Module 2

2D Wavemaker Theory
Dr. V. Sriram, Dept. of Ocean Engineering, IIT Madras, Chennai – 600 036
Simplified Theory
Galvin (1964)
Volume of water displaced = Sh
Volume of waves in a wave crest
/
h
S
H/s is the height to stroke ratio. This relationship is valid in the shallow water kh < pi/10
2D - Wavemaker theory
First order Equations
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Wave board condition
The general velocity Potential can be formulated as,
(5)
(6)
(7)
Substituting the velocity potentials into bottom boundary condition (2), z =-h
The imaginary potential will contribute a horizontal component that increases

exponentially with x. This is unrealistic.
(8)
Next, substitute into the combined KFSBC and DFSBC at z = 0.
Three unknown time functions can be solved.
(9)
where
(10)
(11)
The zero potential term increases monotonically with time which is unrealistic.
Trignometry for real potential term.
Sum of two progressive terms (12)
Produce constant horizontal term, no flow. B=D=0.
It is also necessary,
For a given value of frequency there is one solution for k1, but an infinite number of
Solution for k3; therefore sum all the solutions for imaginary term.
The combined velocity potential is given by
(13)
First term, progressive wave
Second term, series of standing waves that decay exponentially.
Evanescent mode, local disturbance - reason!!.
Dean and Darlymple (1984), the first standing wave decrease by 96% , x=2h
99% at x = 3h.
The next step is to solve for remaining unknown coefficients.
Assume the wave board has sinusoidal oscillation,
(14)
S0 is the stroke of the wave board.
(15)
Multiply both sides of (15) by cosh [k1(h+z)]
(16)
All the series term goes to zero because of the orthogonality considerations by
Sturm-Liouville theory (Dean and Darlymple, 1984)
Multiply both sides of (15) by cos [k3n(h+z)], performing integration causes the progressive
Wave go to zero.
(17)
The final step is to formulate the solution. Subs, the complete solution to DFSBC to get
Surface elevation, at z=0.
(18)
The surface elevation of the progressive wave is
(19)
Equating (18) and (19),
(20)
Where A is given by Eqn. (16)

For a particular wave board function given, the coefficients can be obtained after algebra,
K1 and k3 are dropped.
Substituting A into Eqn. (20) and making use of dispersion relationship, the general
First order wavemaker theory is given by,
Transfer function
This is also called as Biesel Transfer Function.
First order - Piston type
First order - Flap type
In very shallow water both the curves approximate straight lines that can
be obtained by taking the shallow water limits,
H H kh
 kh for a piston 
So So 2 for a flap
0.12 Evanescent
Waves
0.08
0.04
 (m)
0
-0.04
-0.08
0 10 20 30
time (s)
0.12
FNPT
Present
0.08
0.04
 (m)
-0.04
-0.08
0 10 20 30
time (s)
Wave board pressure
Evaluating the result at x = 0, water on one side
Resistive part Inertia part Static

Over one wave cycle, finite work done No net work
Water on both side
Wave board Force
Water on one side
Water on both side
Maximum total force that will occur over a wave cycle,
Maximum occurs, when cos(arg) = 1
Similarly,
Wave board power
Water on one side
Water on one side
Water on both side
The mean wave board power
Mean power as a function of water depth
IIT Madras – Typical generating capacity for a particular facility
IIT Madras – Typical generating capacity for a particular facility
GLASS FLUME
Monochromatic wave generation
If the water surface elevation is defined by
 (t )  a cos ( t )
then the wave paddle movement can be

written as
a
x (t)  sin(  t )
TF paddle ( f )
27
Dr. V. Sriram, Dept. of Ocean Engineering, IIT Madras, Chennai – 600 036 28
Theoretical and Experimental Transfer functions
- Water leakage
- Approximation at x = 0, z = 0.
- It holds good for deep water waves.
- Viscosity, side wall frictions.
- damping of waves after long distance propagation
due to internal friction, amplitude dispersion and so on.
General theory of Mechanical wave generation
For a variable draft flap type wavemaker. The wave height to stroke ratio
can be found to be
H 4Sinhkh  (Coshkl  Coshkh) 

 Sinhkh 
So Sinh 2kh  2kh  k (h  1) 

The plots for various hinge elevation are given. The curve given for I/h = o
is the solution for a flap type board hinged at the bottom.
A wavemaker with water on only one side is to be used to generate uniform waves
having a height of H= 12 cm and a period T= 2.82 s in water depth of d = 0.50 m.
Assume fresh water in the tank. Compare wave board stroke and mean power
requirements for a piston-type and a flap-type wavemaker.
Issues in Long wave generations – Profile is non-uniform over the length of the tank
Spurious waves
- Error waves or
unwanted waves
due to mismatch
in paddle boundary
conditions.
H = 0.14m,T = 3s, h = 0.7m.

• Linear Wave Theory : Simple, good approximation for 70-80 %
engineering applications.
• Nonlinear Wave Theory : Complicated, necessary for about 20-30 %

engineering applications.
• Both results are based on the assumption of non-viscous flow.
WAVE
THEORIES
SMALL FINITE
AMPLITUDE AMPLITUDE
WAVE WAVE
THEORIES THEORIES
AIRY’S STOKES CNOIDAL SOLITARY

WAVE WAVE WAVE WAVE
THEORY THEORY THEORY THEORY
Wave theories
Small amplitude waves
(One theory – Airys)
1/2 1/20
d/L
Deep water
Intermediate (transitional) water Shallow water
Finite amplitude waves

(At least 3 theories)
1/10 1/50
d/L
Stokes theory Cnoidal wave theory Solitary wave theory
Important parameters L, H/L H/d , H/L H/d , d
NON LINEAR WAVE THEORY
• Linear waves as well as finite-amplitude waves may be described by specifying

two dimensionless parameters, the wave steepness (H/L) and the relative water
depth (d/L).
• The relative depth determines whether waves are dispersive or non-dispersive
and whether the celerity, length, and height are influenced by water depth.
• Wave steepness is a measure of how large a wave is relative to its height and
whether the linear wave assumption is valid.
• Large values of the wave steepness suggest that the small-amplitude assumption
may be questionable.
• A third dimensionless parameter, which may be used to replace either the wave
steepness or relative water depth, may be defined as the ratio of wave steepness
to relative water depth , termed as relative wave height.
• Relative wave height = H L H

d L d
NON LINEAR WAVE THEORY
• Like the wave steepness, large values of the relative wave height indicate that the
small-amplitude assumption may not be valid.
• A fourth dimensionless parameter often used to assess the relevance of various
wave theories termed the Ursell number. 2 2
 L H L H
• The Ursell number (UR) is given by U R     3
d  d d
• High values of UR indicate large, finite-amplitude, long waves in shallow water
that may necessitate the use of nonlinear wave theory.
• In order to approach the complete solution of ocean waves more closely, a
perturbation solution using successive approximations may be developed to
improve the linear theory solution of the hydrodynamic equations for gravity
waves.
• These higher-order or extended solutions for gravity waves are often called
nonlinear wave theories.
STOKES WAVE THEORY
• The Stokes expansion method is formally valid under the conditions that H/d << (kd)2
for kd < 1 and H/L <<1 .
• In terms of the Ursell number UR these requirements can be met only for UR <79.
CLASSIFIED INTO
•1ST ORDER
•2ND ORDER
•3RD ORDER
•4TH ORDER
•5TH ORDER
Stokes waves have steeper crest and flattening trough
• In the Stoke’s theories a perturbation approach is used : the velocity potential and the free
surface are developed in power series of perturbation parameter ε=ka
• The parameter represents steepness of the wave.
  1   22     1   2 2  

• Substituting above equations into the appropriate governing equations and boundary
conditions describing the wave motion yields a series of higher-order solutions for
ocean waves.
• The number of terms retained in the power series determine the order of the Stokes’
theory
• In this expansion, ɸ1 is the first-order theory, ɸ2 is the second- order theory, and so on.
• If ε is small wave steepness is small and hence the wave is a small perturbation: the
linear theory of Airy is justified, i.e. the power series can be truncated at the first term
• The first-order Stokes theory is the linear (Airy) theory.

H
ie,   1    1  cos( kx  wt )
2
• If the steepness is not sufficiently small , more terms must be considered in the power
expressions.
• In Stokes’ second order wave theory   ε1  ε 22

η  εη1  ε 2 η2
• Substituting above values in governing equation will yield
The surface elevation profile is given by
In deep water (d/L>1/2) wave profile has the form
• Unlike in the linear theory , here crests and troughs are no longer symmetrical, the crests being
steeper than the troughs.
• In the higher-order Stokes solutions, super harmonic components (i.e., higher frequency
components at two, three, four, etc. times the fundamental frequency) arise. These are
superposed on the fundamental component predicted by linear theory. Hence, wave crests are
steeper and troughs are flatter than the sinusoidal profile
f1
Energy
2*f1
F (Hz)
• The fifth-order Stokes finite-amplitude wave theory is widely used in practical
applications both in deep- and shallow-water wave studies.
• The fifth-order Stokes expansion shows a secondary crest in the wave trough for
high-amplitude waves.
Bichromatic waves
f1
Primary
frequency
Energy (m2.s) f2
Bounded Super
Sub harmonics
harmonics 2f1
Super
f2-f1 2f2
harmonics
f1+f2
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Frequency (Hz)
Representation of Sub (f2-f1) , Super harmonics (f2+f1) , (2f1, 2f2)

components, f1 and f2 are the primary components.
sub and super harmonic
propagations mismatch
due to spurious waves
F1 = 0.3 Hz, f2 = 0.4 Hz, a1 = a2 = 0.05m, h = 1m

Why not 2nd order wave theory and linear Transfer function?.
Longuet-Higgins and stewart (1960) for bichromatic waves
Second order interactions with N-components
CNOIDAL WAVE THEORY
– Korteweg and de Vries (1895) developed a wave theory termed the cnoidal theory.
– Cnoidal theory describes a periodic wave that typically has sharp crests separated
by wide troughs.
– It is applicable to finite-amplitude shallow-water waves and includes both nonlinearity

and dispersion effects.
– For comparison, Stokes wave theory is applicable when the ratio of depth to
wavelength d/L is greater than about 0.1-0.125, whereas Cnoidal wave theory is
suitable when d/L < 0.125 and with a Ursell parameter value greater than 26.
• The ordinate of the water surface y s measured above the bottom is given by
• cn2 [2K(k) ((x/L) - (t/T)] has a maximum amplitude equal to unity.

• The modulus k is defined over the range 0 and 1.
• When k = 0, the wave profile becomes a sinusoid, as in the linear theory.
• When k = 1, the wave profile becomes that of a solitary wave.
LIMITING FORMS OF CNOIDAL WAVES
Modulus k=1
Solitary
Modulus k=0
Sinusoidal
COMPARISON OF WAVE PROFILES
– Linear profile is symmetric about SWL
– Stokes wave has higher more peaked crests and shorter flatter troughs
– Cnoidal wave crests are higher above the SWL than the troughs are below
the SWL
– Cnoidal troughs are longer and flatter, and crests are sharper and steeper
than stokes waves
– Solitary wave has all its profile above SWL
SOLITARY WAVE THEORY
– Stokes wave theory, Cnoidal wave theory – Wave are oscillatory
– Water particles move backward and forward with each passage of wave
– Distinct crest and trough are seen
– SOLITARY WAVE does not have the above characteristics
– Solitary wave is not oscillatory, does not have a trough ,only crest
– The wave form lies entirely above the SWL
– Wave of translation – water particles are displaced in the direction of wave propagation as wave
passes
– Since the solitary wave has horizontal particle velocities only in the direction of wave advance,
there is a net displacement of fluid in the direction of wave propagation.
– Wave length (L) and wave period (T) of solitary wave is infinite
– H/d only one parameter needed to specify the wave
– The solitary wave is a limiting case of the cnoidal wave.
– When k2 = 1, K(k) = K(1) = 4, and the elliptic cosine reduces to the hyperbolic
secant function and the water surface ys measured above the bottom reduces to
– The free surface is given by
Shallow water wave generation
Method 1: Linear paddle transfer function.
Method 2:
Match the velocity of the waveboard and the water particle of the desired wave as the
board moves.
The time series of the wave board motion S(t) can also be obtained by integrating
the water particle velocity profile at the mean position of the wave board u(0,t), as
dS
 u (0, t )
dt
which for shallow water waves can be expressed in terms of the water surface elevation
dS c

dt d  
REGULAR AND IRREGULAR WAVES
Regular waves are sinusoidal and have the same frequency,
wavelength and amplitude (height).
Ocean waves are almost always irregular and often

directional (short-crested).
Irregular waves can be viewed as the superposition of a

number of regular waves.
The term irregular waves will be used to denote natural

sea states in which the wave characteristics are
expected to have a statistical variability in contrast to
monochromatic waves, where the properties may be
assumed constant.
Spectral method
Wave height and Period
• Relationships with statistics can be found from
computing the moments of the area under the
spectrum w.r.t vertical axis.
• The nth order moment given by
• M0 – area under the curve,

• M1 – 1st order
• M2 – 2nd order moment
Types of Wave (Energy Density-
Frequency) Spectra
Standard Wave spectrum
Pierson-Moskowitz Spectrum – North

Atlantic, wind speed – 20 to 40 knots
   4 
2
g  5 f 
S PM ( f )  exp   
 2  f
4 5  4  f p  
 
where  --- constant depending on wind
8.1 x10-3
Bretscheider (1959) Spectrum
- Empirical Relationship between H, T, Fetch and wind duration.
• JONSWAP Spectrum
  f  f 2 
  4  exp   p

g 5 f 2   2 f p 
2
S JO ( f )  
exp      
  
p 
 2  f
4 5

4  f

where  --- constant depending on wind
 a f  f p
  sharp factor  =1 - 7 (average 3.3)
  b f  f p
ITTC Recommends following
5
S ( f )   J H T f exp[  (Tp f ) 4 ] d
2 4
1/ 3 p
5
4
0.06238
where  J  [1.094  0.01915 In ]
0.230  0.0336  0.185(1.9   ) 1
( f / f p  1) 2
d  exp[ ]
2 2
1
fp  ,  (sharp factor)  1  7(mean 3.3),
Tp
 0.07 f  f p 
   Peak enhancement factor = 1,
 0.09 f  f p PM spectrum
Important Limitation
• All the three are for deep water conditions.
• PM – Fully developed seas only.
• JONSWAP – Fetch-limited conditions.
• Brestchneider – duration and fetch limitation
in an empirical manner.
• They are all single peaked spectra.
• For design - double peaked – Ochi and Hubble
Wind waves
Going ahead
E (f)
Energy dissipation,
Going behind
F (Hz)
SWELL
E (f)
F (Hz)
* Pictorial representation only showing swell is a narrow band.
TMA Spectrum
- All the Wave spectra are in deep water conditions and one
need a spectrum in intermediate or shallow waters.
- shoaling, refraction and diffraction.
- Texel (Dutch North Sea), Marsen (German Bight) and Arsloe
(US East coast).
- No refraction.
Offshore – 50m,
Inshore – 5m water depth
Simulation of Irregular waves
•Uni-directional waves (long-crested)

Random Phase Approach
N
  an cosn ,
n 1
where  n  k n x   n t   n ,  n  n *  ,
an  2*  * S ( n ) ,
 n is randomly selected, and N  is the
cut-off frequency.
Non-repeat Duration T T  2 / 
f (   / 2 ) is the basic freq.
For a longer non-repeat duration (such as 3-hours),
the basic frequency has to be very small. As a result,
the number of free waves will be extremely great
for given cut-off frequency (N  ).
Remedy: Choose unevenly distributed  n , that is,
it can be randomly chosen between ( n  0.5)
and ( n  0.5) .
Example for spectrum repetition due to discretisation in frequency domain, refer FFT notes.
Primary frequency
Primary frequency
Energy (m2.s)
Energy (m2.s)
Super- Super-
Sub- harmonics Sub- harmonics
harmonics harmonics
fsub fsub
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz)
a) Narrow band spectrum b) Broad band spectrum
Qualitative representation of the energy spectrum for the second order wave packets.
Narrow to broad band spectrum with two different center frequencies.
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.0001
log10(S(f)kc2fc)
0.0001
log10(S(f)kc2fc )
0.0001
log10(S(f)kc2fc)
1E-005
1E-005
1E-005
1E-006
1E-006
1E-006
1E-007 1E-007
1E-007
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 0 0.4 0.8 1.2
0 0.4 0.8 1.2
f(Hz) f(Hz)
f(Hz)
0.1
0.01 0.01
0.01
0.001 0.001
0.001
log10(S(f)kc2fc)
0.0001 0.0001
log10(S(f)kc2fc)
log10(S(f)kc2fc)
0.0001
1E-005 1E-005
1E-005
1E-006 1E-006
1E-006
1E-007 1E-007 1E-007
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

f(Hz) f(Hz) f(Hz)
0.3
0.2
0.1
(m)
0
-0.1
-0.2
36 38 40
time (s)
0.3
0.2
Displacement (m)
0.1
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
0 20 40
time (s)
Target wave elevation for test case W068B3 (top) and corresponding wave paddle displacement (bottom) [xt,tt 21m, 38s]. Top: Line - linear wave theory,
Red line - second order wave theory, dot - difference frequency terms (η0(21)--),--- sum frequency terms(η0(21)+).
Bottom: Line - linear wavemaker theory, Red line - second order wavemaker theory, dot - difference frequency terms (X0(2)-),--- sum frequency terms(X0(2)+).
Propagation of the waves, sub-harmonic components using linear and second order
0.15
0.1
0.05
(m)
-0.05
-0.1
10 20 30 40 50
time (s)
0.15
0.1
0.05
(m)
-0.05
-0.1
20 30 40 50 60
time (s)
Regular wave, T=3s, d= 0.6m, H= 0.10m
When second order Long wave correction is important!.
- Critical forcing, harbour seiching, mooring of floating structures.
- Wave runup of the group waves. Spurious waves get cancel the set-down,
hence the large waves in the group can uprush faster.
Wave Generator
Electric Wave Generator
Drive with inbuilt Servo Motor &

controller Digital encoder
Wave Paddle Linear

DAQ for Transmission
force,
position
84
Typical Wave generator
85
Glass Flume at IITM
Regular Wave
Random Wave
Solitary Wave
86
Wave Absorbers
Reflection of generated waves from
boundaries of the tank and from model are
not very desirable for model tests.
Unwanted reflection can alter
significantly the incident wave field which will
result in error.
It is therefore necessary to minimize the
effect of reflection by placing absorbers at
reflective boundaries.
• Absorbers are classified into
passive absorbers that damp
incident wave motion by a variety of
techniques
active absorbers that move in
response to incident waves, thus
absorbing them.
Passive Absorbers
gentle slopes (1:10) of porous material or

screens in front of the boundary to dissipate a
large fraction of the incident wave energy.
effective over a specified range of wave
conditions
require substantial length to reduce the
reflection below 10%.
Thus passive absorbers use up valuable space in

the flume or tank.
Existing types of wave absorber
• Voided Chambers
• Perforated screens
• Open metal cages with additional porous
material
• Sloping faced systems (permeable/impermeable)
• Parabolic faced systems
(permeable/impermeable)
• Nests of open pipes (variable length) forming
arrays.
• Combinations of the above.
Wave Absorber
@ IIT M – Wave Flume @ IIT M – Wave Flume

Backside of the wavemaker
Reflection characteristics of the generating waves!.
91
Most popular passive absorber is constant slope beach
constructed of gravel or stones. These are, though very effective,
are not easily moved making them less practical, where frequent
boundary changes are required. A beach with variable slopes may
reduce the total length of the beach.
Another concept of laboratory beaches is progressive wave
absorber. It consists of material whose porosity decreases towards
the rear of the absorber.
Perforated vertical metal sheets can also be used. The porosity of

the sheets decreased towards the rear of the absorber. This provided
very efficient wave absorption characteristics over a relatively short
length.
Deep water testing facilities
Jamieson and Mansard (1987) – progressing upright wave absorber.
High porosity mesh screens work best for absorbing energy from high
Steepness waves.
Low porosity screens work best for absorbing energy from low steepness
Waves.
Wider screen spacing is required for steeper waves and long periods, with sheet
Spacing progressively decreasing toward the rear of the wave absorber.
Mesh screen porosity should decrease toward the rear of the wave absorber.
Optimum length – 0.35L to L.
The number of mesh screens in the absorber increases as the range of wave
Heights and periods to be absorbed increases.
Screen locations??????
STANDING WAVES
• NODE: The line about which the
surface oscillates.
• Located in centers of enclosed

basins and toward the seaward
side of open basins.
• ANTINODES: Points where there are

the maximum displacement of the
surface as it oscillates.
• Antinodes usually located at the

edge of the basin.
Active absorbers
Active absorbers are mechanical devices
that can move in response to a wave so that wave
energy is extracted.
- a wave maker is placed at the far-end of the tank
to absorb progressive waves. As the waves
reaches the absorber, the absorber board moves
so that it appears invisible to the wave. Efficient
absorption depends on moving the absorber
board in just the right motion at just the right time
so that the absorber velocity matches the wave
velocity.
Active absorbers
Another type of active absorption takes place at the
wave generator itself. If the reflected wave is not
absorbed, it re-reflects and a continued addition of
energy into the incident wave systems. For this reason,
some tests on highly reflective structures are run in
short time so that re reflected wave energy does not
have sufficient time to contaminate the incident waves.
To sense the approaching reflected wave different
methods are available,
i) wave probe on the wave maker and correct the stroke.

ii) to measure force on the wave maker. This has the
advantage of using a single transducer for the entire
wave board.
3-D wave makers are also being designed with active

absorption capabilities
Digital Filters
The 2D active absorption - Schäffer and Klopman (2000).
It is the easiest technique to be implemented considering the fact that the adjustment
for the digital filter is immediate, as it is based on linear shallow water theory.
It is very convenient to use shallow water theory because the velocity along the water
column height is constant, which matches the generation with a piston-type
wavemaker. This also makes the evanescent modes not to appear because the velocity
profile is the exact one for the progressive wave component.
Uh = C
Wave number (k) is very difficult to estimate from measurements, so the practical
application of above Eq. is achieved by a digital filter assimilation (previous slides)
In order to cancel out the reflected waves, the boundary must generate a velocity equal to the
incident one but in the other direction. Finally, the active wave absorption expression
presented in
Uc R ηR = ηM − ηT
Oblique Regular wave generation
Assume a infinitely long wavemaker along y directions
Using separation of variable,
Evanescent waves are produced due to mismatch of the wave paddle B.C.,
U(z) type of wavemaker.
For piston type,
In general,
The addition of cos, means a directional wavemaker generating an oblique wave

requires less wave board stroke than a 2D wave generating the same wave.
In reality : Generation of Regular Oblique Waves
The first order theory assumes an infinitely long wave generator comprised of segments
having an infinitely small width.
To obtain an angle between the line of generators and
the traveling wave, a phase shift,  has to be introduced
between each of the individual paddle elements.
The relationship between the wave angle and phase
shifting of the elements is illustrated using the figure. Form
the figure, the following relations is easily derived.
L
Sin  
NB
where  is the wave direction
N is the number of elements of width ‘B’ in

one oscillation in the Y direction, and B is the
paddle width.
Generation of Regular Oblique Waves
From one element to the next the progressive phase shift  can be
written as
2

N
From the above two equations
L
Sin  
2B
From this equation it is found that for a constant L/B value, if one
desires to increase the degree of obliqueness, , then the phase shift
between the paddle has to increase according to this equation.
Example 1
If one wishes to generate oblique waves with  =
900. For different wave lengths (L = 2B, 4B and 8B),
what is the phase shift required between the
elements, to achieve this oblique wave generation,
For  = 900, Eqn. becomes  = (2B/L) 

For L = 2B,  = 
For L = 4B,  = /2
For L = 8B,  = /4
113
Example 2
If one wishes to generate oblique waves with  =
300. For wave lengths of L = 2B, 4B and 8B, what is
the phase shift required between the paddle
elements to achieve this?
For  = 300, the eqn. becomes  = (B/L) 

For L = 2B,  = /2
For L = 4B,  = /4
For L = 8B,  = /8
114
115
Transfer function of wave generation for oblique wave
The transfer function of wave generation for a regular
oblique wave is given by
TFpaddle ( f )
TFoblique ( f , ) 
cos
This means that if one desires to generate a wave of
height ‘H’ at a constant frequency ‘f’ but for increased ‘’,
then the paddle displacement has to increase by (1/cos)
times the transfer function of wave generation of the paddles
when all of them are moving together.
116
117
If the water surface elevation at the co-ordinate (xr, yr) is
(xr , yr , t) = a cos (kxxr+kyyr-t)
then the movement of the n-th paddle can be defined as,

a
X ( n, t )  [ ] sin[ kxr cos   t  k ( nB  y r ) sin  ]
TFoblique ( f ,  )
where,
xr, yr = specified reproduction point in the basin
n’ is the element number counted from one located at (0,0).
118
Directional wave generation
Principle of 3-D wave generation
3-D wave condition is called as

the short-crested wave field.
The 3-D wave field can be
equated to a number of wave
height and frequency
components with each
component having a predominant
wave direction (or) a linear
superposition of regular oblique
wave components.
Funke and Mansard,1989
119
Importance of 3D directional waves (typical examples based on past work)
Author Problem Results
Isaacson N (1987) Long floating cylinder Sway and roll force
(floating bridges or reduction in 3D upto 0.41.
breakwaters) Amplitudes of motions 57%
of the response from 2D.
Isaacson N (1989), Isaacson Forces on a pile (drilling rigs) Reduction factor for RMS
et al. (1988) value of forces: in-line 0.87
and transverse 0.5.
Decrease in maximum force

with increasing spreading.
Standard deviation 2D –
3.68, 3D – 3.31
Sand (1984) Mooring lines Head on condition: Sway, roll
and yaw twice as large in
short seas, in high freq. and
3 times in low freq.
Huntington (1981) Single point mooring Forces on top of the column
are same. Large transverse
force in 3D. Mooring force –
Dr. V. Sriram, Dept. of Ocean Engineering, IIT Madras, Chennai – 600 036 2 to 2.5 times larger in 3D.
Author Problem Results
Houlie et al. (1983) Single point mooring Higher mooring force in 3D
(2 times)
Kirkegaard et al. (1980) Fixed mooring pier barge Head sea: sway and yaw
motions are twice in 3D. In
the beam seas, reverse
trend.
-Motions are similar.
Mooring forces – twice in
3D
Isaacson and Sinha (1986) Large offshore floating Transvers components of
structure force and response
predicted to be zero in 2D
are significant in 3D.
Resultant forces and
motions are reduced in 3D.
Sand et al. (1986) Semi-submersible Near natural frequencies,
heave pitch and roll
reduced by 30% in 3D. No
relation between 2d and
Dr. V. Sriram, Dept. of Ocean Engineering, IIT Madras, Chennai – 600 036 3d.
Author Problem Result

Rowe and Brendling (1986) Jacket structure Accelerations in beam seas
will provide the critical
design case and
conservative. However,
results disproved.
Van der meer (1989) Harbour and moored ship Reduction in 3D: upto 70%
in low frequency amplitude
and upto 75% in surge
motion.
A 2-D spectrum when multiplied by a suitable directional
spread will become a 3-D spectrum. The spectral density of 3-D
waves, Sηη (f, ) can be described by
S  ( f ,  )  S  ( f ) D ( f ,  )
Here Sηη(f) is a 2-D mathematical spectrum (like JONSWAP,

Pierson-Moskowitz, Bretschneider, ISSC, Darbyshire, Scot etc) and
D(f, ) is the directional spreading functions. The directional
spreading function should have the property,


 D( f , ) d 1
123
Typical 3D spectrum
124
Spreading functions are two forms: independent of frequency, D () and dependent
Frequency, D (,)
Spreading functions can be represented in terms of single parameter,

i.e. s or more parameters like fp
Spreading functions are defined mostly with reference to mean wave direction –
dominant energy focus.
Cosine power spreading function
Cosine square type spreading functions Cos2s
The well established frequency independent cosine power type,
0– mean wave directions. N (s) represented in terms of gamma function.

‘s’ is the spreading index describing the degree of short crestedness.
Infinity – narrow – long crest.
For deep water waves,
Spreading function, S
Mitsuyasu spreading function
Dependent on frequency.
Fp peak frequency, spreading parameter sp
Peak frequency wave components travel in a narrow directional band around the mean
wave direction and the lesser energy frequency components might approach from wider
directional band
Goda spreading function
Similar to Mitsuyasu function except that Sp is the universal set of constant.
Sp = 10 for wind waves

= 25 for swell from near distance.
= 75 for swell from far distance.
Circular Gauss spreading function
Similar to normal distribution.
Maximum satisfactory angle for representation of directional distributions
129
Frequency independent D()
Frequency dependent
Same period distribution, but different wave length distribution.
Simulation of Irregular waves
•Uni-directional waves (long-crested)
N
  an cosn ,
n 1
where  n  kn x   nt   n ,  n  n *  ,
an  2*  * S ( n ) ,
and  n is randomly selected.
S(f,) ( m sec) 150
100
2
50
0
0.2
50 0.15
Direction (  )
0
0.1
-50 f (Hz)
0.05
Directional wave energy density spectrum

Directional Waves:Double Summation Model
The above directional waves may form a partial standing

wave pattern and consequently the related resultant wave
amplitude at this frequency is no longer uniform in the x-
y plane.
Any two components with same wave frequency (i) but

different direction (j) are phase locked
Directional Waves: Single Summation Model
To avoid non-uniformity, it was suggested that at each

discrete frequency the wave component is in one
direction although the directions of waves at different
frequencies are different. Hence, inner summation be
eliminated and the representation of irregular wave
elevation reduces to,
Wave Directionality & Directional Waves
•Wave components do not travel in the same

direction.
•Single Summation Model: Wave components of

different freq. travel at different directions but at the
same freq., they travel at the same direction.
•Double Summation: At the same freq. wave

components travel at different directions. (Energy
spreading).
The surface elevation corresponds to this spectrum is defined
as
I J
 ( x, y , t )    a ij cos[  ij t  k ij x cos  ij  k ij y sin  ij   ij ]
i 1 j 1
where i = Frequencies
j = Directions and
a ij  2 s  D ( f ij ,  ij ) J    f
w ij  2  f ij  2  [ J ( i  1 )  j ]  f
is the randomly selected number from 0 to 1 from a uniform
distribution
136
The displacement of the n-th paddle at time ‘t’ to
generate this wave in the basin is given by (Sand and
Mynett, 1897)
I J aij
x(n, t )    sin[ijt  kij xr cosij  kij (nB yr ) sinij ]
i 1 j 1 TFoblique( f , )
i is the frequency
j is the direction
137
Limitations of 3-D wave generation
Limitations on test area
Consider the directional distribution D() at a given
frequency, f
For wave reproduction purpose, such a distribution
would normally be symmetrical around zero degrees (the
direction perpendicular to the line of wave generators). The
distribution has to be cut (truncated) at an angle of less than
900
138
If the total width of the wave basin is denoted by LB then
the diameter of the circle can be expressed as
D c  L B (1  sin  ) / cos 
For example if the desired maximum angle for a given

directional spectrum is max = + 600, and the total width of the
test basin is 30 m, then the useful area for installation of
models corresponds to the circle with a diameter of 8.0 m.
Similarly, if the maximum wave angle for a satisfactory
reproduction of the directional spectrum can be reduced to
say, 45o then the test area ??.
139
If we want to keep the test model at the centre of the
wave basin, (i.e. d = 15 m) then the directional spread should
be less than or equal to 370.
This is an indication of the special limitations imposed by

the maximum angles of the directional distribution. With
these limitations on the available model area it appears that a
good quality of the reproduction of a directional spectrum
requires a reasonably wide test basin as well as rather small
individual elements of the wave generator.
140
Limitation due to spurious waves
A perfect oblique wave front is obtained only
with an infinitely small width ‘B’ of the paddle
elements so that the total paddle front should form
a perfect sinusoid.
Any deviation from that, because of finite width of
the elements, will contribute to the generation of
additional waves (in addition to the desired waves)
called spurious waves. The larger the elements,
the more imperfect will the produced oblique wave
appear.
141
Sources of errors in wave generation
The characteristics of the wave cannot be

expected to hold all over the test basin. The
important sources of error that influence the quality
of the generated waves are :
– Diffraction
– Reflection
– Local disturbances
– Gaps between element
142
Sources of errors in wave generation
Diffraction
The diffraction process can significantly affect the
amplitude of the generated wave. This
phenomenon during an oblique wave generation is
schematically illustrated in the figure. On the RHS
of the imaginary boundary indicated by the broken
line, the wave height will be altering from point to
point dependent on the diffraction effects.
Hence model location should be selected, where
the diffraction effects are minimum.
143
IIT M Wave basin – Source of Errors
144
Directional (3-D) wave maker.
Basic theory of multi element wave maker was proposed
by Biesel. Hence, the wavemaker transfer function some time
called as Biesel transfer functions (2D & 3D).
As in the case of 2-D wave makers, the theory of 3-D
wave makers can be established by assuming that the moving
surface satisfies certain continuity conditions.
But multi element wave makers do not satisfy these
conditions as there is sharp change in phase and amplitude
from one wave board to the other.
From physical point of view, the discontinuity between
the adjacent paddles will be the cause of disturbance involving
separation, turbulence etc., which is not accounted in theory.
Directional (3-D) wave maker.
It is possible to estimate qualitatively the
effect of these discontinuities. Besides the
local effects, they will cause
(1) loss of amplitude in comparison with
theoretical values
(2) emission of short ripples and
(3) increase in harmonics resulting in the
decease in quality of the generated waves.
Current Generation in deep water facility
A
Jet Braker Mixing Chamber
Mixing Chamber Jet Braker
Wave
Absorber
B B Deep Pit
Culvert
Culvert
Wave
Generator
Fine Mesh Fine Mesh
A
VALVE PUMP VALVE
PLAN
Wave Paddle
Duct 0.91
1.82
1.82
1.82
2.27
2.2700
20.00
20.00
Deep Pit
20.00
SECTION A-A
2.50
5.00
M ixing C ham ber 65°

0.89
65°
Jet B raker 0.59 Fine m esh
1.10 H oney com b
75°
1.38
75°
1.21
90°
2.13 90°
SE C T IO N A L B - B
Wave Attenuation due to Viscosity and Friction
- Viscous and Frictional effects are not in similitude.
- Internal Friction and by bottom boundary layer friction.
Keulegan (1950) developed expression to estimate wave height attenuation due to

Internal friction in deep water where shear is negligible.
2 2 2
3
3
Time rate of change of total wave energy per unit surface area in a linear wave.
Average rate of energy conversion per unit area due to internal shearing stress.
( ) -(8t/LL) H(t) attenuated wave height at time t
Wave Attenuation due to Viscosity and Friction
Keulegen (1950) developed a formula for estimating wave attenuation of regular
Waves in a rectangular wave channel having a uniform and constant cross-section.
Energy balance of a small amplitude linear wave as it propagated through a narrow

Cross section of the tank having a width, dx, in the direction of wave travel.
The total mean rate of energy loss is balanced by the work done on the fluid by the
Pressure forces on the narrow cross section,
=
H1 wave height at xp = 0
Xp horizontal distance in flume
B = width
H = water depth
If the flume is many times greater than the water depth,
/ /
This value of  has to increase by 25% inorder to account for surface contamination by
dust, oil..
Problem:
IITM wave flume, dimension 4m width and 2.5m water depth, H = 15cm, T = 0.8s, L = 1m
Estimate the wave decay due to viscosity after wave travelled a distance of 50m. Assume
V = 1.36x10-6m2/s.
IITM wave flume, dimension 2m width and 2m water depth, H = 15cm, T = 0.8s. L = 1m
Estimate the wave decay due to viscosity after wave travelled a distance of 50m. Assume
V = 1.36x10-6m2/s.
Planning a model test
Physical problem
Scaling Laws,
Dimensional analysis
Model Parameter
Test Facility Model Design,

Fabrication,
Calibration
Instrumentation –
Design and Calibration
Installation in the facility
In-Place Calibration Test, Analysis, Report

Laboratory measurements
Wave probe/ Ultrasonic sensors High speed image processing
Run-up gauge 3D/2D PIV
Accelerometer Motion capture units with camera’s
Inclinometer Laser bed profile scanner – 3D Laser Scanner
Pressure transducer Multibeam Echo sounder
Load cell/Force transducer Acoustic Backscattering System
Current meter/ADV/LDV Pressure pads (Not proven yet, promising!!)
Displacement transducers Percentage of Error in measurement!!!!!
MRU Reproducibility of the test!

Scour Measurements – 3D laser Scanner
GWK: Dr. Arne Stahlmann
Pressure Pads
(a) (b) 40
40 40
40
35
35 35
35 30
30
30
V ertical D is tance (cm )

30 25
V ertical Distance (cm )

25
25
25 20
20
20
20 15
15
15 10
15 10
10 5
10 5
5 0
5 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Horizontal Distance (cm)
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Horizontal Distance (cm)
7 7
6.5 6.5
6 6
5.5 5.5
Pre ssu re (k Pa)

Pressure (kPa)
5 5
4.5 4.5
4 4
3.5 3.5
3 3
2.5 2.5
148.74 148.76 148.78 148.8 148.82 148.84 148.86 148.88 148.9 148.74 148.76 148.78 148.8 148.82 148.84 148.86 148.88 148.9
Time (s) Time (s)
40
(d) 40
40
40
35
35 35
35
30
30
30 30
V e rtic a l D is ta n c e (c m )
V e rtica l D ista n ce (c m )
25 25
25 25
20 20
20 20
15 15
15 15
10 10
10 10
5 5
5
5
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 0
Horizontal Distance (cm) 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
7 Horizontal Distance (cm)
7
6.5
6.5
6
6
5.5
5.5
P re s s u re (k P a )
P re s s u re (k P a )
5
5
4.5
4.5
4 4
3.5 3.5
3 3
2.5 2.5
148.74 148.76 148.78 148.8 148.82 148.84 148.86 148.88 148.9 148.74 148.76 148.78 148.8 148.82 148.84 148.86 148.88 148.9
Time (s) Time (s)
Ravindar et al., (2016)

PIV measurements
• The measurement of the surface elevation is carried out using Ultrasonic

Probe with the sampling interval of 0.01s.
• The CCD high speed camera is used

at 3.45m from the paddle to obtain
the velocity information using PIV.
The sampling interval is 0.002s.
Glass Flume at Univ. Wuppertal
157
PIV measurements
0.25
0.16
Line – Target
0.12
0.2 Dotted - Measured
Paddle displacement[m]
0.15
0.08
0.04 0.1
H/d = 0.1 H/d = 0.2

0 0.05
-0.04 0
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3
Time[s] Time[s]
0.3
0.2
0.1
H/d = 0.3
0
-0.1
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 Ultrasonic sensor for measuring

Time[s]
paddle signal
158
PIV Measurements
0.025
X = 1.743m X = 6.725m
0.02
0.015
(m)
0.01
0.005
-0.005
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time [S]
Time History for H/d = 0.1

0.05 0.1
0.04
0
0.03
  Exp
LS
(m)
-0.1
Z
0.02
CS Exp
0.01
-0.2 LS
CS
0
-0.3
-0.01
0.2 0.22 0.24 0.26 0.28 0.3
0 2 4 6 8 10 u 2+v2)
Time [S]
Time History for H/d = 0.2 Velocity magnitude at the crest
159
PIV Measurements
0.2
0.12 X = 6.725m
X = 1.743m
  Exp 0.1
0.08
LS
CS 0
(m)
Z
0.04 Exp
-0.1 LS
CS
0
-0.2
-0.04 -0.3
0 2 4 6 8 10 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

Time [S] u 2+v2)
Time History for H/d = 0.5 Velocity magnitude at the crest
PIV Velocity vector and magnitude Numerical Velocity vector and magnitude
160
PIV Measurements
Recorded image
Experimental
Velocity vectors
161
Violent Wave elastic structure
3.95m Simply supported
0.88m
Fixed end support
h=0.7185m
1/14.8
5
Distance from bottom to axis of rotation =
0.4m
Width of the plate = 0.65m

Thickness of the plate = 4mm
Density of the plate = 1190Kg/m3
Youngs modulus of the plate = 3250MPa water depth (h) = 0.7185m
Amplitude (a) = 0.08m
Violent Wave- plate Interactions
 42.7mm
Measurements and Analysis
• Fixed Structure
• Floating Structure – Free decay/Forced
• Coastal Structure – Reflection analysis, Rubble
mound breakwater
Purpose: Normal sea state, Extreme sea state

conditions.
Model Calibration and In-place calibration
Fixed Structure
Purpose – Normal waves or Extreme waves
What are the things to be taken care?
- Dry runs, Repeatability.
- Vibration characteristics of the structure/Facilities source of noises.
Impulse hammer test
Impulse hammer
Caliberation of Impulse hammer and Impulse
hammer test
Impulse hammer test Calibration result
Seawater intake jetty at HNPCL Site,
Visakhapatnam
Pull out test
Fig. 1b. Accelerometer record at Pile 42 across the pipeline directions.
Fig.3b. Amplitude spectrum for the acceleration record shown in Fig. 1b.
Table 1. Measured natural frequency.
Pile Location Direction Natural frequency Natural frequency

(Numerical)
At 37 Along pipeline 1.069 Hz 1.077 Hz
Across pipeline --- 0.912 Hz
At 42 Along pipeline 1.016Hz 1.077 Hz
Across pipeline 0.86Hz 0.912 Hz
At 44 Along pipeline 1.064 Hz 1.077 Hz
Across pipeline 0.85 Hz 0.912 Hz
Floating Structure
- Dynamic Characteristcs
Centre of gravity
Suspension test procedure:
• the model is suspended from one end with a plumb
line attached to it.
• Plumb line is traced and the same procedure is
repeated with suspension from the other end.
• Intersection of two traced lines gives the LCG and
VCG of the model.
Suspension test
Semi- Submersible model

Radius of gyration
Suspension test
• Oscillate the suspension test setup.
• Measure the time period of oscillation.
where, T is time period and k is radius of gyration.
Time period of heave and pitch
Free Decay test
• The body is subjected to a free oscillation in calm
water by applying some external force and the
response recorded as a function of time.
• MRU(Motion Reference Unit) is used to record the
response
• This decay test gives the damping characteristics of
the body.
• Damped natural frequencies of heave and pitch are
also obtained in this test.
Coastal Engineering
- Stability of Rubble mound structure/porous structure
Similitude in Long Wave Models
Condition 1: From the pressure terms in the two equations comes the criterion
given as
Condition 2: The temporal acceleration terms give the requirement. which means
the prototype Strouhal number (based on horizontal length and velocity) must be
conserved in the model. This is achieved by selecting the time scale as the
prototype-to-model ratio of wave period.
Condition3: From the viscous stress terms comes the requirement
Condition 4: Similitude of the vertical viscous shear stresses can only be met in a
geometrically undistorted model that also fulfills Condition 3
Similitude in Long Wave Models
Condition 1 & Condition 2:
Long-wave hydrodynamic physical models may be either geometrically distorted
or undistorted.
Condition3:
Viscous effects can only be modeled in a long-wavemodel when both Froude and
Reynolds criteria are met.
Condition 4:
Long-wave models maintain similitude of vertical viscous shear stresses only when
the model is geometrically undistorted and the Reynolds criterion has been met
Types of Coastal Structures
• Rubble-Mound Structures.
• Impermeable sloping Structures.
• Vertical wall Structures.
• Composite Structures
• Floating Structures.
Purposes and Requirements of
Structure Models
1. Examine the stability of rubble-mound armor layers protecting the slopes, toes,
and/or crowns when exposed to wave attack at different water levels.
2. Studies can be aimed at verifying specific designs or toward developing general
design guidance on armor sizes.
3. Determine the hydrodynamic forces exerted on monolithic structures by wave
action.
4. Optimize the structure type, size, and geometry to meet performance
requirements and budget constraints.
5. Investigate structure characteristics such as wave runup, rundown,overtopping,
reflection, transmission, absorption,and static/dynamic internal pressures for
different structure types, geometries, and/or construction methods.
6. Develop and/or test methods of repairing damage on existing structures or
improving the performance of an existing structure.
7. Determine the effects a proposed modification might have on an existing
structure's stability and performance.
8. Examine alternate construction sequences under different wave conditions.
2D Vs 3D Model in Coastal Engg.
• 3D models are expensive, reduced scale.
• After the general structure shape has been optimized
in a 3-d model, a two-dimensional model is often
conducted at larger scale to examine armor and toe
stability, to quantify overtopping, etc..
• The larger scale reduces the potential for scale effects
and provides an optimum cost-effective design that
fulfills design criteria.
• In many situations, a 2-d model is all that is necessary
to provide a functional design.
Rubble Mound Structure
• Scaling Requirements: The problem of rubble-mound breakwater stability
involves a large number of parameters. These parameters were listed by
Hudson, et al. (1979)
structure geometry.
the hydrodynamic forcing function the armor unit's
( waves) buoyancy relate to viscous
and friction forces
complete set of dimensionless products was given by Hudson, et al. (1979) as
Rubble-mound structure models Flow hydrodynamics in a
must be geometrically rubble-mound structure
undistorted in length scale. model
must conform to the Froude
criterion.
Rubble-mound structure
models must have turbulent
flow conditions throughout
the primary armor layer.
Painting model armor layer

stones is one technique used
to reduce the contact friction
between units.
The armor unit weight scale is obtained simply

by taking the prototype-to-model ratio of the
expression
This gives the weight scale relationship of

valid for cases when the density of the model
material can be controlled
they might not have the same relative density relationship for the
next study.
modeling of quarrystone breakwaters where it is difficult to find model stones

having the necessary density as calculated
An alternate method for compensating for the increased buoyancy of
salt water relative to the fresh water used in most scale models is to adjust
the weight of the model armor units.
Hudson (1958) rearranged Eqn. by squaring the armor layer Froude

number and multiplying the result by the relative density parameter to form a new
dimensionless parameter
Assuming velocity and weight of the armor unit
Stability Number
K is a constant for each type of armor unit

tested
Hudson formula
the Spectral Stability Number
Hudson, et al. (1979) recommended that model armor unit weight be scaled
in such a way that the stability number remains constant between prototype
and model. The appropriate scaling is derived as
Sharp (1985) pointed out that Hudson's (1958) grouping of dimensionless products into the
stability number is one of several possible combinations that could be formed from
dimensional analysis considerations.
Taking the ratio of the inertial force to the immersed weight force and
preserving the ratio between prototype and model gives the similitude requirement
Hudson's scaling called for model armor units about 8% lighter than suggested by Sharp and
Khader's (1984) method
Problem
A jetty located in salt water is to be rehabilitated using 360 –kN unreinforced dolos armor
units made of concrete that has a specific weight of 30 kN/ m3. A 1:50 structure stability
model will be used to test the design . The model dolosse are to be cast using a special
mixture of resin and brass filings . In order to determine the correct proportions of brass
filings and resin, it is necessary to calculate the required specific weight of the model Bolos
material. The model is to be run in fresh water . Assume specific weight = 9.79 kN/m3 for
fresh water, and prototype specific weigh = 10.05 kN/m3 for salt water.
Problem
Later , it is proposed to re- use the above-designed model dolos units for a model study of a
fresh-water breakwater that is proposed to be built using 120-kN dolosse having the same
geometric shape as the above dolosse, but fabricated using concrete with specific weight of
28 kN/m3. Determine the best length scale at which to conduct this second model study .
(Assume both prototype and model specific weight = 9.79 kN/m3.)
we should choose the length scale that satisfies either Hudson 's stability
number criterion or Sharp and Khader 's criterion
Rubble-Mound Model Scale Selection
Based on successes of the past , Hudson , et al. (1979) suggested that the
appropriate length scale range for rubble-mound stability tests is between 1:5
and 1:70. The majority of tests conducted by Hudson at the Waterways
Experiment Station were at scales between 1 :40 and 1:50.
Oumeraci (1984) stated that rubble-mound structure models have linear

scales ranging between 1:10 and 1:80, with 1:50 being the most common.
Rubble Mound Model Tests
 Tests with Increasing Wave Impacts
 Tests of Design Condition
 Tests Reproducing Individual Storms
 Long Duration Tests.
 Tests of Accumulated Storm Impacts.
 Tests of Residual Stability.
 Tests of Structures Under Construction.
Defining Damage in Rubble-Mound
Models
Two methods are commonly used for quantifying damage in rubble mound
structure models:
counting the number of individual armor units that have been dislodged, or
determining the volumetric change in areas where armor units have been
displaced.
A "damage percentage" can be defined in a number of different ways.
• Hudson (1959) defined damage as the percentage of dislodged armor units

to the total number of armor units.
• Shimada, et al. (1986) defined damage percentage as the ratio of armor
units moved a length greater than the armor unit height to the total
number of units exposed to wave action.
• Torum, et al. (1979) defined damage as the reduction in the average post-
test armor layer thickness relative to the original undamaged average
armor layer thickness.
Defining Damage in Rubble-Mound
Models
Broderick (1984) defined a damage parameter, S, as
Van der Meer (1988) reviewed some of the definitions of rubble-mound armor layer
damage, and he modified Broderick's definition by introducing the nominal median
armor unit diameter, defined as
Analysis of Wave Reflection
To find wave reflection coefficient,
- Traditional method – moving wave probe method.

- Two probe method (Goda and Suzuki, 1976)
- Three probe method – Least square (Funke and Mansard, 1987)
MOVING WAVE PROBE METHOD
Let the incident wave be

ηi = ai cos (kx-ωt)
Then reflected wave will be

ηr = ar cos (kx+ωt+δ)
let us consider the wave envelope, if ηmax
The combined system is, η = ηi + ηr.
[(Hi+Hr)/2] represents the maximum of the
envelope of the wave thus formed due to the
superposition of the incident and the reflected
Now Kr is defined as
waves and ηmin [(Hi-Hr)/2] represents the
minimum of the envelope of the resultant
Kr = Hr
wave. Then we can obtain the Kr as,
Hi
2ηmax - 2ηmin
Hi = 2ai Hr =2ar Kr = ---------------
2ηmax + 2ηmin
Now measuring the values of ηmax and ηmin we

Dr. V. Sriram, Dept. of Ocean Engineering, IIT Madras, Chennai – 600 036 can get the value of the reflection coefficient.
In order to measure the profile, a trolley containing wave gauge is moved in the
direction of wave maker at a speed of about 15 cm/s.
Experimental set up
• Calibrate the three wave gauges and establish the calibration constant.
• Keep 2 wave gauges in front of the wave maker (1 about 8-10m before object (WG-1)
and other close to the object (WG-2)).
• Fix another wave gauge on the lee side of the object (WG-3).
• Switch ON the wave maker.
• Generate regular waves of known wave period and wave height.
• Start recording the wave profiles.
• Now the wave gauge in the trolley (WG-2) can be steadily moved
towards the wave maker, until it is about 0.5m close to WG-1.
• Record the envelope.
• Repeat the steps above steps by changing the input wave period and
height.
Goda and Suzuki (1976) – two probe method
The method makes use of Fourier analysis and will due to singularities put
Constraint to the distance between the wave probes.
If reflection occurs
For simplicity
Four equations with four unknowns,
Singularity at sin(kx1,2) = 0
Movable – Bed models
Two major forces – coastal sediments
Correct model – similitude of Bedload, suspended load

Incipient motion of sediment particles.
2D eg. 3D eg.
- Beach profile evolution Coastal structures on shore

- Dune Erosion Sand spits
- Beach fill due to storms Scour holes.
- Scour at coastal Structures. Littoral drift – oblique wave
How does a real Tsunami scale down?
2011 Tohoku Tsunami (Iwate South) 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami (Mercator yacht)
Scale 1:1 Scale 1:1
h = 204 m; H ≈ 6.7 m; T ≈ 1000 s; L ≈ 45 km h = 14 m; H ≈ 6.6 m; T ≈ 800 s; L ≈ 11 km
Scale 1:100 Scale 1:100
h = 2.04 m; H ≈ 6.7 cm; T ≈ 100 s; L ≈ 450 m h = 14 cm; H ≈ 6.6 cm; T ≈ 80 s; L ≈ 110 m
H. Fernández, V. Sriram, S. Schimmels, H. Oumeraci, Extreme wave generation using self

correcting method — Revisited. Coastal Engineering, 93, Pages 15–31.
V. Sriram, I. Didenkulova, A. Sergeeva, S. Schimmels, Tsunami evolution and run-up in a large
scale experimental facility, Coastal Engineering.
Experimenting with models seems to afford a ready means of
investigating and determining beforehand the effects of any
proposed estuary or harbor works; a means, after what I have
seen, I should feel its madness to neglect before entering upon
any costly undertaking.
OSBORNE REYNOLDS
Learning objectives: To give an overview about physical models
and different measurement techniques for applications in testing
of Ocean [Naval], offshore and coastal structures.
Course Content
Dimensional Analysis with special reference to Model Studies in Hydrodynamic and Coastal
Engineering problems. Principles of Similitude. Design of Models and Fabrication.
Hydrodynamic test facilities, Wave makers, Wave absorbers, Modeling of Environment: 2-D
and 3-D Wave generation, Transfer function. Modeling of fixed offshore structures:
Measurement Techniques for Drag and Inertia Forces. Hydrodynamic models: Short-wave and
Long wave hydrodynamic models. Modeling of Coastal Structures: Rubble mound Structures,
floating structures.
Laboratory measurement techniques.
Basics of instrumentation systems , Different types of measurements systems and their

principles ; Signal conditioning and data acquisition, Sources of noise, and errors in
instrumentation systems , Filtering, data, and spectral analysis.
Laboratory:
• Calibration of wavemaker transfer function; Distorted model
scale; Generation of different types of waves; difference in
wave generation using 1st order and 2nd order transfer
function; Pressure measurement under waves; Force
measurements, Case studies.
• Calibration of following transducer: Wave probe, LVDT,
Accelerometer, Pressure transducer, Load cell, Inclinometer.
Mid Semester – 25 Marks; Course End by Jan. 22rd. Jan 2021

Mid Exam : Last week of December
End Semester – 50 Marks; Final Exams : 24th Jan. 2021
Laboratory – 25 Marks.

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2D Wavemaker Theory

Volume of waves in a wave crest

The imaginary potential will contribute a horizontal component that increases

Sum of two progressive terms (12)

Produce constant horizontal term, no flow. B=D=0.

First term, progressive wave

Second term, series of standing waves that decay exponentially.

Evanescent mode, local disturbance - reason!!.

Assume the wave board has sinusoidal oscillation,

S0 is the stroke of the wave board.

The surface elevation of the progressive wave is

Equating (18) and (19),

Where A is given by Eqn. (16)

K1 and k3 are dropped.

First order - Piston type

First order - Flap type

Evaluating the result at x = 0, water on one side

Resistive part Inertia part Static

Wave board Force

Water on one side

Water on both side

Maximum occurs, when cos(arg) = 1

Water on one side

Water on both side

The mean wave board power

then the wave paddle movement can be

H 4Sinhkh  (Coshkl  Coshkh) 

H = 0.14m,T = 3s, h = 0.7m.

• Nonlinear Wave Theory : Complicated, necessary for about 20-30 %

• Both results are based on the assumption of non-viscous flow.

AIRY’S STOKES CNOIDAL SOLITARY

Finite amplitude waves

• Linear waves as well as finite-amplitude waves may be described by specifying

Stokes waves have steeper crest and flattening trough

• The parameter represents steepness of the wave.

  1   22     1   2 2  

• The first-order Stokes theory is the linear (Airy) theory.

• In Stokes’ second order wave theory   ε1  ε 22

The surface elevation profile is given by

In deep water (d/L>1/2) wave profile has the form

Representation of Sub (f2-f1) , Super harmonics (f2+f1) , (2f1, 2f2)

F1 = 0.3 Hz, f2 = 0.4 Hz, a1 = a2 = 0.05m, h = 1m

– It is applicable to finite-amplitude shallow-water waves and includes both nonlinearity

• cn2 [2K(k) ((x/L) - (t/T)] has a maximum amplitude equal to unity.

– Solitary wave has all its profile above SWL

– Stokes wave theory, Cnoidal wave theory – Wave are oscillatory

– Distinct crest and trough are seen

– SOLITARY WAVE does not have the above characteristics

– The wave form lies entirely above the SWL

– H/d only one parameter needed to specify the wave

– The solitary wave is a limiting case of the cnoidal wave.

– The free surface is given by

Method 1: Linear paddle transfer function.

Ocean waves are almost always irregular and often

Irregular waves can be viewed as the superposition of a

The term irregular waves will be used to denote natural

• M0 – area under the curve,

Pierson-Moskowitz Spectrum – North

- Empirical Relationship between H, T, Fetch and wind duration.

•Uni-directional waves (long-crested)

a) Narrow band spectrum b) Broad band spectrum

1E-007 1E-007 1E-007

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

- Critical forcing, harbour seiching, mooring of floating structures.