Building Information Systems

 
THE CONCEPT OF A SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
 
Systems development refers to the set of activities that create systems for the effective and efficient
processing of information
 
One approach to systems development is the systems development life cycle (SDLC).
 
 

 
STAGE 1: PROJECT INITIATION

Projects often start when a manager has a problem or sees an opportunity related to the area where he
or she works. The manager calls IS and requests that a formal planning process be initiated to discover
ways that can help the organization meet its objectives. Sometimes the IS group initiates projects that
will improve its own operations or deal with common problems among the user areas.
 
STAGE 2: SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND FEASIBILITY STUDIES
 
Systems Analysis
 Systems analysis is the phase that develops a thorough understanding of the existing
organization, its operation, and the situation that is causing a problem. Systems analysis
methods include observation, review of documents, interviews, and performance
measurement.
 
 
Feasibility Studies
 Feasibility studies calculate the probability of success of the proposed solution; they
may be run several times throughout the systems development life cycle. They
determine whether the solution is achievable, given the organization’s resources and
constraints.

The major areas of study are:

 Technology. Are the performance requirements achievable utilizing current information
technologies?
 Economics. Are the expected benefits greater than the costs?
 Organizational factors. Are the skill levels needed to use the new system consistent
with the employees who will operate it?
 Legal, ethical, and other constraints. Does the system meet all regulatory
requirements?
 
STAGE 3: LOGICAL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

The emphasis at the third stage is on logical design, the design of system from the (business) user’s
point of view. The analyst identifies information requirements and specifies processes and generic IS
functions such as input, output, and storage, rather than writing programs or identifying hardware.

The analysts often use modeling tools such as data flow diagrams (DFDs, see Figure 14.2) and entity-
relationship diagrams (ERDs, see Figure 14.3) to represent logical processes and data relationships.
Logical design is followed by a physical design, which translates the abstract logical model into the
specific technical design (the “blueprints”) for the new system.

The trend toward purchasing software, instead of developing it, is changing both the general emphasis
and the specific tasks in the logical analysis and design phase. Analysts still need to identify user
requirements. However, they now spend more time comparing requirements to features of available
software, and less time on designing systems. They need to prepare detailed specifications only when
the functionality that users need is not available in software in the marketplace.
 
 
 
STAGE 4: DEVELOPMENT OR ACTUAL ACQUISITION

The logical design of the new system guides the actual development or acquisition, just as blueprints
guide the construction of a new building. IS personnel use the specifications to purchase the hardware
and software required for the system and then to configure it as needed. Programmers write code for
parts of the system when commercial sources are not available or appropriate. Technical writers
develop documentation and training materials. IS personnel test the system, and users do some testing
prior to the actual implementation. The testing identifies bugs and also compares system performance
to the specifications in the design.
 
STAGE 5: IMPLEMENTATION

Implementation is obviously an important stage; the system can fail here even if it has all the specified
functionality. The project team should plan the implementation very carefully, to avoid problems that
could lead to failure or user resistance. The users need training in the mechanics of the system to
reduce frustration and to minimize productivity losses in the transition period. In addition to developing
technical skills, the training should also attempt to motivate users, for example, by stressing the benefits
the system brings to the organization.
 
 

 
In most cases, implementing a new system requires a conversion from a previous system. Approaches
to conversion include:

 Parallel conversion: The old and new systems operate concurrently for a test period, and then
the old system is discontinued.
 Direct cutover: The old system is turned off, and the new system is turned on.
 Pilot conversion: The new system is implemented in a subset of locations (for example, some of
the branches in a large banking chain) and is extended to remaining locations over time.
 Phased conversion: Large systems often are built from distinct modules. If the modules were
originally designed to be relatively independent, it may be possible to replace the modules one
at a time.
 
STAGE 6: OPERATION

After a successful conversion, the system will operate for an indefinite period of time, until the system is
no longer adequate or necessary, or cost effective.
 
STAGE 7: POST-AUDIT EVALUATION

An organization should perform a post-audit to evaluate all its larger systems projects after their
completion. Post-audits introduce an additional element of discipline into the development process. If
the implementation was successful, an audit should occur after the system’s operations have stabilized.
If the project failed, the audit should be done as soon as possible after the failure.
 
STAGE 8: MAINTENANCE

Every system needs two regular kinds of maintenance: fixing of bugs and regular system updating.
Maintenance is expensive; accounting for up to 80 percent of organizational IS budgets. Therefore it is
important that the design and development stages produce systems that are easy to maintain and are
flexible enough to handle future expansion, upgrading and capacity increases.