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Agriculture and Agricultural Science Procedia 2 (2014) 26 – 32

“ST26943”, 2nd International Conference on Agricultural and Food Engineering, CAFEi2014”

Technical Review on Crumb Rubber Drying Process and the

Potential of Advanced Drying Technique
Thing Chai Thama,*, Ching Lik Hiia, Sze Pheng Onga, Nyuk Ling Chinb, Luqman Chuah
Abdullahc, Chung Lim Lawa
a
Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, The University of Nottingham, Malaysia Campus, Jalan Broga, 43500 Semenyih,
Selangor, Malaysia
b
Department of Process and Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia,43400,Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
c
Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor,
Malaysia

Abstract

Intensive thermal energy and extensive drying period are required in rubber drying process due to its low conductivity and
dielectric properties. Thus, selection of advanced drying techniques of crumbs rubber is essential for the sake of efficiency and
energy conservation. The integration of advanced dryers ranging from electromagnetic heater, fluidized bed dryer, heat pump and
the vacuum environment were discussed in details in paper. In summary, cost and energy efficient dryer is the aim of this
research work and it is important that this technology offers a robust and reliable solution to the rubber processing industry.

©
© 2014
2014 The Authors. Published
The Authors. Published by
by Elsevier
ElsevierB.V.
B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the Scientific Committee of CAFEi2014.
Peer-review under responsibility of the Scientific Committee of CAFEi2014
Keywords:Crumb rubber;drying technique;vacuum;convective drying

1. Introduction

Malaysia is well known as among the fourth biggest contributors in natural rubber in the worldwide after
Thailand, Indonesia and Vietnam (Anonymous, 2013a). Malaysian Investment Development Authority has recorded
more than 500 manufacturers manufacturing latex products ranging from tyres, industrial or general grade rubber

* Corresponding author: Tel.: +6012-691 0366.

E-mail address:kebx4tta@nottingham.edu.my

2210-7843 © 2014 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the Scientific Committee of CAFEi2014
doi:10.1016/j.aaspro.2014.11.005
 Thing Chai Tham et al. / Agriculture and Agricultural Science Procedia 2 (2014) 26 – 32 27

product.
As such, rubber products recorded at 3.9% of Malaysia’s total export for manufacturing product and contributing
18.1 billion to nation’s export earnings in 2011 (Anonymous, 2013b). Up to date, transformation of raw natural
rubber (NR) into Standard Malaysian Rubber (SMR) assures consistent quality of technical parameters, minimum
space for storage and easy to handle packing as well as the money value of the processed rubber. SMR derives
define the rubber quality via technical specifications, primarily its purity and elasticity, rather than by conventional
visual specifications. SMR production commonly involves cleaning, granulating, creping, shredding or pelletizing,
preheating, drying, baling and packaging. Among others, drying is a principal process yet a major challenge in role
of determines the end quality of the rubber particularly to achieve at minimum of 99.2% of Dry Rubber Content
(DRC) as per SMR scheme regulated since 1965.
The drying process of crumb rubber consumes most of the energy in moistures elimination process and drying
quality will definitely affected by the efficiency of individual dryer. Yet, the use of hot air in removing moisture in
the wet crumb rubber is still widely adapted in raw rubber processing industry. Thus far, there is rare coverage of
research related to crumb rubber drying particularly in drying technique. Hence, exploration of efficient drying
technique enables shorter drying time becomes an interest consideration for the in raw rubber processing in order to
meet the criteria of high throughput as demanded by commercial industry. In this paper, the authors reviewed
literature on several types of drying techniques currently available in the industry and the potential drying trend for
crumb rubber drying in future.

Nomenclature

DRC Dry Rubber Content

FBD Fluidized bed dryer
HPD Heat pump dryer
MHz Mega-hertz
NR Natural rubber
PRI Plasticity Retention Index
SMR Standard Malaysian Rubber

1.1. Essential of advanced drying technique on heat sensitive material

Drying is commonly employed in the process of a production to prevent the post-harvest degradation of
foodstuff, seafood, fruits and vegetable. Most of aforementioned bio-material possess high moisture content require
pre-treatment and drying process. Similarly, in the crumb rubber processing, the rubber is subjected to few times of
washing and cleaning process before transfer to dryer for further drying. For information, crumb rubber is a semi-
processed product of raw rubber with a granular shape obtained after the process of cleaning and size reduction from
sizeable crude rubber. Yet, crumbs rubbers are discrete when wet and return to their natural tack during the drying
makes drying quality unpredictable as the change of efficient heat transfer surface of granulated rubber.Anyhow, it
is too vital to eliminate the moisture content from the crumb rubber through extensive drying process to minimize
chemical degradation reactions and destruction of the material especially longer storage period is expected. Also,
removal of moisture content from the materials eases the handling and reduction in handling costs.
Heat sensitive material such as crumb rubber is more complex in drying and prone to deteriorate in term of
quality e.g. elasticity in conjunction with the drying temperature in the process. The ability of crumb rubber in rapid
recover to its original shape and dimension upon distortion make elasticity one of the fundamental important
properties in accessing rubber quality for tire manufacturing. According to Loke’s quality study (1974) on the effect
of heat during and after drying on Plasticity Retention Index (PRI), Loke has demonstrated that the increase of
temperature with 40 °C difference during the drying of raw natural rubber does not necessarily weaken PRI, but the
same application of heat to the rubber after drying reduced PRI remarkably. In fact, Chua et al. (2003) emphasized
on the importance of post-harvest methods i.e. drying in converting perishable products into more stable products
that can be kept under a minimal controlled environment for an extended period of time.
Besides, excessive drying at constant temperature reduces the Mooney viscosity of the rubber which act as an
28 Thing Chai Tham et al. / Agriculture and Agricultural Science Procedia 2 (2014) 26 – 32

indicator of degree of processability i.e. its mechanical processing ability of rubber (Imprastitichai, 2009). This
could be related to thermal degradation or known as chain scission in which long rubber chain break into shorter
chain with size reduction as an effect of oxidation (Chindaprasert, 1997). It is worth to mention that oxidation
effects on molecular level by cross linking or breaking molecular chains. The cross-linking of the rubber chains
making the rubber harder as an effect of aldehydic condensation whilst the breakage of the chains softens it.
Colour change of rubber is another associate effect of drying when enzymatic and non-enzymatic processes are
reported in biological systems. Oxidation of phenolic compounds in rubber by polyphenol oxidase is of the first type
while non-enzymatic browning in natural product has been related the reaction between carbonyl compounds and
amino compounds ( Sakdapipanich and Rojruthai, 2012; Yapa, 1976).

1.2. Drying mechanism of crumb rubber

Rahman (1985) classified the drying of solid granules such as crumb rubber into two stage processes. The first
stage is governed by evaporation of water from the surface and the rate of evaporation is proportional to the surface
area and the rate of heat transfer. Next stage is controlled by the rate of transport of moisture from the core to the
surface and is independent of the velocity of the heat transfer medium. Initially, heat exchange between phases is
occurred when wet granulated rubber brought to contact with hot carrier fluid whereby the mass transfer in this stage
is considered negligible. Granular temperature is gradually increased and finally exceed the vaporization
temperature which facilitate water vapour evaporates from the surface of the granular. As the drying proceeds,
internal moisture diffuses from the centre of the particle to the surface to reclaim for the moisture loss at that
particular region until equilibrium moisture content is reached. He further added that the overall drying time is
considerably dominated by the diffusion process of water in the drying of rubber.

2. Convective drying/Hot air drying

Conventional drying method utilized by the rubber processing plant involved convective drying whereby hot air
as the medium to promote the heat in removing the moisture from the wet solid through hot air dryer. Heat may be
supplied in the form of direct firing with fuel combustion or in directly by the use of heat exchangers. Two type of
dryer namely box and trolley dryer are extensively used for the purpose of moisture removal of crumb rubber being
either batch, semi continuous or continuous type of drier. Both of the drier include a tunnel through which boxes are
pushed or dragged and through which hot air is circulated (John, 2005).Openings with adjustable doors are fitted in
the upper and lower parts of the dryer to direct the direction of the air flow reaching the wet product and to regulate
its velocity (Berthomieu, 1997).
With the similar drying function coupled with different drying strategies, (Kongchana, 2007) and team have
concluded that the drying time for the rubber is 40 minutes at 130 °C followed by 180 minutes of drying time at
lower temperature of 110 °C yields better quality as compared to the other drying conditions. Few important
parameters in convective drying such as air temperature, humidity and velocity are crucial in giving the impact on
the drying kinetics and quality of the products. In fact, the efficiency of drying might also subjected to the age of the
raw material i.e. crumb rubber. Fresh rubber contains higher degree of moisture content in comparison that of
mature rubber which longer drying time is essential. In instance, fresh crumb rubber with initial moisture content
from 40% to 55% dry basis consumes 220 minutes of total drying time (Tirawanichakul, 2008) .
Apart from that, a simulation programme derived from validated mathematical model was developed by
Berthomieu et al. (1997) to simulating an industrial convective drier to handle rubber in granule form which also
able to predict the properties of the medium at any time and for any point within the layer of rubber. Yu Shan et al.
(1981), on the other hand had successfully introduces the conveyor dryer for continuously drying of standard rubber.
Unlike conventional trolley dryer, this invention claims a reduction of drying time from 4 to 8 hours to about 2
hours was achieved without major virgin rubbers being observed in the drying process.

3. Low pressure drying/Vacuum drying

When drying of liquid water presents within the material, higher temperature (above 100 °C at atmospheric
pressure) is required to generate a sum of partial pressure of air and vapor of which surpass the external pressure. In
 Thing Chai Tham et al. / Agriculture and Agricultural Science Procedia 2 (2014) 26 – 32 29

other words, a pressure gradient existed and drives the moisture towards the exchange surfaces. In general, the
temperature can be achieved either convective drying, contact drying or drying with an aid of electromagnetic field.
Alternatively, lowering of external pressure permits reduction in water boiling point with vacuum drying.
Consequently, water boiled at lower temperatures and thus drying times are shortened with enhancement in drying
rates. Also, water circulation throughout the wet product intensifies at lower pressures causes greater internal mass
transfer under vacuum, Ratti (2008).
Under vacuum drying, heat is usually transferred to the product through conduction and sometimes by radiation.
This drying technique has been suggested a century ago by India Rubber World (November 1, 1905) where the
rubber drying in vacuum is accomplished rapidly, low temperature are necessary, great saving in fuel, space and
labour (Wright, 1912). Additions to that, the vacuum drying is advisable as one of the method to remove the
moisture without subjecting to product overheating and therefore the product quality is guaranteed (Pearson, 1920).
However, the effectiveness in vacuum drying on rubber much depend on the level of maturity of the vacuum
technology being employed by respective rubber processing plant. In recent research on vacuum drying, Hamed
et.al(2014) observed that the rate of vacuum drying of loquat at 80° C was nearly 1.5 times faster than 70 °C and 2.5
times faster than 60° C; again, increment of temperature proportionally affect the drying rate. Another study of
superheated steam vacuum drying on rubber wood by Yamsaengsung and Sattho (2008) shown reduction of total
drying time from 168 hours to less than 20 hours (moisture content reduction from 0.80 to 0.06 dry basis) yet
physical properties were significantly improved. Even so, vacuum drying is generally combined with other modern
drying techniques such as microwave vacuum drying as a way to diminish the low heat and mass transfer problems
occurs in drying of wet product.

4. Microwave drying

Microwave is a form of electromagnetic radiation in the frequency range of 3,000 MHz to 30,000 MHz with a
common used frequency at 2450 MHz, Nave (2012). Unlike others conventional drying, microwave heating does
not rely on the conduction of heat through solid such as rubber but rather through self-excited molecular particularly
for polar materials due to absorption of microwave energy. Microwave heating is therefore creates heat within the
wet product and volumetrically heat up the product at about the same degree of uniformity. The application of
microwave energy in drying offers short drying times whilst preserve the quality and nutrients of biomaterials such
as rubber make microwaves an attractive and alternative source of thermal energy.
Study by Tulasidas (1995) on microwave in raisin drying was superior to hot air dried samples in term of colour,
darkness, stickiness and uniformity. Likewise, desirable colour, shrinkage and rehydration properties of the dried
carrot were obtained with microwave heating (Wang, 2005). However, Rahman (1985)opposed the microwave
heating applying in crumb rubber drying as it is not cost effective yet too capital intensive from economical points
of view. On the other hand, Lin et al. (2008) showed that microwave drying on natural rubber had an average
dehydration efficiency of 9.22%, which is 4.7 times greater than the far infrared and 17.7 times higher than the fuel.
Indeed, they preferred to dry rubber by the combination the fuel and the microwave techniques. As such, Chou and
Chua (2001) suggested that microwave drying shall associated with others technique such as force air or vacuum in
order to complete the drying and further enhance the process efficiency.
In an optimization study conducted by Setiady et al. (2007), raw potatoes were dried by microwave- vacuum
system at 60 °C for 150 minutes without scorch. Regier et al.(2005) compared the carotenoid retention to the drying
technique, and concluded that microwave vacuum outperform others in comparison with freeze drying and
convection drying. Correspondingly, Sharma and Prasad (2006) conducted microwave/convective drying of garlic
and obtained a drying time reduction of 80% with superior quality dried garlic when merging microwave at 0.4 W/g
to hot air at 60 °C to 70 °C.

5. Heat pump drying

Heat pump drying (HPD) applies the same operating principle as an air conditioning system does, which uses the
change in state of liquid (refrigerant) to absorb heat from heat source and release the waste to the heat sink. This
drying system offers a controllable drying environment (temperature and humidity) for product’s quality control at
low energy consumption. In contrast with conventional hot air dryer, exhausted heat energy was extracted and
30 Thing Chai Tham et al. / Agriculture and Agricultural Science Procedia 2 (2014) 26 – 32

recycled in a HPD instead of vented off from the dryer and hence energy loss is reduced. A techno-economic
analysis on the onion slices dried with HPD by Meyer and Greyvenstein (1992) concluded that shorter processing
time makes HPD more economical than other dryers.
Likewise, in a comparison study between drying of apple cylinders in a heat pump dryer against an electrically
heated dryer, the HPD dryer resulted 40% less energy with 25% improvement in drying rate while produced a better
quality product in terms of texture, colour and rehydration ratio (Gabas, 2004). Besides, HPD also offers product of
better quality with significant reduction in energy consumption. Researchers Mason et al. (1994) discovered that
over 26% of gingerol (principal volatile flavour components) was retained for HPD compared to only about 20% in
rotary dried commercial samples. They deduced the high retention of volatile matters is due to employment of lower
drying temperature in HPD than others commercial dryer which minimize the degradation of gingerol. A
comparative study of fruits drying between microwave-assisted heat pump and freeze drying revealed that
microwave assisted process yield better appearance, lowered shrinkage and increased the drying rate (Uddin, 2004).
In crumb rubber drying, heat pump assisted drying can be an interesting technology since it also offers potential
energy saving through heat recovery, lower drying temperature, manipulative drying condition which are essential to
enhance the quality and value of the end products.

6. Fluidized bed drying

Fluidized bed dryer (FBD) is a drying system where high velocity of heated air is forced through a bed of wet
product e.g. granule, particle to overcome gravitational effects while ensuring the particles are suspended in a
fluidized manner.FBD ranging from either conventional or modified type can be found in many applications for
drying of granular solids in the food, pharmaceutical and agricultural industries. Chua (2003) highlighted
encouraging results when FBD is used such as 1. lower temperature drying resulting in minimizing of thermal
related quality degradation; 2. uniform drying resulting in particle having even dryness; and 3. improved drying
kinetics resulting in shorter drying times. Yet, the effectiveness of the heat and mass transfer between fluidized
particles and the heated air can be enhanced by elevating the drying gas velocity.
Recent works on FBD by Murthy (2007) shown that shortest time of drying of Aonla achieved via FBD at 80°C
with 120 minutes whereas sun drying required longest period of drying i.e. 660 minutes. Also, the retention of
ascorbic acid in the samples dried in FBD is greater compared to those dried under sun and hot air tray. Beside, a
method and apparatus of non-pigmented rubber crumb drying with FBD was invented by Pollock (1966) to produce
dry, non tacky crumb by introducing a dusting agent into a closed zone located in the fluidized bed drying chamber.
This drying method is particularly employed to resolve the agglomeration of crumb in the final drying step due to
the tackiness of the crumb. Later, invention on drying apparatus for rubber crumb via FBD techniques was
introduced by Tailor (1973). This invention claimed to eliminate the need for dusting additives in the crumb rubber
as aforementioned in the Pollock patent. Drying chamber consists of lower plenum was designed in such a way
where the side walls angled at about 12 degrees to the vertical or within the range of 5 - 30 degree approximately.
The tapering of the bed of rubber crumb allows the fluidizing action within the drying compartments under
influence of the forced drying gas passing upwardly through the perforated plate. Substantial suspension of crumb
rubber in the hot drying gas stream resulted uniform and complete drying to a moisture content of 0.5% or less by
weight (Tailor, 1973).
On the other hand, Law (2006) introduced on multistage and hybrid FBD where dryer consists of an secondary
dryer aids in pre dry the wet solid before convey to FBD for following stage of drying. In comparison with
conventional FBD, these systems are among the favourable dryer types which require removal of moisture from
both surface and internally despite substantial energy saving through the heat recovery from the dryer. It would be
an alternative to hot air drying by implementing FBD in crumb rubber drying due to its advantages of ease of
control, permit low temperature drying with vacuum and finally high thermal efficiency.

7. Conclusions

In drying of rubber with hot air, the processing time and temperature are considerably longer and higher. In fact,
overheating at constant high temperature leading to oxidation of raw rubber and thus product quality is affected.
Obviously, the major driving force for innovative and efficient drying techniques is the need to produce better
 Thing Chai Tham et al. / Agriculture and Agricultural Science Procedia 2 (2014) 26 – 32 31

quality products at a higher throughput. This could be achieved by identify the ideal heating and temperature to
ensure the required PRI and volatile matter are maintained via appropriate drying technique. There are number of
new trends of drying technique has been discussed in this paper which might enhanced the drying of crumb rubber
including the use of multistage dryer or combination of different dryer types; utilization of volumetric heating in
either pre or post drying section; controlled drying environment such as low pressure drying. Thus far, only minor
study of crumb rubber drying technique has been addressed which would be useful in establishing the appropriate
processing conditions that allow converting the wet raw rubber into functional product. Therefore, there is an
imperative need of further research and development in crumb rubber drying, optimization and system scale up
particularly with the introduction of new drying technologies.

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to acknowledge Sphere Sdn Bhd, staffs for their generous guidance and assistance.

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Accepted for poster presentation in CAFEi2014 (December 1-3, 2014 – Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia) as paper 82.