E, whieh is 150 F below that of swestern bento. ite. "This cuve disaqvees considerably with the work published by Dunbeck,” whieh indicated « maxim Of 55 psi at 1000 F for y mixture ronudiuing * cent southern bentonite Albany Sand (Natural Clay Bond) Figure E14 shows the stengih-tempersence Fine grained Albiny molding sal. “This sand is 10 dineeily compatible to synthetically bonded swndls hecnne its grain size and distibution are now the sims, Albany sand has a median graitt size af op: prosianately 100m smaller cian fone niicron, Silt is abundant, some organic present, andl seating is vesy poor. (Ut was found dios rons, with 3 por €e auier is GX? per cont swater was nevessany: to pracnee a work able maixtne the a gilt platen developed by the syn thetic sands is nox obtained: instead from 100 F 10, 1N00 F theve is a steuely inerease fo the maxinum hot srength of S60 psi, alter which the strength chops rapidly wo 1D psi at 2300 F, [1 is generally considered, that <\ibuny is low fision sand, hence the location, of the hot strengdh maximum as high as 1900 F sway surprising. Severe shrinkage cakes place from 1900 to 28000.F and the sand fires to hard body which does hor disintegrate on cooling. Gas evolution from 2800) to 2500 F caused gross sivelling of the sample which is called bloating. EFFECT OF VARIOUS ORGANIC MODIFIERS Gelatinized Corn Flours Gelatinized com flours, next to clay, are the most commonly used binders in the stecl foundry, They ly uscd as a seeondiny binder with elay as y binder, ‘Two mixtures were studied one aving ane per cent corn Hour and 9 per cent sand AL 4 hioistare content of Ob per cent, and the other combination with one per cont corn Hour, 2 per cent western bentonite antl 97 per cent sand at 8.04 per cent water eootent, In Fig. 13.45, the hot Sirengilts of these mixtures sae compared with the stanclard 2 per cont western bentonite mixtere With com Hour alone ay the binder, the strength Ineveases rapidly to a snixinam of 250 psi ac 450° F. As the temperature is increased, the strength drops to 1 psi at GUO F, Wher 700 F is reached the strength increases to 14.3 psi. Hus behavior was repeated again swith miininstim of 2.15 psi at 800 B and a maximum of 12 psi at 900 F, alter which the swengeh became tao low to be measured accurately. “The minima anc nntxima shown ave possibly associated with the com: ustion ehiructeristics of this organic binder, At 1200 tu 1800 F the specimen hecomes light in color indi cating that the carbonaceous materials ave completely renioved. At this paint the strength is less than ane psi When the com flour binder is combined with ben: tonite, the curve characteristics ave similar to those of the western bentonite reference curve but with modi- fications oveasioned by the presence of the corn four AL ABD F a maximum af 170 pst is rewched, which the prhops to 4 niininwwn of 7 psi at GND F. This cor sponds with the first mininnney for dhe series with corn Hour as the only binder, At ahout 730 F a maxi mam of 82 psi is reached corresponding with the second msasimum in the com How’ eusve. \ tight drop in stengd) occurs at approximately $00 F and from 800 to 1000 F the strength of the combined hinders is less than that of hesttonite alone. From these curves it appeats that gelatinized corm four serves ewe Lanetions: Hirst, it provides “erly how strength” which may be developed by air ar oven drying or by dhe heat of the poured metal, andl second, hes thie «juuarte inversion point, thus providing a small amount of space into which che sund grains ean expsind, “This reduces the possibility of exicking the mold surfaces, as is noted! in practice it burns out just before che sand Dextrine Foundry desiring, also a corn product, whieh is lover 99 per cent soluble in water, was studied in the same percentages as those used for the gelatinized corm flour; one per cent as «single binder wich 3.0% per cent water, and onc per cenc in conjunction wich 2 per cent western bentonite and 80D per cene water ah curves are compared with ah y bentonite relerence mixture in Fig. e produces high exrly dry strength (240 psi ). Iealo has a temperaure vange (150 10 chere sirength dhops suddenly and chen y6 covers markedly. Alter reaching @ sccond maxima of 118 psi at 580 F the strength drops quiiekly to 15 psi at 800 F. At higher temperate dextrine behaves differently hom corn flower ine aise it maintains an appreciable strength ac high temperatures, “Phere is a minimum of 7 psi ar 1500 F, « omccinum of 215 psi at 2000 and at 2500 F, the highest cemperanne tested, the strength is 125 psi When desirine is combined with westeryy ber it increases hot strength over most of the tem range. ‘The increase is especially evident at 875 F, 02% F and 2200 F. ‘These amasioce accurr at slightly higher rempermunes than those fer the ane per cent dexivine mnixture without bentonite, From: 2200 te 2500 F dex ine has a suong effect on the sund, producing x hoe strength three co four tins thar produred by benton ine alone, Destrine as shown by is effect on the relcrance western bentonite mixture. is uselul for producing swly hor strength which may help resist cutting and cosion, At high temperatures it addy slightly to the serengtl of the chy saher than deaasing it as de the gelinised corn flours, Lignin Lignin ss byproduct inthe sullite, process: of paper smanuftere, Saoac of i's snaterial is used bats in Tiguid aid powrder fans as mokeing aul sore sanet hinder, A iypiea! powdered lignin binder win elected sit texted fn the came percentages as corn Hour and dextrine wide tbe resitlis shosen in Fig. (3.447, Like corn flour and dextrine ic develops high dry swengih, He begins to break slawn at B00 and the strength from 5 49 2000 F cleops steadily 40 é i i i i iB go 308 a too) TTue THe 1500 700” Tie Fabes Gomgeesive Seng pi ee Pig. 19.147. about & psi. From 2000 F co 2800 F there is a slight increase in strength. Like dexerine, lignin produces strength elfects at temperatures far above the point where it is expected to burn out completely. When lignin is combined with bemonite fone and 2 per cent, respectively} it inereases hot soength con. siderably at temperatures up to 800 F, Above this, ‘int the lignin causes the mfxue 10 be wetker than it would be with bentonite alone. The high tempera ture masini at 1620 F is narrow andl sharp, lower Unin that of hentonite alone aud shifted toward low cer temperatures. At 1850 F 2 per cent benennite pro: duces 860 psi, while 2 per cont bentonite plus one per cent lignin produces only 60 psi From this it appears that Tignia may be uselul in reducing hot strengtl above 800K, if this is necessary, and at the same time provide dry strength and possibly some quick hot strength to resist erosion by flowing, metal Ligniss binders ave hygroscopic hence cave should be exercised when they are used to sce that the molds ave used soon alter being made or are adequately dried in order to avoid excessive water content Pitch Pitch is not widely wsed in molding sancls bet Ginds considerable use in cores, particularly wherever core is made with a sane containing clay where an oil core hinder cannot be used! economically. A finely ground commercial grade as supplied for foundry use was selected and mixtures were made containing one per cent piteh and a combination of one per cent pitch with 2 per cent western bentonite. Water contents weve 208 and 292 per cent, respectively. The hot strength curves are shown in Fig. 15.18. “Vhe hoc strength of the one per cent pitch mixture is unlike any binder previously cested. In general ith sength i low. maxinmm of about sl psi oceuss 11 $0 F due to evaporation of the moistare and an: other, 18. psi a F, From 1000 to 100 F the strength chops rapidly and above this point no meas rable stecngids were loud. The hot strength of sand containing 2 per cont western bentonite is only slightly changed by the ad dition of pitch, "the two masini devéloped by pita alone aire reflected in the carve for the combined Liners by slightly higher strengths over a limited mange of teanperstures. Pitch has its mast prowonced clieet above 2000 F where it adds considerably to hot sirengt, AL 2800 F, for instance, the strengdh is in cast from 12.3 10 385 psi by the addition of one per cent of pitch. Phe failure of piteh to produce any pronounced change in the hot strength of a sand-clay-wacer mix. tune, except at high temperacures, does not condemn it as a binder. I serves 2 useful purpose in high strength cores comuaining clay which are finst baked. and then cooled co room temperature, Uneler these conditions the pitch melts daring baking and solidi Ties during cooling. giving dhe core dy or baked! strength so tha: it may be handled and placed in the mold. TE ene a ue ee L 4 tsi I ie Pig. 18.148,EFFECT OF VARIOUS ADDITIVES ON A WESTERN BENTONITE REFERENCE MIXTURE. Wood Flour Wood flour, which has previously been reported? as having a beneficial effect in preventing veining defects int phosplior bronze castings, was tested at 5 per cent content with 2 per cent western bentonite and 3.06 per cent water. Wood flour as a single sulditive was not tested, Figure 13,119 shows. the strengtt-temperatme curve Lor the wood flow-ben: tonite combination with that of the 2 per cent ben: tion of the canve shows that wood How has the most drastic effect of amy material studied in h reducing hot strength, At 500 F the dry sen inaximum is reducett Irom 78 psi for bentonite w 82 psi for the bentonite-wood flour combination. Strength 1 drops co + psi from 70.10 A maximum of psi is veached at 1610 F, From 1610 to 1900 although the carve is nearly stvaight, the ¢ype of fail mm 110 0 1725, and with & shear Fail 15 wo the axis. As tlging of the sides is nociced with a shear Tailure, and above this ten perature the failure is plastic, the eylinder deforming. a barrel shape. All other mixtures investigated break with a shear failure up to 2200 FL With iv- creased temperatures ihe strength drops sapidly i at 2500 F, Wood flour appears to be the ayent cested thus faa, for reducing the hot specimens break sucldenty [plane shout Lo Fig 13.109. Pig. 19.150. smengih predoced by bentonite at all temperacures studied Iron Oxide \ conmercia? grade of ground iron oxide prepared esporially for loundry use was tested ina sand mix. hare at 5 pet cent with $.02 per cent water and in nother per cent mixture with % per cent western bentonite anid 204 per cent water, In Fig. 13.150 the strengths of these nwo mixtures are conypured with the standard 2 per cent western bentonite mixture. Iron oxide alone produces little or no strength at poor temper nd iy not usually considered a sind binder. Ie is sold anid used principally as a rem ey for veining detects in stect castings, bac foundry mntliorities Uo hut agree a to Hts accomplishment of his ves. AC temperatures of $00 F and over, 5 per cent iron aside produres strengths averaging about 10 psi 6 1700 F the strength decreases gradually to 1 psi at 2500 F When combined with western bentonite, iron oxide raises the saengel of che sand at nenly all cempera tures sand raises the temperature a ywhich wnayimaem sarong oceans by nearly 100 F, At temperacures above 2000 F the iron oxide causes « large inerease in stvengily, which from 2390 co 2500 F anronnts co 700, per cent. ‘The ewrve indicates that fron oxide is: use- Jol (or increasing hoe stexgtls at all wemperatures. It also raises the (hiperature at whieh the hot strengthESE i 0% Sitter Flows ard 2% Western ee He S te Fig. 18.161 Silica Flour Silica flour is a common addition to molding sand, particularly Tor steel castings where it is used as a Filler to decrease the amount pl void spaces inthe nd and dds veduce the penetration of metal into the moll, Silica four is used in a wide range of cone centrations; mixtures oecasionally contain as much fas 60 per cent In studying the effeet of silica Nour a mixture made with 5 per cent sitica Nowy and no bentonit and another with 5 per cent silica Hour and 2 per cent western bentonice. Water contents were SH and 2.98 per cent respectively. A third misture contained 2 per cent western bentonite with 20 per cent sitien Hlour and a water content of 3.06 per cent. Figave IB.I51 shows the hot compressive strength of these mixtures along with that of dhe 2 per cot western bentonite mixture for comparison. ‘The stuength of the § per cent siliex How mixture varies front 6 to LE psi with a maximum of £100 The production of hot stréngth by an inert material cannot be explained except as de resell of mechanical When 5 per cent silica Hour is combined with 2 per cent westerts bentonite, the stsength is raised over the entire temperature sange suudied, dhe Lirgest mereases being in the zone xbout 1700 F. When the silica thou is increased! to 20 per cent with 2 per cent bentonite, much higher strengths are produced. ‘The dy strength reaches [50 psi at $00 F and increases wo 740 psi at 1750 F. AL 2100 F a small rise in strength produces another maximam of $34 psi, AC2500 F the stecnguh drops to 70.5 psi which is, however, high for this perature. Silica flour is an excellent niasevial for increasing. the hot compressive swenigih of sand mixtures over a wide temperature vange. Th can be added in amounts rom small to [ange percentages to produce almost uy practical hor strength required by the molding. conditions, SUMMARY he concluded vom these data that clay estab. general shape of the sirength-tempersture relation of molding ssnds. By selecting 2 stvong clay, strong sands may be produced with clay. Western bentonite produces the scength in a given concentyation. If lower hot con pressive stengeh is needed without sacrificing green strength, it may be produced by the use of southern inswad of western bentonite, ‘The temperacure at which maximum hot strengtl occurs varies from 1608) F [or southern bentonite, to 2200 F for pure kaolin. Increase in water content of 2 molding send in cyenses its hot strength, particularly in the range from 400 10 1900 F Increasing clay content also increases hot com: pressive strength, In order Lor an increase in clay con Tema tent (© contribute most effectively to strength, the water content should be increased proportionately. cl ange of clay content is the simplest method of in- creasing oF decreasing hot strength if a change is needed over the entire temperature range. Organic binders ave uselul for modifying hot th over limited ranges of temperature. ‘These ‘gents generally raise the strength in the zone from 4400) © 800 F and thereby provide resistance to erosion sind cutting by the flowing metal. Gelatinized com Hlour lowers strength stightly from 800 to 2000 F. Dex: wing increases strength above 2000 F. Pitch has little effect except at temperatures over 2000 F where it increases strength. Lignin increases hot strength from 40) 800 -F bur at higher temperatures reduces strengt hy large amounts OF the various additives studied, wood flour most drastically reduces strengih at all temperatures. Wood Hour also increases ductility in the range of 1900 to 2100 At 1900 F, cylindrical specimen, when compressed, deforms into a barrel shape without eracking: with: ‘out wood Hour the specimen breaks at this temper tare with litele deformation. ‘The plasticity. intro. ciuced by wood flour minimizes the cracks which wn der certain mesal conditions produce “vein” defects. Tron oxide wl silien Hour increase hot strength at carly all temperatures. The increase is mast pro- nounced at temperatures over 2000 F. AA summary of the range of stengths which can be produced using 2 per cent western bentonite and 3 per cene moisture content molding sand is presented in Fig, 15.152 by craves of maximum strengths produced in dis mixture by the addition of various binders and additives. This area may be made still broader by altering water or clay content“This chronological ext an alton ve BIBLIOGRAPHY, omiaine both references cited a the lng matter on the sujece covered. in thie report ‘Veen, “Strength of Retiaccries at Different “Tempers lites” Ceramique 23, 177-184 (1920). Jr. Ams. Ger. Soe, 60 (092. J.B. Austin, “The Theemal Expansion of Some Retracery Oxides” ulm, Cer. Soe, 2011 pe 78S (1831) ROA. Meindl, “Che ‘Thermal Expansion wf Retractors 10 1800 6," Bur. of Sts, J of Resear, vot. 10, p. 713 (1983), FLW. Dicceet and F- Vinties, “The Expansion and Contra: on of Molding Sind st Blevaced!Temperauines” AVS Teassactioss, wor 43, p. 107 (098), AOE Grin, RUM, May and WY, Fraley, ‘ion of Hons! Clays anid Ie ffiuenee on ot AES "Craxsaernoes, wot 14, ps 2 (1986). BK Ryle, “Foundry Sunt “Testing Poles at High emperstines,” ABS “Faaxawenons, wk Hf, pi (1930) CoE, Seubert, "A Caetatian of die Physica and Chow Properties af Clays Wate the Durability of Mabling Sats AIS Prassarnons, ool 5, pt (UM), Pine Cont ug Properties 1 W. Dieter, EH Wolf and JA. Selly “A Stay ob Steal Malling Soule” APS Taassactuonsy au 46, ps 297 983), GW. Higgs aan RE Morey, “Syuthetie Honest. Stoct Noling Sands," AES Trassncrioss, woh. 17, ps 638 (189), Hol. York, "Repors of Progress of Sand Research om Stee! Sand Abetiees at Elevated. Temperatures)" APS Tissae ros vol, pe 809. (109 HCW. Divert Sid E, E, Woodif, “Hot Strength and Col lapibitity of Foundey Sandy" AES ‘T pe 819 (1080, anc, vol rive and Ro A. Rowland, “Phe Relationship Be- the Physical andl Mineralogical Gharaciesities of Wg Clays” APS “Teassaettons, vol. 18, pe 211 (1010), ROE. Crim anid W. F. Bradley, “Investigation of the 1llec ff Heat om the Clay Minerals lite une Montmorlloni Jou. dm. Coram, Sic, vol. 22, no. 8, po 2 HL, Daasch, "Notes on the Clay Bonding of Mobting Sands," ATS Trassactioss, 0! 18) pe LTE (1950), ©. W. Ehehars, “Expansion Conaetion Tests.” APS ‘Teas 44, p Gi i194). See York, wale J7, p. 800 RoE Morey ane! H.W. ‘Taylor, “Some Propertice of 89 shetically Bonded Steel Melting Sands” APS Teaxsse tions poe 19, pS (MAT) J.B. Gane, “Mol snc! Cone Wass Steel Founsley Facts inn, 15 qDee, 1911), Jo Mh Caine, “Sincering Test Subcommittee Progrnt Repost AS Taansyorions, tah 1, po 282 CM}. JR. Vung, “Companion of specimen Sizes, Progress Re port on Investigation of Nigh Temperance om Stool Sands, AES Thansicnions, vol, 22,1. GHG 98}. N. J. Danbeck, "American. Syathetie Sane) Practice" APS Trassacross. vo 19, pe Ut 19H) GW. Biggs, “Etfee: of Molten Steel om Sauls, Cones al Washes,” See! Foamy Fer, a0, 2 (ag. 192), RK. Heh and M, K. Blancharl, “Expaeion, Cantiae (Gon anid Strengtl Changes of Some Clays During Firing,” 1 mer. Ceramie Soviet, tal, 25, wo, 12, B81). P. B.Riggan, "The Use uf the Hox Strength ‘est as 4 Toot for Controlling Core Mistares” NES “Teassacttons, vol 50, pp. 1185 (942). See wlso Kiggun, Cove Mintuves Comsrolied By Hot Strength, The Foundry, vol 62, ma. Mp. 61, 251 (Now. 104}. LBC Feet” ABS Peansucrions, Sl Emile Pragott Jr. aad (2 P. Repost of che Subeommitige on Sintering Si, p78 (192), Albus, “Phe Effect of Resin Binder Additions on the Uoperties of Molding Sams.” AFS Transactions, vol, po 357 J. R. Young, “Progress Report om Investigation of Elfet of High Temperate on Siect Sands Nov Effect of Kata ming’” AIS Feassscriass, a 30, ps S77 (1942) J. Caine, “A Staly of “Hsa-On’ oF Adhering. Sands AES Vaaxsnctions, wats pe UT (IS =p de Compressive Seth pl iH Hu Pig ”, "0 wl se ts ». eo G00 Hoe 1390 1500 F708 1980 2100 2300 2806 13.152, WEB. Albus, “Elevated “Temperature Studies of Founsy Cones and Core: Mahia Materials,” AES Taasmnen0ss, eh 32, ps 995 (1949), MV, Clrberlin and. T. eters, "Yemperatanes, Devel ‘spe San Cotes During dhe Casting of Magnesiuan lays," AIS Taasaacons, oul 3, pe 155. 9, Ros, Neiman, ig by he Tnvestnent Mole ing Proves, oss, wl 32, p. S19 (ADE Precision [APS Teassoe Joli A. Rossentins, "Reproducibility of Blevaeed ‘Tempera ture Sil est Reailtg APS Peassaenns, vol 52, pe TUL ‘ann HL Res, "Comtribations o1 Rote of Landing Specimens ii the Hoc Compressive Sirength Test,” APS Tacxsactions, Pee $2. A. H0 (194%), HW, Dictet, Ro fa Doetnnan andl RW. Monnet, “Aol Swstage Gre Presa,” ABS Trassactions, val 32, ne. 3, P ss 9th), DG. Woliams, “Fourth Progress Report on Investigation of Pysieal Toperties of Steet Foundhy Suds at Elevated Tempevtunes.” AES Taassctioss, 0h 52, 10. 4 pe PY ath, HW. Piktest, “Coinments on Diltomeier Operations APS Teassarnoss. tals 22. no. 4, pe IOI C94}, LW. Dieter, RL, Deeley and Re Wy Bennett, “Mold ianosphare Cantioh® ES Tasseacttons. sof 32, 8. 4, nosh (19H HW. Dieter, R. 1. Poelman and RoW. Bennett, “Mold Sfuce Mroperties at Hessted.“Femperesres,” APS. Trans sioss, Yul 32. PA ADU J. Mh Caine, “HUIS Sinosing Vest Committee Report.” AES ‘Tagssaciiins, owl. 1s pe $77 (95). Ko 1 Grim aml Ft, Canibers, “Phe Bonding ction of Gays Pant E = Chiys in Green Mobting Sands." Minois Geol Sines Report — tas. 12 GOK, Univ. Bl Ey Exp. Sta sash 333-98 1G. Wiliam, “High Teamperinnne Sand esting, 5 An tna Poo eporl "AES Taatsaetions, tok 89,175 (95).eee 338 NBL, Kleber and HW, Meyer, “Mllingg Sand Properties Wi Hlevated Tempernisese” NES “Taanseanns, ote ST, 200 2815p. 42... 6, Willinas, “Spht “Type Spe emperatae “Cesing,” NES Thassacttoss, 2033, (098, 43, Arnold Satz, “Elevated “empessiare ‘Fests in Suad Con. Toke ABS TFaassnctions, vos 38, p32 {1015} HoH W. Dictrs, “FHees of “Cable Rise Stain Rate) on Het Stiongth of Rentonice HBonded. Sauls, ATS Taywsar tas Deh pets A135) 15. R. He Grim gad FL. Couhber, The Tunaling Action of Gags ane Ch Claye an Dry Molding Savas” Minis Gee Survey Repo! Ines No. 190-4945), Une Uh ng PNP. Se bint 362° (1046). WW. Re He Morey aad J. R. Kacts, ~Beeventing: Velning. sit enetsasion on Castings Made in Syuvhetie Sans" ABS Thansactions, woe 34. pe 129) 191). 11, HAW, Dieters, "Gray trom Foundry Sante Report of Sub Commitice on Mhysiest Properties of Gry bow Fanny Sanat St Elevated Temperaiwaes” ABS TRAXALIIONS. tof. 54, p 451 (1046). JK {. Jenicek, “Molaing Sand winters," ATS Tassscrtons sw 51, 845 ENO) 49, GA. Lillegvist, "Stel Houmnadry Gontale” AES assacntoss WoL 34. po 83. (191) RETAINED PROPERTIES Retained suength may be defined as the strength (generally measured in the labortory as compression) remaining after a molding sand has been subjected to shock heating, as when a mold is poured and per mitted #0 cool until shakeout or subseqptent process: ing. The voliime affected is the distance from the mold-metal interlace (6 the original unaltered green for dry sand molding material, “The degree of ‘heat jon resilts in a “layer effece” and is depend: m the quantity of available heat, tine and For example, the interface layer in a Imger mold will have the sviginal clay bond or oiganiv additives largely destroyed. ‘The degree of alteration dimin shes with distance from che metal interlace. In or der to contvol the degree of retained strength, knowledge of how all the component honding and acing aiditives behave over all temperature ranges is mandatory. ft is als important to know whether these materials are thermosetting or thermoplastic and the manner in which they ave aflected hy oxida tion. Factaally, control of retained strengtiy is occasioned by the adverse effect of difficult shakeout or knockout and the breakdown of massive Lumps or agglomerates for reprocessing, Retained strength is aliected by, sand grain fineness, density, composition, heat flow time, and many other factors, such as: ‘Types of bond as i€ contributes to swength. ‘Types of facing or additives Moisture content Pouring temperature of the metal Standing time of the molds after pouring, Venting. In several papers by Sanders* it has been staced that dvy strength and yetained strength are not the same Sanders, C. A, American Colloid Co., Skokie, 1 FD, G. Wiliams, “Ugh “Pewperasene Sand Testing — 6 Pinrese 1 AIS Pyaar tains 54, pe BD (MG). van A Le Delian, “Behatier oi Melding uierisk an “Qua Atmosphere at Blewaced Temperate, MUS Tieassucions, 20681, p. 61. (91). we JR, Caine. “A Sil) of the Betavier ot Moding Sands shen in Conteh whet Lagi Stee Need Bowe Farts, May (17) he Prammly, veh 79, a. 7. p72 uly 18). Sh LW. Dieter “Cinna Healtating ‘of Core” Knocks Heepart, Subvommitie) on Phsskal Properties ol ex Foundry Sanils" AN TRASSACHONS v0L 33, pe SIZ. CDT} ADC. Williome and FE Ryle. “Tih Annual Report ov Investigation oo topertice of Sec! Sands at Elevated Term peeatane.” ATS Teanstertass.10f. 55, p. 6072847) vs, Jo Hager and 0k sles Eighdh Annual Report on the Investigation of Properties of Steel Sands at Blevated Ter peratures. APS Tavsescttans, Wal 38, p. 318 913) T. Zhravley shel FD. Ramuisher, “Kole of tron Oxides eChenustyy af Being Merial” frm. Cevammis vie. te, pe 2BBADSL. (Nov. 1948), si 81 Kear nt [, bp, “Mulple Ditferentin) ‘Thermal nig” Phe dim, Minesaiogist wo. 7 ane 8, wot. 23, p. S87 July tug. 1948. BR RU AL Gruver, "Precision Method! of Thermal Tr dims Gere Soe 10! 31, WO. 12, pe 388. (Dee. NPV" Rick, “A Prtetieal” Method for Detesn Abstivction by Mfolhing Materials,” Phe fron Age, vol 167, pe Theo. 16 Apel 21, 191) although they are often related, Retained strengtty hy strength of 1 molding sand which cmuses sind to roll over the end of shakeouts as lumps, eve though the sand may be cooled below dry stength remperatures. In general, the more fines which occur im a sand mixture, the more retained strength the sand may ppoess, “This is believed due to the fact that the more Fines. (or inert fines) which a sand may possess the more temper water is xequired. Excess water in many sind rmistuves generally creates higher retained strengths. Inv some cases this is desired, in others it is not. Naturally high clay bonded sand mixtures which - possess nd high water generally have high re- tained strengths, “Additions of bond are generally conducive 10 itigher retained properties. “Western bentonice and fireclay appear to have more retained sensitivity chan southern bentonite mixtures; general- Ty, the lesser the bond, the lesser che temper water re: quiived. U0 is the reaction of bonding action between avo that prevails Corn How, whest or rye cereals generally add re twined properties molding sand mixtures. Seacoal aulditions generally increase retained properties as the temper water is increased, ‘The finer coals generally requive more wate fained_ prop: certics result, Pitch in molding sands generally iv- creases retained properties, Pitch, in order to be et fective, requires higher water content which in turn increases retained! strengths. Most of the organics, such ay molasses water, gh avin water, degtrine water and others, generally in- crease the retained properties if they are not burned completely from the molding sand mixture. It has been found thar the best way to avoid re tained strength, if dat is desived, is 10 use cellulose praduets such as wood flow. Jf the water is not in