IMA Journal of Applied Mathematics (1982) 28, 301-318

An Analysis of Semiconductor P-N Junctions

C. P. PLEASE

Central Electricity Research Laboratories,

Kelvin Avenue, Leatherhead, Surrey

[Received 21 August 1981]

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The equations governing the flow of electric charge in semiconductor devices are
introduced. The method of matched asymptotic expansions is then used to study the
problem in the limit of a large ratio between impurity concentration and intrinsic
carrier concentration. A simple diode is studied under the influence of current flow
and uniform external radiation. The resulting solutions reproduce the classical results
revealing additional detail about the structure and introduce new results concerning
"high levels" of external radiation.

1. Introduction
THE EQUATIONS governing the flow of charge in crystalline semiconductor devices were
first studied by Shockley in his classic paper of 1949 and have been one of the most
important mathematical models for predicting and understanding the behaviour of
p-n junction devices. The classical analysis of the equations (Sah, Noyce & Shockley,
1957) consists of dividing the device into regions, in each of which there is a different
dominant physical process. The solutions in each region are then patched together at
their boundaries to give the complete solution.
In this paper the equations are introduced with the intent of using the method of
matched asymptotic expansions (Van Dyke, 1975) to develop systematically the
standard results. The analysis reveals an intricately layered structure to the solution
with the classical regions connected by thin transition layers. This systematic
development can easily be extended to cover more general devices than the simple
diode which is used as an example here.

2. The Model
The mathematical model for the movement of electric charge in crystalline
semiconductors is based on the following concept. The semiconductor has two well
denned electron energy bands separated by a large energy gap devoid of any energy
levels. The higher energy band, the conduction band, is presumed to be almost
completely empty and any full energy levels in the band are simply called electrons.
The lower energy band, the valence band, is presumed to be almost completely full
and any empty energy levels are designated as holes. If the assumption, that electrons
301
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302 C. P. PLEASE

and holes occupy only a small fraction of the energy levels within their respective
bands, is violated, the material becomes degenerate and the distribution of the charges
within each band must be considered in detail. Here the material is considered in a
non-degenerate state only. The two types of charge carrier, holes and electrons,
interact in two ways. First, their electric fields interact with the electrons having a
negative electric charge and the holes having an equal positive electric charge;
secondly, by generation and recombination where respectively either a low energy
electron gains enough energy to enter the higher band and therefore simultaneously
creates a hole and an electron or conversely a high energy electron loses energy and a
hole and electron disappear. There are two mechanisms which cause generation and

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recombination. First, the material always tries to keep itself in a state of
thermodynamic equilibrium by adjusting the number of charge carriers present, and
the rate at which this adjustment occurs is a property of the material and the density
of carriers. Secondly, if electromagnetic radiation passes through the material it may
be absorbed and generate a carrier pair, the rate of generation being a property of the
intensity and spectrum of the radiation (a typical example is sunlight on a solar-cell).
The holes and electrons are of two types; mobile and fixed. The mobile carriers are
free to move through the semiconductor and create electron current and hole current.
The fixed charges are fixed in space and do not contribute to the generation and
recombination but merely contribute to the electric field. They are introduced
specially into pure semiconductor material by diffusing impurity atoms into the
material. The concentration and spatial distribution of the fixed charges determines
the behaviour of the device.
The main end-product of the analysis of this model should be the determination of
the electrical properties of a semi-conductor device as a whole. This is done by
determining the relation between the voltage applied across the device, the total
current flowing through it, and the intensity of any external radiation which is
absorbed.
For the purposes of this paper the one-dimensional steady-state equations for the
motion of charge in a semiconductor at uniform temperature will be taken in the
following form (for a more detailed derivation see books such as Van der Ziel, 1968,
or Sze, 1969):
(np+NaN<), (2.1)
ax e3

J-J.+Jr P-4>

, (2.5)
 SEMICONDUCTOR P-N JUNCTIONS 303

The variables and constants in the equations represent the following quantities:
Symbol Quantity
£ Electric field (Vm- 1 )
^ Electric potential (V)
n Mobile electron density (m~ 3 )
p Mobile hole density (m ) 1
Jn Electron current density (Am" 2
)
J. Hole current density (A m~ )
f Total electric current density
3 1
(Am" 2 )
R(n,p) Recombination law (m~ s" )
G(x) Generation rate due to absorbed radiation (m~ 3 s" 1 )

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q Charge on an electron (As)
e, Permittivity of material 2(As V " ' m ~')
Dm, D Diffusion coefBcients
2 l
(m s" 1 )
Hm,Hr Mobilities ( m s - V - ' )
3
Na Density of fixed electrons (m )
ATj Density of fixed holes ( m ~ 3 )

The first equation (2.1) is a balance of the electric charge at a point, with Na and Nd
being specified functions of position representing the impurity concentration. The
next two equations (2.2), (2.3) are a balance of the forces acting on each type of
carrier. The flux of each carrier is the sum of (a) diffusion due to density gradients and
(b) movement due to the electricfield.The electricfieldaccelerates the charges up to a
terminal velocity which is dependent on the field strength and in this model the
velocity is taken as proportional to the field. The constants of proportionality, /in and
Up, are called the mobilities.
In a non-degenerate material the mobilities are related to the diffusion rate because
both the terminal velocity and the diffusion are determined by carrier scattering and
interacting. The constitutive relations, known as Einstein relations, between these
two phenomena are:

*£! Dp = t^L, . (2.7)

where k (JK'1 or AVsK~l) is Boltzman's constant and T (°K) is the temperature of
the device.
The fifth equation (2.5) describes the conservation of carriers in the material. Here
G{x) is a specified function describing the generation rate of carriers due to radiation
being absorbed and R(n, p) gives the rate at which the material can recombine carriers
in order to return to thermodynamic equilibrium. Finally, the fourth and sixth
equations (2.4) and (2.6) define the total electric current and the electric potential
respectively.
The state of thermodynamic equilibrium, when no external forces are applied to
the semiconductor, can, in non-degenerate material, be found to be characterized by
the condition
np = nf, (2.8)
where nt is a property of the original pure semiconductor and the temperature of the
device. The precise formulation for a recombination law which will return the
304 C. P. PLEASE

material to this state depends on the device being studied and is very complex (see
Lindholm & Sah, 1977). Here we consider the simplest law which acts to restore
equilibrium and has the appropriate form for limiting values of n and p. It is:

where Tlf T2(s~i) and T3(s~l m~3) will be taken to be constants.

Boundary conditions must now be specified at each end of the device which
describe the behaviour of the metallic contacts on the semiconductor. We consider an

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ideal contact between the metal and the semiconductor usually called an "ohmic
contact". First assume the metal prevents any excess charge from building up at the
surface so that
n-p+Na-Nd = 0 (2.10)

there. Secondly, because the crystalline structure is distorted near any surface of the
semiconductor the recombination rate differs from its value elsewhere and in this
simplest case we consider it to become infinitely fast so that
np = ni (2.11)
at both contacts.
It is also necessary to give a reference potential for \p in order to specify fully the
solution and here we take
0(0) = 0 (2.12)
for convenience.
The final condition that is needed to specify the solution completely is one which
describes the external circuit to which the device is connected. Either the total
current, /, the voltage applied across the metal contacts, V, or a function between
them must be given. The total current is simply J times-the cross-sectional area, A, of
the device.
J = -I/A. (2.13)

However, the voltage is a more difficult concept and is most easily described by
returning to the set of equations. Using the Einstein relationships the equation for the
electron current (2.2) can be written as

^ ( ^ j (2.14)
The quantity
— ln(n)-0 (2.15)
<i
is called the electro-chemical potential and it is the gradient of this quantity that
moves the electrons (a similar expression holds for holes). The applied voltage is
therefore the difference in electro-chemical potential between the contacts and
 SEMICONDUCTOR P-N JUNCTIONS 305

assuming there is no potential drop between the metal contacts and the
semiconductor this becomes

V = — \n(n(a)/n(b))-ii,(a) + t(b), (2.16)

where the contacts are x = a,b.

3. The Normalized Problem

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Before starting to analyse the model it is appropriate to put it in a non-dimensional
form using the following procedure.
/cT
q
kT _ IkfT,
V = — V, x = / — f2 x , o r x = LDx, (3.1)
q V ntq

L
*-D 'D '-•D

where LD is called the Debye length. Putting these in the equations leaves the
following non-dimensional functions

^ - ^ = AiV(x), (3.2)

, (3.3)

where X, the non-dimensional impurity level, multiplies the 0(1) function N(x) and G,
the non-dimensional generation rate due to absorbed radiation, multiplies the 0(1)
function g(x). There are also non-dimensional parameters

"'7; <•=—

The model therefore becomes (the overbar notation denoting a normalized variable
will be dropped from hereon and just be assumed):

dx dx
306 C. P. PLEASE

dJa np-l
dx +Gg[x), (3.8)

JP = J-JH, (3.9)
with

• " — • * •
,/, = 0 at x = 0
and
K = ln(n(a)/n(6))

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Consider now the typical sizes of the various parameters. The recombination
constants t 1 ; T 2 , and T 3 can vary between 1 and 10~ 8 , the mobility ratio ft lies between
\ and 4, the current J can get as large as 1010 and G can approach 108. The most
important parameter is A and in almost all devices it is large (i.e. 103 to 1010) and is
fundamental in determining the device's behaviour.
Because some of the parameters in the problem are very large it is appropriate to
try and solve the equations approximately using the method of matched asymptotic
expansions. It is found that the analysis which must be performed to study a variety of
different devices is embodied in the study of the case A ->oo.

4. The Diode
The problem as formulated governs a variety of two contact semiconductor
devices. However, for simplicity let us consider a simple p-n junction diode. Such a
device has fixed holes in the region adjoining one contact and fixed electrons in the
region adjoining the other. The transition between the two regions, which is
represented in the model by N(x) going from negative to positive, is continuous but
occurs over a very short distance. Here, for simplicity, we model the device by a
discontinuous N(x) and also assume the regions are of the same length and doping
density. We therefore take:
fl = -l, b=\,
N(x) = - 1 for-l<x<0, (4.1)
= 1 forO<x<l,
with t j , T 2 , T 3 , and fi all 0(1). We then consider all values of J and G in the
limit A ->oo.

5. The Equilibrium Problem

To start the analysis and introduce the layered structure inherent to the solution
consider the diode in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium when no external forces
are present, i.e.
j = 0, G = 0. (5.1)
It then follows that
Jn = 0, np=l, (5.2)
where the second of these is Equation (2.8).
 SEMICONDUCTOR P-N JUNCTIONS 307

The equations for the flux of each charge carrier can now be integrated to give
n = ei*+B), p = e-<*+fl> (5.3)
for some constant B. The value of B is determined by the reference potential \p(0) = 0
and in this case is satisfied by
B = 0. (5.4)
Hence the problem can be written as

^ .(5.5)

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with
= 0 atx=l,
e*-e~*-X = Q atx = - l .
It should be noted that in the case of the very simple N(x) we have considered the
equation can be integrated exactly. This result can therefore be used to motivate and
check the following explanation of the solution's behaviour.

6. Asymptotic Analysis
The problem defined in (5.5) will now be studied using the method of matched
asymptotic expansions. This method is outlined in such books as Van Dyke (1975) or
Cole (1968) and the terminology used in these books will be used here.

6.1 The Outer Regions

The boundary conditions can be expanded in powers of A to give
.. atx=l, (6.1)
atx = - l . (6.2)
If the outer region, where x = 0(1), is now considered it is found that the only
possible first order balance in the equation, as x->oo, is between the exponential
terms and AJV(x). This gives the solution
.. x>0, (6.3)
x<0, (6.4)
which satisfies the boundary conditions to this order.
Following the usual reasoning of matched asymptotic expansions it is noted that ip
is discontinuous at the point x = 0 and that this is due to neglecting the derivative
term in the first order outer region equations. It is therefore argued that there must be
a thin region near x = 0 where if/ can change continuously from In (A) to —In (A).
Since \\> changes by 0(ln (A)) in this thin region it seems reasonable to scale ip with

* = On (A))£ (6.5)
17
 c
308 - p - PLEASE

and then, since the derivative term must be included in the first order equation, to
scale x with
x = On W/Xfx, (6.6)
so that

ax
Unfortunately it is not now possible to perform an asymptotic expansion of ifi in k
because the exponential terms are of unknown size.

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This problem is resolved by dividing the thin region into subregions of two types.
One type is a "transition layer" where at least one of the exponential terms is 0(1) so
that three terms in the equation are of equal size. The other is an "inner region"
where both of the exponentials are much less than 0(1) and can therefore be neglected
in the first order equation.

6.2 The Transition Layers

In this subregion one of the exponential terms must be 0(1) and hence the correct
scaling for \f/ is
\p = (ln(A))i£=-ln(,l) + i£, x > 0 (6.8)
and similarly in x < 0. Using this scaling it is found that it is also necessary to
consider a smaller scale for x so that the second derivative term remains 0(1). The
position of this small subregion within the larger one is unknown so the appropriate
scaling for x is
x = (In (X)/lfx = (In (/l)//l)1(5 + (l//l1)x, (6.9)
where 8 is a constant which has yet to be found.
The first order transition solution in x > 0 can now be found to be
r
-2>x = dy, (6.10)
A

where A and B are 0(1) constants. The constant A can be absorbed into 5, so without
loss of generality we may set
A=\. (6.11)
It is now necessary to match this transition solution into the solution in the outer
region. This involves choosing B such that as x->oo, $->0. It is found that this
occurs only if
5 = -l. (6.12)

6.3 The Inner Region

In this region both of the exponential terms are assumed to be small [i.e. of 0(X~')
for some E = 0(1) > 0] and can therefore be neglected to first order. The first-order
 SEMICONDUCTOR P-N JUNCTIONS 309

equation is therefore

and it has a solution, which satisfies the condition ip(O) = 0,

$ = ±x2N(x) + Cx, (6.14)
for some 0(1) constant C.
This solution must now be matched with that in the transition layer using the

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standard procedure (Van Dyke, 1975). This is done by writing each of the first order
solutions in the other region's variables, expanding the expressions in powers of A and
ensuring the first term of each of these expansions are identical, Hence put
(6.15)
into Equation (6.14) and expand in powers of X to give
2
(6.16)
Similarly by putting
Hi 1 (A), x = (In (A)^(x — 5), (6.17)
into the transition layer solution (6. 10) and expanding we get
(21n(A))!(x-<5)~2(ln(A)ij In (A))—(In (A)t^—In (A))~'+O(l/lni(A)). (6.18)
In order that the first-order terms in (6.16) and (6.18) are the same it is necessary to
have
+** + « « 0 (6.19)
ana
C + <5 = 0. (6.20)
It follows that
C = -<5 = -2*.t (6.21)
A similar matching procedure can be done in x > 0 (see Please, 1978 for details of the
calculations). The resulting solution for \Jt is shown in Fig. 1.
The structure of the solution has therefore been shown to have three different types
of region each with different dominant physical properties displayed by the first order
balance of the terms in the equation.
(1) Outer regions where exponential ~ XN(x);
(2) transition regions where derivative ~ exponential ~ XN(x);
(3) inner regions where derivative ~ XN(x).

t If the matching procedure is continued so that the solution U known to O(X~') for some e » 0(1) > 0
everywhere, then the solutions are the same but it is found that

"2 j r >
310 C. P. PLEASE

-In-)

Transition roojon
I Outer region

2JnJ

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FIG. 1. The equilibrium solution.

The structure is the same for x < 0 as for x > 0. The outer regions and inner
regions correspond to the classical neutral regions and depletion layer respectively.
Solutions with N(x) as a continuous function still have this underlying structure of the
three types of region and these are fundamental to the operation of p-n junction
devices.

7. Analysis of Current Flow

As an introduction to the procedure, which can be followed to extend the analysis to
cover other cases, consider a simple diode with current flowing in it. In particular
consider the case
G = 0, J - 0, (7.1)
and ensure the solution J = 0 is the one found in the equilibrium case. Assume the
dependent variables can be expanded in the form
n ~ no(x, X)+Jnl(x, X) + .. .
(7.2)
V ~po(x,X)+Jpl(x,X)+...
where no(x, X), po(x, X), etc., are the solutions to the equilibrium problem. We now
assume J <3 1, so the equilibrium solution dominates n, p and ip and then seek the first
order term in X of nlt p2, etc. The exact range of J for which this procedure is valid is
found after the analysis.
The first-order equations in J are

(7.3)
dx1

(7.4)
dx dx
 SEMICONDUCTOR P-N JUNCTIONS 311

J n n ( 7 5 )
=

dx
with
at x — 1 , 1 ,
^! = 0 at x = 0.

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The solution to this system is very similar in structure to the equilibrium problem
with the same inner, outer and transition layers. There is one difference and this is
because it is impossible to make Jn_ continuous using just the three layers mentioned.
A new layer must therefore be made around x = 0, within the inner region so that Jn<
can vary continuously. The first order equations in the inner region are

r = 0, (7-7)
dx2

0= ^ + P l l n(A)^ + P o ^ (7.8)
dx dx dx >

04-ni,n(^-no^, (7.9)
dx dx dx
where
po = e -lnU)*o i nQ = e ln (A*,. ( 7 1 Q )

x = On (X)/X}x,
and from Equation (6.19)
$0~lx2-J2x. (7.11)
Integrating (7.8) and (7.9) the solution is
P! = A el-'"«**.-*.), m = Be{lnU)f°+*>\ (7.12)
where the size of A and B has yet to be determined. The equation for J n| is
Ae-+<+Be*>
dx V x
The right-hand side is a maximum when the exponentials in the denominator are 0(1)
and this occurs when x = O(l/ln X). Therefore, the new "inner-inner" layer is where
x = O(1/(A In A)1) and in this layer /ij and p t must be O((A In Xf) in order that the
equation for 7Bi (7.13) balances.
Having found the scalings in this inner-inner layer the solution can be followed out
into the other regions and the entire problem solved. The resulting voltage current
relation is found to be

-J ~ (VX\n X)->\ \( ^( ^ e ' - ^ ' + ^ e ^ ' + T a ) - 1 ^ . (7.14)

JJ-00
312 C. P. PLEASE

The final step in the analysis is to check that the assumptions that were initially
made are valid. In this case this can be done by considering the new inner-inner layer
where
p „ e(-m !**•)+j(^ In {X)?Ce""1"u*«-*'' (7.15)
(for C = 0(1) = constant). For the assumption that the first term of this expression be
dominant to be true it is necessary that
J< l/(/HnA)}, (7.16)

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and this also makes the assumption valid in the other regions. By studying the
solution in detail it is possible to find how the analysis changes if J = 0(1/(1 In A)*)
and in the same way any size of J can be studied.

8. Results
The end result of the analysis should be to find the first-order expression for V over
the entire J, G plane as 1 ->oo. The analysis must be broken into different regions of
the J, G plane depending on the size of the parameters relative to 1.
If the case G = 0 is considered then the solution must be sought in the following
regions:
(1) J<0((lln !)->);
(2) l
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6) J = O(X);
(7) 0(1) <i J
(8)
(9) O(1*)<Z J.
These are shown diagrammatically in Fig. 2. The analysis can be simplified by
considering only regions (2), (4), (6), and (8) since each is uniformly valid in its
neighbouring regions. For example, the analysis in both (1) and (3) is encompassed in
that for region (2).
Similarly, if the case J = 0 is considered then the regions of G which must be
analysed are identical to the previous case, i.e. regions (1) to (9) with J replaced by
G. If the more interesting case of both G and J being non-zero is considered we find
that the same nine regions are applicable with the maximum of G or J replacing J.
There is the additional complication that for values of the maximum of G and J above
0(1), the analysis must be changed depending on the size of G/-J and G2/(-Jl)
relative to 0(1). The complete J, G plane is shown in Fig. 3.
Over most of the J, G plane analytic solutions can be found and the resulting
V( J, G, 1) function generated. However, in certain regions (shown in Fig. 4) the first-
order equations cannot be solved explicitly.
 SEMICONDUCTOR P-N JUNCTIONS 313

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10s K)« Id 7 K)8 K)* 10°

FIG. 2. Regions of the J, A plane when G = 0.

9*

7.
9

7a ^ i) 9a

l/jlinl

i A
-J

Fic. 3. Regions to be analysed in the J, G plane.

314 C . P . PLEASE

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F I G . 4. Regions of the J,G plane a m e n a b l e t o analytic solution.

The practical answer of use to the engineer is the voltage characteristic V(G, J, X) of
the device and this can be expressed in a few composite expansions each of which is
valid to first order over several of the regions mentioned previously. The voltage
characteristic is given, in non-dimensional variables, by:
(1) G < O(X), J < 0(X).
dy'
+
e K - l fcoth coth )_
J

I M{coth
(8.1)

(2)

+li

2 In
2 sinh P G(TI + T 2 ) tanh
 SEMICONDUCTOR P-N JUNCTIONS 315

where
I+
K= =i fi= I * (8.2)
and min (/x, 1) is the minimum of fi or 1.
(3) J > 0(A), G<
The analysis in this region can be carried sufficiently far to reveal the classical result
that

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(8.3)

however, the coefficient k must be calculated numerically for each device.

9. Physical Interpretation
The expressions which have been found give an explanation for the behaviour of a
simple p-n junction diode. The most important electrical property of such a device is
that its resistance is very sensitive to the direction of the current flow. Consider the
expression for "low level" current and generation [J <? O(X), G <3 0(A)] and assume
there is not radiation absorbed, i.e.
G = 0, (9.1)

r
(2A In (X)-XVf J_
ev-l fcoth (1/y^) , coth (1/7^7)}
/ 3
For J < 0 (when V > 0 and / > 0) this expression can be solved for V and we find that
for O(l/ln X) < J <$ O(X)
_ ev [coth (1/7^) coth (1/7^)1

For J > 0 (when V > 0 and / < 0) the expression can also be simplified and for
J f> 0(1^/1) it becomes

(9.4)

Hence the voltage increases either logarithmically or algebraically with the current
depending on the current direction. A plot of V versus J when G = 0 for the diode
described in the Appendix is shown in Fig. 5. It should be noted that the model is
limited in its predictive powers as is shown by Equation (9.4) which is a uniformly
valid expression for J > 0(1) < J <| 0(X). In fact, long before J = 0(X), other effects
become important such as quantum tunnelling and avalanche multiplication.
316 C. P. PLEASE

Amps

ISpA -
1mA

IpA -

nl)
£
InA
O5pA -
c
/

1 1
-O6 -O4 -C

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IpA -

0-2 0-4
FIG. 5. The voltage-current characteristic of a diode.

The expressions for the voltage characteristic, V(G, J, X), of the device can be given
a physical interpretation. The "low level" result [where G < 0(X) and J < 0(A)] is the
same as the conventional result (Sah et al., 1957) from the model. In this case the
solution still has the structure of the equilibrium solution with three types of region:
the outer regions, or quasi-neutral regions, where one carrier is density 0(X) (called
the majority carrier) and the other is of O(J + 1/X) (called the minority carrier); the
transition layers which smoothly link the other regions; and the inner regions (or
depletion layer) where the gradients of the solution are large. The expression (8.1) has
three terms: the first (approximately — Ja((2X\n (X) — XV )~iev'2) represents the
movement of majority carriers in each neutral region into the depletion layer where
they recombine; the second (approximately — J<xev) represents the movement of
majority carriers from one neutral region through the depletion layer into the other
neutral region where, as minority carriers some recombine; and lastly a generation
term which represents charge which is constantly separated by the depletion layer
either by removing majority carriers from each neutral region and recombining them
in the depletion layer or by moving them into the other neutral region. The high level
analysis [where 0{X) < G < 0(X*) and J < O(G2/X] is different from conventional
analysis (Parrott, 1974) in that the separation by the region G = O(X^) seems to be
previously unrecorded.
The various terms in the expression (8.4) are complicated but they can be given
some meaning. The 2 In X is the electric potential available to separate charge in the
equilibrium semiconductor. The term
/*-!
In

is the potential used to separate charge by differences in the mobility of the carriers.
The other terms represent the interaction of the bulk of the semiconductor with the
electric contacts. The sharp limits within which the expansion is valid are caused by a
change in the behaviour near the contacts. The solution predicts large fluxes of
carriers near the contacts; however, as the current increases the flux at one of the
carriers at one contact will become small (the value of the function min Qi, 1)
determines which flux tends to zero most quickly). When this happens the solution
 SEMICONDUCTOR P-N JUNCTIONS 317

changes its behaviour and a different analysis must be performed. It is interesting to

note that in this high level case the electric potential is a smooth function except near
the contacts and that it has lost all its characteristics of a "dipole" which it has in the
low level case. The predicted voltage-current characteristic of the diode described in
the Appendix with a large generation rate of 5-9 x 1023cm~3 s (G = 1 x 107), or
approximately one hundred times the intensity of the sun, is given in Fig. 6.

Ampl

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-
/
1 1 / Volt*
0-4 O6 /

--

FIG. 6. The voltage-current characteristic of a diode with high level generation.

10. Conclusions
The equations governing charge flow in a simple p-n junction have been studied in
the limit of large doping levels. The solution has been found to have a complex
layered structure which gives more detail of the solution than the classical analysis of
the equations. The calculations have reproduced the classical results and have then
been extended to consider the case of high level generation. The analysis could be
done with added complications to make the model closer to a physically realizable
device, however, this has not been done here for simplicity and because of the fact that
the structure of the solution remains sinrilar in most cases.
This paper has purposely avoided many references to literature concerning analysis
of semiconductor devices as there is an enormous amount of it and references to a few
classic papers have seemed sufficient here.

The author wishes to thank Dr J. R. Ockendon for assistance with this work which
forms part of a D.Phil thesis done at Oxford University.

REFERENCES
COLE, J. D. 1968 Perturbation Methods in Applied Mathematics. Waltham: Blaisdell.
LrNDHOLM, F. A. & SAH, C. T. 1977 Fundamental electronic mechanisms limiting the
performance of solar cells. IEEE Trans. Elec. Dev. ED-24, 299-304.
PARROTT, J. E. 1974 The saturated photovoltage of a p-n junction, IEEE Trans. Elec. Dev. ED-
24, 89-93.
PLEASE, C. P. 1978 D.Phil. Thesis, Oxford University.
318 C. P. PLEASE

SAH, C. T , NOYCE, R. N. & SHOCKLEY, W. 1957 Carrier generation and recombination in p-n
junctions and p-n junction characteristics. Proc. IRE 45, 1228-1243.
SHOCKLEY, W. 1949 The theory of p-n junctions in semiconductors and p-n junction
transistors, Bell Sysl. Tech. J. 28, 435^»S9.
SZE, S. M. 1969 Physics of Semiconductor Devices. New York: John Wiley.
VAN DER ZIEL, A. 1968 Solid State Physical Electronics. Engelwood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
VAN DYKE, M. 1975 Perturbation Methods in Fluid Mechanics, Annotated Edn. Stanford,
California: Parabolic Press.

Appendix

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Details of the diode used for Figs 5 and 6.

Crystalline material Silicon

Junction profile Symmetric, abrupt
Doping density l-6xlO"m-3
Length 6-4xl(T 5 m
Cross-section 10~6 m2
Recombination time constants
T, (=T 2 ) 2-7xl<T 7 s
T3 4-3xl0 9 m- 3 s
Resulting non-dimensional parameters
in*
2-6
1