Journal of Cosmology, December 2020, Vol 29, (1) Cosmology.

com

Metazoans on Mars? Statistical Quantitative Morphological

Analysis of Fossil-Like Features in Gale Crater
R. Gabriel Joseph(1)*, Richard Armstrong(2), K. Latif3),
Ashraf M. T. Elewa(4), C. H. Gibson(5), Rudolph Schild(6)
1
Astrobiology Research Center, Stanford, California, USA
2
School of Life & Health Sciences, Aston University, Birmingham, UK.
3
National Centre of Excellence in Geology, University of Peshawar, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
4
Geology Department, Faculty of Science, Minia University, Egypt
5
Scripps Institute of Oceanography, Center for Astrophysics and Space Sciences; Depts. of Mechanical and Aero-
space Engineering, University of California
6
Center For Astrophysics, Harvard-Smithsonian, Cambridge, MA, USA

ABSTRACT
The dried lake beds of Gale Crater have been identified by NASA's rover crews as a likely source
of fossils. Formations resembling fossilized stromatolites, algae, acritarchs and metazoans have
been previously observed and reported in peer reviewed scientific periodicals. A detailed search
of NASA's Gale Crater image-data-base was conducted with a focus on specific areas and days
(sols) in which fossilized impressions of what may be metazoans have been observed. Formations
resembling the fossilized remains of "Namacalathus," "Lophophorates," "Kimberella" and ich-
nofossils of burrowing "tube worms" (priapulids) were found. To assist in determining if these
Martian specimens are abiogenic geological formations with a superficial resemblance to fossils,
a terrestrial-pseudo-fossil image search was conducted employing all relevant key words, and no
formations on Earth similar to those on Mars were found, other than genuine fossils. In addition,
a quantitative statistical morphological analysis was performed comparing these Martian speci-
mens with analog fossils and two pseudo-fossils from Earth. Formations observed in the dried lake
beds of Gale Crater bear a statistically significant, nearly identical resemblance to eukaryotic fos-
sils from the Ediacaran and Cambrian era on Earth but no statistical morphological similarity to
pseudo-fossils.

Key Words: Mars; Fossils; Life; Eukaryotes, Ediacarans, Metazoans; Namacalathus; Lophophor-
ates; Kimberella; Tube Worms; Ichnofossils.

No Competing Interests: The authors have no competing or financial or non-financial interests and no
funding to report and will not benefit financially from this article.
Author Contributions: All authors have either contributed directly to the research reviewed, and/or as-
sisted in the analysis, writing, editing, and /in searching for and referencing the works cited.
*Corresponding Author: RhawnJoseph@gmail.com

440 Journal of Cosmology, 2020, Vol 29, (1)

Statistical Quantitative Analysis of Fossil-Like Features On Mars
A number of scientists, including members of NASA's rover crews, have argued that an-
cient Mars was habitable and could have sustained a variety of species (Ehlmann et al. 2011;
Squires and Knolls 2006; McKay, 2010; Vago et al. 2017; Grotzinger et al., 2014), including
eukaryotes (Squyres et al. 2005); some of which may have become fossilized or mineralized within
the Gale Crater system of ancient lakes in particular (Grotzinger et al. 2014, 2015). In 2015, fol-
lowing an extensive search of the Gale Crater image data base Noffke (2015) found and then per-
formed a detailed quantitative analysis of microstructures that confirmed these specimens resem-
ble the fossilized remains of thrombolites believed to have been formed 3.7bya. The first evidence
of fossil-like specimens, however, were found in in Meridiani Planum and Gusev crater as reported
by Rizzo and colleagues who also performed detailed comparative (Rizzo & Cantasano, 2009,
2016) and statistical analyses (Bianciardi et al. 2014, 2015) that supported their hypothesis. Ruff
and Farmer (2016) also identified microstructures resembling fossilized stromatolites in Gusev
Crater, whereas Kaźmierczak (2016. 2020) published evidence of fossilized structures similar to
arcritarchs and fossilized algae imbedded within the sediments of the crater Endeavor. In 2020,
Joseph and colleagues (2020a,b) published extensively peer reviewed evidence of formations ob-
served in the dried lake beds of Gale Crater, that are morphologically nearly identical to the large,
concentric, domical stromatolites of Lake Thetis, Australia—a likely analog to the ancient lakes
of Mars. In addition, an assemblage of formations resembling fossilized Ediacarans and metazoans
were observed within and on the surface of mudstone on the floor of Gale Crater (Joseph et al.
2020ab). Many of these specimens were identical to and located in close proximity to one another
including those with an ice-cream-cone shape (similar to "Namacalathus" and "Lophophorates")
and others having an ovoid-proboscis-shape coupled with zipper-like appendages on the outer-
body similar to "Kimberella" (Joseph 2020b). In yet another location within Gale Crater, tube-
like formations have been observed that bear a striking similarity to ichnofossils of burrowing
priapulids (Baucon et al. 2020; DiGregorio 2018; Joseph et al. 2020a).
It is noteworthy that Grotzinger and colleagues (2014, 2015) have identified Gale Crater
as a likely source of fossils and that the fossilized formations resembling Ediacaran and metazoan
fossils (Baucon et al. 2020; DiGregorio 2018; Joseph et al. 2020a,b) were all observed in the dried
lake beds of Gale Crater which may have periodically filled with water (Frydenvang et al., 2017;
Hausrath et al., 2018; Rampe et al. 2020; Yen et al., 2017). However, the presence of water would

441 Journal of Cosmology, 2020, Vol 29, (1)

also contribute to erosion and weathering, thereby creating shapes that might superficially resem-
ble fossils, including, as is well known on Earth, concretions that are sinuous, oval or round (De
Gregorio et al. 2011; Gutstad 1979; Häntzschel 1975; Marshall et al. 2011; Pettijohn 1957; Pick-
erill and Harris 1979; Wacey et al. 2016). For example, Häntzschel (1975) has identified precam-
brian pseudofossils formed by curling and desiccation that resemble burrowing tube worm/ pria-
pulid ichnofossils (Figure 5), whereas Pettijohn (1957) identified a tapering conical formation as a
likely pseudo-fossil (Figure 5). Sinuous, concentric, cone-shaped and "cannonball concretions" are
usually fashioned along shorelines and consist of various minerals, such as chlorite, quartz, calcite,
gypsum, or carbonates, that cement together grains of sand or feldspar (Gutstad 1979; Pettijohn
1957; Wacey et al. .2016); and these and other minerals have been detected on Mars, albeit in
concentrations too low to form life-like features (Joseph et al. 2020a). However, on Earth, no
pseudo-Kimberella-fossils or pseudo-fossils with bulbous "ice cream cone" shapes resembling
"Namacalathus" or "Lophophorates" have been reported.
To investigate the possibility that those specimens resembling "Namacalathus" "Lopho-
phorates" Kimberella and tunnels formed by burrowing priapulids, may be the fossil remains of
Martian organisms, a supplementary exploration was conducted of those areas of Gale Crater
where these specimens were first observed. Dozens of formations that resemble "Namacalathus,"
"Lophophorates," and "Kimberella," were located in the same general vicinity; photographed by
the rover Curiosity on Sols 809, 869, 880, and 905. Those that clearly resemble "tube worms"
(priapulids) were located and photographed on Sols 1923 and 1905, atop clay-mudstone, as previ-
ously reported (Baucon et al. 2020; DiGregorio 2018; Joseph et al. 2020a).
An abiotic image search was also conducted, using key words including: pseudofossils and
Namacalathus, or "Lophophorates," or "Kimberella," or "tube worm." With the exception of the
pseudo-tube worms identified by Häntzschel (1975), the sinuous "Astropolithon hindii" identified
as a pseudo-fossil by Pickerill and Harris (1979) and the tapering conical formation reported by
Pettijohn (1957) no abiogenic formations, even remotely similar to these Martian specimens were
found.
For purposes of this study, nine of those metazoan-like ("ice-cream-cone" shaped) speci-
mens that morphologically resemble "Namacalathus" and "Lophophorates," six (ovoid-proboscis-
shaped) specimens resembling the Ediacaran "Kimberella," and three specimens resembling pria-
pulids / "tube worms" were subjected to a computerized quantitative morphological analysis com-
paring these specimens with analog fossils from Earth. Based on morphology, distinct physical
characteristics, and complex comparative analysis, the findings support the hypothesis that

442 Journal of Cosmology, 2020, Vol 29, (1)

formations observed in the dried lake beds of Gale Crater, bear a significant resemblance to fossils
from Earth that have been identified as Ediacarans and metazoans (Tables 1, 2, 3; Figures 1-4 &
6-7). These specimens are statistically indistinguishable, and thus nearly statistically identical on
all measures to "Namacalathus," "Kimberella" and trace fossils of "tube worms" (priapulids) and
statistically similar to Lophophorates on some but not all measures of morphology. These findings
are consistent with a growing body of evidence that ancient Mars provided a habitable environment
in which eukaryotes may have evolved and became fossilized.
METHODS
Gale Crater Image Search
The rover Curiosity landed on Aeolis Palus inside Gale Crater, Mars, on August 6, 2012
(Sol 1). Over 200 images photographed between Sol 800 and Sol 1000, by the rover Curiosity's
suite of cameras, were enlarged by 300% and examined by the authors of this study. Specimens
with the characteristic "ice-cream-cone" shape similar to Namacalathus" and "Lophophorates,"
and the ovoid+proboscis+outer-zipper-like appendages of "Kimberella," were observed located in
the same general vicinity as photographed by the rover Curiosity on Sols 809, 869, 880, and 905.
Over 100 images photographed between Sol 1850 to 1950 were examined for features resembling
"tube worms," and as previously reported (Baucon et al. 2020; DiGregorio 2018; Joseph et al.
2020a), these formations were located in the same vicinity as photographed on Sols 1905 and 1923.
For purposes of this study, nine of those metazoan-like specimens that closely resemble
"Namacalathus" and "Lophophorates," six specimens closely resembling "Kimberella," and three
specimens analogous to "tube worms" were analyzed and quantitavely compared to their putative
terrestrial counterparts utilizing ‘Image J' software.
Abiotic Image Search
An abiotic image search was conducted employing "images.google.com" and "im-
ages.bing.com" using key words including: pseudofossils and Namacalathus, or "Lophophorates,"
or "Kimberella," or "tube worm." With the exception of the pseudo-tube worms identified by
Häntzschel (1975) and the tapering conical formation Pettijohn (1957) reported (Figures 5) no
abiogenic formations even remotely similar to these putative Ediacaran or early Cambrian Martian
specimens were found. However, for purposes of this study, two of the conical and tube-worm
shaped pseudo-fossils were employed for comparative analysis.
Image Processing Software
"ImageJ" is a Java-based image processing program developed by the National Institute of
Health USA, and the Laboratory for Optical and Computational Instrumentation, University of

443 Journal of Cosmology, 2020, Vol 29, (1)

Wisconsin. utilizing ‘Image J' software developed by the National Institute of Health USA, and
the Laboratory for Optical and Computational Instrumentation, University of Wisconsin. can quan-
titatively analyze two- and three-dimensional cellular and biological structures and images of those
structures (Rueden & Eliceiri 2007; Schneider et al. 2012; Syed et al. 2000; Girish and Vijaya-
lakshmi 2004; Armstrong and Bradwell 2010). ‘Image J' and related quantitative statistical
measures of morphology have been shown to be an excellent adjunct for distinguishing and com-
paring target features with established analogues (Collins 2007; Eliceiri & Rueden 2005; Schnei-
der et al. 2012, Armstrong 2007; Armstrong and Bradwell 2010; Williams et al 2015). ‘Image J'
software has been shown to accurately quantitatively target, identify, compare and measure bio-
logical features such as flexibility, curvature and directional change, as well as the diameter of
filaments, fusiform morphology, and central lumens and nucleation filaments (Armstrong and
Bradwell 2010; Collins 2007; Eliceiri & Rueden 2005; Schneider et al. 2012)—all of which are
attributes of biological structures (Schopf 2004, Hofmann et al 2008). For example, eukaryotic
microbiological filaments tend to have uniform diameters (Hofmann et al 2008) while others have
a uniform diameter along most of their length but have tapered ends giving rise to a characteristic
‘fusiform’ shape (Mares et al 2006, Santelli et al 2011).
Comparative Feature Analysis
For comparative analysis, fossilized specimens from Earth identified as Lophophorates
(Zhang,et al. 2014), Namacalathus (Kontorovich et al. 2008), Kimberella (Nagovitsyn 2009), trace
fossils of tube worms (Vannier et al. 2010) were employed as analogs. The morphological features
of putative Martian fossils were compared to their terrestrial analogues and it was found that in
many respects, the Martian specimens are statistically indistinguishable from those on Earth. Fea-
ture analysis of (1) the "ice-cream-cone" shaped specimens included evidence of a ‘head’ and a
‘tail’ that resemble terrestrial lophophorates and the Ediacaran fossil Namacalathus, and (2) com-
parisons of the ovoid+proboscis-shaped Martian structures resembling the Ediacaran fossil Kim-
berella, and (3) Martian segmented tubular structures resembling trace fossils of terrestrial tube
worms / priapulids.
First, target structures included the ‘head’ and a ‘tail’ of the Martian specimens which were
quantitatively compared with six images of terrestrial fossilized lophophorates and Namacalathus.
(2) Four Martian ovoid+proboscis structures (Figure 3) were compared with five images of terres-
trial Kimberella and (3) two images of tube-like structures from Gale Crater (Sol 1923 and 1905)

444 Journal of Cosmology, 2020, Vol 29, (1)

were quantitatively compared with two images of terrestrial ichnofossils of tube worms / pria-
pulids, one identified as trace fossils of Treptichnus (Vannier et al. 2010).
Each image was examined using the image-T software and magnified and calibrated for
brightness, contrast, sharpening, and edge detection. Because the images from Mars were all pho-
tographed at a distance, absolute scale can only be estimated. Therefore, all measurements were
made in pixels rather than on an absolute scale and comparative metrics were based on ratios of
different measurements or on the degree of variation among measurements.
The Martian ("ice-cream-cone" shaped) specimens resembling the Lophophorates and
Namacalathus –like their putative counterparts from Earth--have a distinct morphology including
a spheroidal ‘head’ and a ‘tail’ or ‘stem’ of variable length. Therefore, the following comparative
measurements were conducted: (1) the length and width of the head, (2) the length of the tail, and
(3) width of the tail measured from 3 – 8 locations at different distances below the head.
An addition analysis was performed comparing the Martian specimens with the tapering
conical formation identified by Pettijohn (1957). No significant statistical similarities were found.
The Martian specimens resembling Kimberella have an ovoid+proboscis shape and can be
differentiated into a marginal and central section. Therefore, the following metrics were obtained
for comparison with terrestrial fossils of Kimberella: (1) maximum length and width, (2) the ratio
of the margin width to the central section (M/C) and (3) comparisons at three positions along the
maximum axis, and (4) the ‘circularity’ of the structure defined as 4p(A)/P2 where A and P = area
and perimeter respectively, and (5) measures of the degree to which the structure departs from a
circular roundness, and (6) the ‘roundness’ of the object defined as 4A/pAx2 where ‘Ax’ is the
major axis as measured akin to aspect ratio.
Both the Martian and terrestrial ichnofossils resembling ‘tube worms’ consist of a number
of distinct segments connected together to form a filament, and exhibited multiple changes in di-
rection along the filament. Therefore, three series of filaments were measured from the Mars sam-
ples (Figures 6,7) and two series of terrestrial ichnofossils (A,B). The following data were then
targeted for analysis: (1) total number of segments, (2) the number of directional changes along
the filament and expressed per segment, (3) the length of each segment in arbitrary units, and (4)
the width of each segment measured from 3 – 8 randomly located positions along each segment.
In addition, the pseudo-tube worms identified by Häntzschel (1975) were statistically com-
pared with the ichnofossils. No significant statistical similarities were found.

445 Journal of Cosmology, 2020, Vol 29, (1)

Data Analysis
The quantitative analysis of the fossils uses relative measures such as ratios and degrees of
variation as these are frequently the only analyses which can be made because many images either
have no or an unreliable scale measures. This negates the possibility of using absolute measures
such as length or density
First, the following metrics were calculated from the data to compare the Martian structures
resembling the lophophorates and Namacalathus with those of the terrestrial specimens: (1) the
ratio of head length to width (HL/HW), (2) the ratio of tail length to mean width of the tail
(TL/TW), (3) the ratio of head length to tail length (HL/TL), the ratio of head width to mean width
of the tail (HW/TW), (4) degree of variation in tail length expressed as the coefficient of variation
(CV), i.e., the standard deviation (SD) expressed as a percentage of the mean, and (5) degree of
attenuation of tail width with distance below the head expressed as the slope (‘b’) of the linear
regression of tail width on distance behind the head. Differences among the three groups of spec-
imens were analyzed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Tukey’s honestly
significant difference (HSD) ‘post-hoc’ test.
Second, for the ovoid+proboscis structures resembling Kimberella the following metrics
were calculated: (1) the ratio of maximum length to width (L/W), and (2) the ratio of the margin
to the centre averaged over the three readings. Differences between Martian and terrestrial speci-
mens were made using unpaired (independent) ‘t’ tests.
Third, the following metrics were calculated from the data to compare the Martian fila-
ments with those of terrestrial ichnofossils: (1) the number of directional changes per segment, (2)
degree of variation in segment length along the filament expressed as the coefficient of variation
(CV), i.e., the standard deviation (SD) expressed as a percentage of the mean, (3) variation in width
of the segments along each filament expressed as the CV, and (4) ratio of mean lengths of segments
per filament to mean width (L/W). Differences between Martian and terrestrial specimens were
made using unpaired (independent) ‘t’ tests.
Three-Dimensional Imaging
Three-dimensional perspectives were computer generated via adobe 3-dimensional mod-
eling software. The creation of views from a variety of angles served to determine and rule out the
possibility these specimens were illusionary shapes or the product of shadows or depressions

446 Journal of Cosmology, 2020, Vol 29, (1)

within the soil. No statistical analysis was employed. Samples of these 3-dimensional models can
be viewed in Figures 10-13.
RESULTS
Table 1 provides a summary of the metrics and results following the statistical comparisons
of the Martian ("ice-cream-cone" shaped) fossil-like structures with terrestrial lophophorates and
Namacalathus. First, there were no significant differences among groups in the ratio of HL/HW
(F = 0.39, P > 0.05); meaning they are statistically identical. However, there were significant dif-
ferences in the ratio of tail length to width (TL/TW) among groups (F = 30.88, P < 0.000), the ratio
in the lophophorates being greater compared with the Martian specimens and Namacalathus.
Third, there were differences in ratio of HL/TL among groups (F = 7.08, P < 0.005), the ratio in
lophophorates being less compared with the Martian specimens and Namacalathus. Fourth, there
were no significant differences among groups in the ratio of HW/TW (F = 2.01, P > 0.05) indicat-
ing that the heads of the Martian vs terrestrial samples are statistically identical and indistinguish-
able. Fifth, variation in tail width (F = 6.66, P = 0.007) was more variable in the lophophorates
than in the Martian specimens and Namacalathus, and (5) there were some differences in the rate
of attenuation of tail width below the head (‘b’ slope) (F = 4.33, P = 0.029), values of ‘b’ in lo-
phophorates being greater than in Namacalathus.
Hence, in summary, the Martian specimens are statistically identical to the fossil Namacal-
athus on all metrics measured and statistically indistinguishable from lophophorates on three of
the metrics (HL/HW, HW/TW, ‘b’ slope).

447 Journal of Cosmology, 2020, Vol 29, (1)

Table 1. Quantitative analysis fossil-like Martian structures (MS) comprising a ‘head’ and ‘tail’
and comparison with terrestrial lophophorates (LP) and the fossil Ediacaran Namacalathus (NC)
(Data are means of each metric, with range of values and their standard deviation (SD) in paren-
theses, CV = Coefficient of variation, HL = Head length, HW = Head width, TL = Tail length,
TW =Tail width)
______________________________________________________________________
Metric Mars structure Lophophorates Namacalathus
_______________________________________________________________________
HL/HW 0.94 (0.74–1.2, 0.17) 0.82 (0.7–0.94, 0.1) 0.91 (0.57-1.1, 0.21)
TL/TW 3.57(1.5-6.0, 1.19) 8.53 (5.4-10.5, 1.9) 2.76 (1.7-3.9, 1.04)
HL/TL 0.96 (0.6-1.74, 0.36) 0.40 (0.3-0.58, 0.13) 1.03 (0.58-1.43, 0.39)
HW/TW 3.55 (2.2-6.4, 1.1) 3.95 (3.3-4.7, 0.52) 2.88 (2.3-3.8, 0.65)
Width CV 21 (2-43, 13.8) 41 (27-52, 10.4) 19 (9-28, 8.82)
‘b’ slope -4.1 (0.5-12.5, 4.0) -10.3 (2.2-22.2, 8.13) -1.7 (-1.7 – (+)2, 2.53)
_________________________________________________________________________
Analysis of variance (ANOVA): HL/TL F = 0.99 (P > 0.05); TL/TW F = 30.88 (P = 0.000) LP >
MS,NC; HL/TL F = 7.08 (P = 0.005) LP < MS,NC; HW/TW F = 2.01 (P > 0.05); CV widths F =
6.66 (P = 0.007) LP > MS,NC; ‘b’ slopes F = 4.33 P = 0.029) MS = NC

448 Journal of Cosmology, 2020, Vol 29, (1)

Table 2. Quantitative analysis of ovoid+proboscis fossil-like Martian structures and comparison
with terrestrial fossils of Kimberella (Data are means of each metric, with range of values and
their standard deviation (SD) in parentheses)
____________________________________________________________________________
Metric Terrestrial Kimberella Martian specimens
____________________________________________________________________________
L/W 1.49 (1.14 -1.96, 0.33) 1.59 (1.19 – 2.43, 0.56)

M/C 0.49 (0.36 – 0.72, 0.15) 0.32 (0.25 – 0.40, 0.08)

Circularity 0.87 (0.80 – 0.95, 0.07) 0.86 (0.77 – 0.92, 0.07)

Roundness 0.69 (0.56 – 0.85, 0.13) 0.70 (0.59 – 0.83, 0.11)

______________________________________________________________________________
Comparison of means: L/W t = 0.33 (P = 0.75); M/C t = 1.76 (P = 0.13); Circularity t = 0.27 (P =
0.79); Roundness t = 0.20 (P = 0.85)

Table 2 provides a summary of the metrics comparing the ovoid+proboscis Martian struc-
tures with Kimberella. There were no statistical differences in L/W (t = 0.33, P = 0.75), M/C (t =
1.76, P = 0.13), Circularity (t = 0.27, P = 0.79), or Roundness (t = 0.20, P = 0.85). The Martian
specimens and Kimberalla, are therefore statistically identical on the metrics examined.
As summarized in Table 3, there were no statistical differences between Martian specimens
and terrestrial ichnofossils in number of directional changes along the filament per segment (c2=
0.02, P = 0.89), variation in segment length (F= 1.27, P = 0.62), variation in segment width (F =
1.04, P = 0.48), or in L/W ratio of segments (t = 2,21; P = 0.11). The Martian and terrestrial spec-
imens, therefore, are statistically identical and indistinguishable as based on the metrics examined.
However, there were significant differences between the Mars and terrestrial specimens when
compared with the pseudo-fossil; the latter having fewer directional changes per segment
(Mars/Terrestrial vs Pseudo-fossil c2= 10.28 (P < 0.001), less variation in segment width
(Mars/Pseudo-fossil F = 1.95 (P 0.01), Terrestrial/Pseudo-fossil F = 1.70 (P > 0.05), and a signif-
icantly smaller L/W ratio.

449 Journal of Cosmology, 2020, Vol 29, (1)

Table 3. Quantitative analysis of Martian ‘filaments’ and comparison with terrestrial trace fossils
of tube worms/priapulids, (Data are means of each metric, with range of values and their stand-
ard deviation (SD) in parentheses); (N = Number of segments, CV = Coefficient of variation)
___________________________________________________________________________
Metric Mars Terrestrial Pseudo-
Ichnofossils fossil
___________________________________________________________________________
Total Segments (N) 16 23 42

Directional changes/segment 0.67 0.66 0.11

(0.6 - 0.75, 0.07) (0.43 – 0.88, 0.32)
Variation in length 36 (12 – 51 46 44
of segments (CV) (12 – 51, 21) (34 – 58, 17)

Variation in width 20 (14 -23, 5) 23 39

of segments (CV) (14 – 23, 5) (22 -24, 1.41)

Length/Width (L/W) of 3.48 4.48 1.99

Segments (3.04 – 4.03, 0.5) (4.14 – 4.83, 0.49)
______________________________________________________________________________
Comparison among groups: Number of directional changes per segment: Chi-square (c2) contin-
gency tables, Mars/Terrestrial c2= 0.02 (P = 0.89), Mars/Terrestrial vs Pseudo-fossil c2= 10.28
(P < 0.001); Variation in length of segments (CV): 2-tail Variance ratio (F) tests: Mars/Terres-
trial F = 1.27 (P > 0.05), Mars/Pseudo-fossil F = 1.22 (P > 0.05), Terrestrial/Pseudo-fossil F =
1.04 (P > 0.05); Variation in width of segments (CV) 2-tail Variance ratio (F) tests: Mars/Ter-
restrial F = 1.04 (P > 0.05), Mars/Pseudo-fossil F = 1.95 (P 0.01), Terrestrial/Pseudo-fossil F =
1.70 (P > 0.05); L/W of segments t = 2.21 (P = 0.11).

450 Journal of Cosmology, 2020, Vol 29, (1)

 Fig-
ure 1. Sol 809. Tubular. curved, and other fossil-like structures which resemble a variety of met-
azoans. Photographed in Gale Crater (From Joseph et al. 2020a).
 

 
Figure 2 Sol 809. Tubular curved, and other fossil-like structures which resemble a variety of
metazoans and Metazoan-fossil-like formations photographed in Gale Crater and that resemble
Ediacaran and Early Cambrian fossils: Namacalathus," "Lophophorates." (From Joseph et al.
2020a).

451 Journal of Cosmology, 2020, Vol 29, (1)

Figure 3. (First row): Sol 809 and Sol 869. (Second row) Sol 905 and Sol 905. Specimens photo-
graphed in Gale Crater and that are quantitatively and statistically nearly identical to Ediacaran
fossils of Namacalathus (two, bottom left) and (with the exception of tail length) Cambrian fos-
sils of Lophotrochozoa (three bottom right). Photos of Namacalathus reproduced from and cour-
tesy of Kontorovich, A. E. et al. 2008. Photos of Lophotrochozoa reproduced from and courtesy
of Zhang Z-F. et al. 2014.

452 Journal of Cosmology, 2020, Vol 29, (1)

Figure 4. (First row) fossilized remains of Ediacaran Kimberella. (Bottom two rows): Specimens
photographed in Gale Crater, quantitatively and statistically nearly identical to Ediacaran fossils
of Kimberella. Sol 809, Sol 809, Sol 809; Sol 880, Sol 905, Sol 905. Note proboscis and "zipper-
like" appendages.

453 Journal of Cosmology, 2020, Vol 29, (1)

Figure 5. (left): Conical pseudo-fossil, reproduced from Pettijohn (1957), (Right) Tubular
pseudo-fossils, photographed by the U.S. Geological Survey (see Häntzschel 1975).

454 Journal of Cosmology, 2020, Vol 29, (1)

Figure 6. Ichnofossils of terrestrial tube worms resembling the tube-like filaments from Mars. A
is of an unknown species, B is identified as the fossil tube worm Treptichnus.

455 Journal of Cosmology, 2020, Vol 29, (1)

Figure 7: Martian specimen with open aperture; which suggests this is a trace fossil and the min-
eralization of a burrowing hole fashioned by a tube worm/ priapulids.

DISCUSSION
In the present study, the authors performed a quantitative statistical analysis comparing the
morphology of Martian specimens that resemble Namacalathus, Lophophorates, Kimberella, and
trace fossils of tube worms (Treptichnus), with their terrestrial counterparts. It was determined that
the Martian specimens resembling Namacalathus, Kimberella and tube worm/priapulid trace fos-
sils are statistically and morphologically nearly identical to those on Earth and that are believed to
have first evolved, on Earth, during the close of the Ediacaran epoch and prior to or at the onset of

456 Journal of Cosmology, 2020, Vol 29, (1)

the Cambrian Explosion (Vannier et al. 2010; Vickers-Rich & Komarower, 2007; Yu et al. 2010).
By contrast, the Martian "ice-cream-cone" shaped specimens, when compared to Lophophorates,
were found to be quantitatively similar on some measures, but significantly different on other
measures (e.g. tail length). On Earth, in contrast to Namacalathus which evolved during the Edia-
caran period, Lophophorates, may have evolved later, during the Cambrian era (Taylor et al.
2010).
The Martian specimens identified as Sol 809 and Sol 869 (see Figure 3), also share other
features with Namacalathus including an open aperture at the anterior bulbous "head" (Figure 8).
This aperture might serve as a mouth-like orifice for filtering, capturing and trapping food.
It is noteworthy that many of the ovoid Martian Kimberella-like specimens-- like many of
their earthly counterparts—were also marked by a proboscis and "zipper-like" appendages on their
outer-body (Figures 4, 9, 10). Furthermore, several of these ovoid-shaped species were found
close together, but oriented differently, some with the proboscis angled upward, others downward;
whereas if due to water or wind they should be oriented similarly.
To obtain different perspectives of these specimens, computerized 3-dimensional extrac-
tion protocols were employed to create three-dimensional views from different angles (Figures 10-
13). Be it those similar to Kimberella, or with the icecream cone shape, these three-dimensional
comparisons indicate that these specimens are attached to and protruding from the surface.
Hence, based on quantitative measurements and gross morphology, it appears that the spec-
imens analyzed in this report, are statistically nearly identical to Ediacaran fauna (Kimberella,
Namacalathus), and statistically similar on most but not all measures when compared with Lopho-
phorates that evolved later during the Cambrian epoch on Earth.
It must be stressed, however, that even as pertaining to terrestrial specimens, there is great
debate as to what constitutes a Kimberella, Namacalathus, or Lophophorate, or if species from the
Ediacaran era are metazoans; despite extraction and detailed 3-dimensional analysis. Therefore,
despite the morphological and quantitative similarities between the Martian and terrestrial fossils,
the authors utilize the terms Kimberella, Namacalathus, or Lophophorate, only for generalized
descriptive and comparative purposes.

457 Journal of Cosmology, 2020, Vol 29, (1)

Figure 8: (left): Sol 809. (center): Terrestrial Namacalathus. (right): Sol 869 – arrows indicate
what may be open apertures.

Figure 9: (Left: Terrestrial Ediacaran, Kimberella. Right: Martian Specimen). A: Proboscis. B:

Outer-body zipper-like appendages.

458 Journal of Cosmology, 2020, Vol 29, (1)

Figure 10: A computerized three-dimensional analysis at various angles also consistently indi-
cated the presence of the "zipper" and proboscis and further verified that these Kimberella-like
specimens are also protruding from the surface.

459 Journal of Cosmology, 2020, Vol 29, (1)

Figure 11: (Top center): Three Martain specimens resembling Kimberella with zipper-like ap-
pendage and proboscis (Right, left, and bottom two rows): Three-Dimensional perspectives,
viewed as turned upward, downward and toward the right and left at various angles and further
verified that these Kimberella-like specimens are also protruding from the surface.

460 Journal of Cosmology, 2020, Vol 29, (1)

Figure 12: A computerized three-dimensional perspective of multiple "ice-cream cone" speci-
mens from Gale Crater at various angles and indicating that these fossil-like features are protrud-
ing from the surface.

461 Journal of Cosmology, 2020, Vol 29, (1)

Figure 13. A computerized three-dimensional perspective of multiple "ice-cream cone" speci-
mens from Gale Crater at various angles and indicating that these fossil-like features are protrud-
ing from the surface.

Abiogenic Geological Martian Pseudo-Fossils?

It must be stressed that it is impossible to rule out the possibility these formations are en-
tirely abiogenic and were sculpted by water, erosion and weathering, thereby creating shapes that
superficially resemble Ediacarans and metazoan fossils. Fossil-like shapes are ubiquitous in
Earth’s geological record and there is great debate as to their authenticity (Brasier et al. 2002; De
Gregorio et al. 2011; Marshall et al. 2011; Wacey et al. 2016). All the formations reported here
were discovered in an area of Gale Crater that has repeatedly been host to lakes and rivers of water,
and in which a variety of minerals have been detected. It is not unreasonable to suspect that the
fossils reported here are unusual concretions which have assumed sinuous, concentric, and cone
shapes as "cannonball concretions" are not uncommonly fashioned along shorelines and consist of

462 Journal of Cosmology, 2020, Vol 29, (1)

various minerals and grains of sand (Gutstad 1979; Pettijohn 1957). For example, Häntzschel
(1975) has identified Precambrian pseudofossils formed by curling and desiccation that resemble
burrowing tube worm/ priapulid ichnofossils whereas Pettijohn (1957) identified a tapering con-
ical formation as a likely pseudo-fossil (Figure 5).
Therefore, it must be cautioned that even with the aid of statistics, it impossible to make
precise determinations as to the identity or exact nature of these fossil-like specimens, and this
might be true if these same "fossils" were discovered on Earth (Graham 2019). However, based
on morphology, the fact that similar specimens were found adjacent to one another, and coupled
with the statistical analysis, we believe the evidence favors biology.
Namacalathus and lophophorates
As detailed in the Methods section of this report, the Martian specimens resembling
Namacalathus are in many respects, including the head and tail, statistically indistinguishable from
fossils of the Ediacaran Namacalathus. Likewise, the Martian specimens identified as morpho-
logically similar to lophophorates, were found to be statistically identical to terrestrial lophophor-
ates on several metrics (e.g. height, length, width, slope of the heads and tails) with the only sig-
nificant difference involving the ratio of tail length which is significantly longer in the terrestrial
fossils of lophophorates (Figure 3).
The ‘cone-shaped’ pseudo-fossil (Figure 5), by contrast has a distinctly different shape
when compared with Martian and terrestrial specimens identified as Namacalathus and the lopho-
phorates. Specifically, there is no discontinuity in width measurements taken along the cone from
base to apex, width decreasing linearly with distance (r = -0.99, P < 0.001) whereas in the Martian
specimens and terrestrial fossils, there is a distinct discontinuity from the ‘head’ to the ‘tail’.
Kimberella
Based on a comparative quantitative analysis, it was determined that morphologically the
Martian ovoid+proboscis specimens are statistically identical to terrestrial fossils of the Ediacaran
Kimberella. For example, the Martian structures exhibit evidence of identical L/W ratios, degree
of ‘curvature’ and ‘roundness.' Moreover, several of the Martian specimens have a lobed margin
and a distinct central section as in Kimberella as well as the characteristic "zipper-like" formations
along its margins (Figures 4,9,10).

463 Journal of Cosmology, 2020, Vol 29, (1)

Trace Fossils of Tube Worms / Priapulids
The Martian specimens resembling trace fossils of tube worms (AKA ichnofossils) were
also found to be statistically nearly identical to their terrestrial counterparts. These identical fea-
tures include width variations, curvatures and directional changes along the filament; all of which
are indications of a biotic rather than an abiotic structure (Schopt et al 2007, Williams et al 2015,
Baucon et al 2020).
The results support and are supported by the findings of Baucon et al. (2020) who deter-
mined, based on a quantitative analysis, that these tube worm / ichnofossils are similar to those on
Earth. Baucon et al. (2020), however, were not able to completely rule out crystal growth, sedi-
mentary cracking and other non-­‐‑biological processes.
On the other hand, as depicted, these Martian filaments (Figure 7) show evidence of a
tubular opening, suggesting that this specimen is an open tube. Therefore, these may be trace fos-
sils of a mineralized burrowing pathway initially fashioned by a tube worm.
Pseudo-fossils superficially similar to those of the Martian and terrestrial examples were
identified (Figure 5). However, there are significant differences compared with the Martian and
terrestrial fossilized specimens. First, although some linear series of segments can be identified in
the pseudofossil, overall their distribution is more random, and it is more difficult to identify ‘in-
dividual’ series of segments. Second, there are fewer directional changes per segment. Third, there
is significantly greater width variation, reflecting their more variable shapes, and overall, a lower
length/width ratio. In this regard, the data indicates that pseudo-fossils that resemble tubular for-
mations (Figure 5), are distinct from actual terrestrial fossils and the putative Martian fossils pre-
sented here.
Implications
As detailed in this report, specimens that resemble fossilized Ediacarans and Metazoans
have been found to be statistically identical to Namacalathus, Kimberella, and trace fossils of tube
worms, and statistically identical on some but not all measures, when compared to Lophophorates.
The possibility that these are in fact the fossilized remains of Martian eukaryotes is supported by
and supportive of a growing body of evidence that overwhelmingly indicate that Mars was and is
habitable and inhabited. Specifically, there are numerous reports of formations, on Mars, that re-
semble fossilized stromatolites (Bianciardi et al. 2014, 2015; Joseph et al. 2019, 2020a,b,c; Noffke,
2015; Ruff & Farmer 2016; Rizzo & Cantasano, 2009, 2016), fossilized algae/cyanobacteria

464 Journal of Cosmology, 2020, Vol 29, (1)

(Joseph et al. 2020a; Kaźmierczak 2016, 2020; Rizzo 2020), fossilized arcritarchs (Kaźmierczak
2016), and an assemblage of specimens that have been judged to be similar to fossilized metazoans
(Baucon et al. 2020; DiGregorio 2018; Joseph et al. 2020a,b), as well as rather obvious evidence
of fungi, algae, lichens, and mushrooms, some of which have been photographed growing out of
the ground, whereas vast colonizes of lichens or lichenized mushrooms have been identified at-
tached by thin stalks to rocks and oriented upward, topped with a bulbous cap, identical to photo-
synthesizing organisms on Earth, and likely producing much of the oxygen in the atmosphere of
Mars (Joseph et al., 2020a,b).
Many investigators agree that ancient Mars was habitable (Ehlmann et al. 2011; Parnell et
al. 2018; Squyres and Knolls 2006; McKay, 2010; Vago et al. 2017; Grotzinger et al., 2014) and
likely inhabited by microorganisms (Lanza et al. 2016; Macey et al. 2020; Noffke 2015; Norlund
et al 2010; Ruff & Farmer 2016; Squyres et al. 2006; Thomas-Keprta et al. 2009). The concept of
an uninhabited habitable planet or, viz a viz, a habitable planet that is not and was never inhabited,
might best be described as an oxymoron given the ability of numerous species to colonize and
flourish within even the most toxic and seemingly-life-neutralizing environments (Armstrong
2017; Dighton et al. 2008; Durvasula & Rao 2018; Gerday & Glansdorff 2007; Zhdanova et al.
2004); even surviving long term direct exposure to space and Mars simulated conditions (de la
Torre Noetzel et al. 2019; de Vera et al. 2019; Onofri et al. 2018; Sancho et al 2007). Coupled
with the possibility that life has been repeatedly transferred from Earth to Mars via bolide ejecta
and powerful solar winds (Beech et al. 2018; Joseph et al. 2019, 2020b; Wallis and Wick-
ramasinghe 2004; Wickramasinghe, et al. 2012), and as reviewed here, all the evidence of past
life, it thus seems overwhelmingly likely that a habitable Mars was inhabited.
That there may be life on Mars was first documented by the Viking Labeled Release Ex-
periments (Levin & Straat 1997, 2016); the results of which, after being disputed, were again sta-
tistically reaffirmed (Bianciardi et al. 2012) and are now supported by numerous observations of
Martian specimens resembling algae, lichens, and fungi on Mars (Dass, 2017; Levin et al. 1978;
Joseph 2016; Joseph et al. 2019, 2020a,b,d; Krupa 2017; Rabb, 2018; Small 2015); and which—
along with other organisms-- may be contributing to the seasonal fluctuations and summer-time
increases in atmospheric oxygen and methane (Joseph et al 2019; Joseph et al. 2020d,e) as respec-
tively reported by Trainer et al. (2019) and Webster and colleagues (2018). Active biology is also
indicated by the 23 fungi-like "'puffballs" that increased in size over a three-day period in the

465 Journal of Cosmology, 2020, Vol 29, (1)

absence of any wind that could have somehow removed surrounding soil (Joseph et al. 2020d).
Moreover, vast colonizes of lichen-mushroom-shaped specimens, with bulbous caps attached to
rocks by stems, and collectively oriented skyward similar to photosynthesizing lichens on Earth,
have been reported, whereas the possibility these may be "hematite" has been shown to be little
more than speculation (Joseph, et al. 2020d). Then there are the specimens that resemble fossilized
algae, acritarchs and stromatolites. Although there is no definitive proof of current and past life,
the evidence is nevertheless "compelling."
If we grant the likelihood Mars was habitable and inhabited in the past, then what is the
likelihood these initial organisms became extinct and never evolved into complex forms? Using
Earth as an example, despite repeated catastrophic extinction events, life never became completely
extinct. Instead, each episode of mass extinction was followed by repopulation and evolutionary
innovation (Eldredge & Gould, 1972; Elewa & Joseph, 2009; Joseph 2010).
Given evidence of current and past life on Mars, the diversification, adaptive innovation,
and evolutionary progression that took place on Earth leading to metazoans beginning 800 million
years ago, coupled with the possibility life on Mars may have evolved to the level of the Cambrian
Explosion a least a billion years before similar events on Earth (McKay 1996), coupled with the
seasonal fluctuations in atmospheric oxygen (Trainer et al. 2019) and the likelihood oxygen levels
were even higher in the distant past (Lanza et al. 2016; Tosca et al. 2008), it is thus not improbable
that eukaryotes similar to Ediacarans and metazoans also evolved on Mars as documented in this
report.
CONCLUSIONS
The results from this morphological and quantitative statistical study supports the hypoth-
esis that the Red Planet was habitable and inhabited in the ancient past and that eukaryotes similar
to Ediacarans and metazoans may have evolved on Mars. These results also support the hypotheses
of Squyres et al. (2005) and McKay (1996) that eukaryotes may have colonized and/or evolved on
Mars; and Grotzinger's et al's. (2014, 2015) proposal that fossils may be found in the dried lake
beds of Gale Crater. The implications of these and related discoveries, and the possibility that
Ediacaran and metazoan-like organisms evolved on Mars, are profound indeed.
It must be stressed, however, that there is no conclusive, definitive proof that these are true
fossils. Without extraction and detailed examination and analysis, the possibility cannot be ruled
out that these may be unusual sedimentary structures which assumed life-like-fossilized features

466 Journal of Cosmology, 2020, Vol 29, (1)

due to weathering, mineralization, and other variables unique to the Martian environment. Statis-
tical analysis and measurements documenting nearly identical morphological features are not suf-
ficient evidence to prove phylogenetic association with a particular group of organisms, despite
the obvious similarities. At best, we can only offer up these fossil-like formations as targeted
examples for additional investigation, extraction and analyses by future robotic and sample return
missions to Mars.

REFERENCES
Armstrong RA (2007) Measuring the spatial arrangement patterns of pathological lesions in his-
tological sections of brain tissue. Folia Neuropathologica 44: 229-237.

Armstrong R.A. (2017) Adaptation of Lichens to Extreme Conditions. In: Shukla V., Kumar S.,
Kumar N. (eds) Plant Adaptation Strategies in Changing Environment. Springer, Singapore.

Armstrong RA, Bradwell T (2010) The use of lichen growth rings in lichenometry: some prelimi-
nary findings. Geografiska Annaler 92A: 141-147.

Baucon, A. et al. (2020).Ichnofossils, Cracks or Crystals? A Test for Biogenicity of Stick-­‐‑Like

Structures from Vera Rubin Ridge, Mars. Geocience, 10, 39.

Beech, M., Comte, M., Coulson. I (2018). Lithopanspermia – The Terrestrial Input During the Past
550 Million Years, American Journal of Astronomy and Astrophysics, 7(1): 81-90.

Bianciardi, G., Miller, J. D., Straat, P.N., Levin, G. V. (2012). Complexity Analysis of the Viking
Labeled Release Experiments, Int'l J. of Aeronautical & Space Sci. 13(1), 14-26.

Bianciardi, G., Rizzo, V., Cantasano, N. (2014). Opportunity Rover's image analysis: Microbialites
on Mars? International Journal of Aeronautical and Space Sciences, 15 (4) 419-433.

Bianciardi, G., Rizzo, V., Farias, M. E., & Cantasano (2015). Microbialites at Gusev Craters, Mars.
Astrobiology Outreach, 2,5.

Brasier, M.D., Green, O.R., Jephcoat, A.P., Kleppe, A.K., Van Kranendonk, M.J., Lindsay, J.F., Steele,
A., Grassineau, N.V. (2002). Questioning the evidence for Earth’s oldest fossils. Nature 416, 76-81.

Collins TJ (July 2007). "ImageJ for microscopy". BioTechniques. 43 (1 Suppl): 25–30.

doi:10.2144/000112517.

Dass RS. 2017. The High Probability of Life on Mars: A Brief Review of the Evidence, Cosmol-
ogy, 27

467 Journal of Cosmology, 2020, Vol 29, (1)

de la Torre Noetzel, R., et al. (2019). Lichen Vitality After a Space Flight on Board the EXPOSE-
R2 Facility Outside the International Space Station: Results of the Biology and Mars Experiment,
AstrobiologyVol. 20, https://doi.org/10.1089/ast.2018.1959

de la Torre Noetzel, R., et al. (2019). Lichen Vitality After a Space Flight on Board the EXPOSE-
R2 Facility Outside the International Space Station: Results of the Biology and Mars Experiment,
AstrobiologyVol. 20, https://doi.org/10.1089/ast.2018.1959

DiGregorio, B. Ichnological evidence for bioturbation in an ancient lake at Vera Rubin Ridge,
Gale Crater, Mars. In Proceedings of the 3rd International Convention on Geosciences and Remote
Sensing, 19-­‐‑20 October 2018, Ottawa, ON, Canada, 2018; pp. 1–7.

De Gregorio, B.T., Sharp, T.G., Rushdi, A.I., Simoneit, B.R. (2011). Bugs or gunk? Nanoscale meth-
ods for assessing the biogenicity of ancient microfossils and organic matter. In: Golding S., Glikson
M. (Eds.). Earliest Life on Earth: Habitats, Environments and Methods of Detection. Springer, Dor-
drecht, 239-289.

Dighton, J, Tatyana Tugay, T., ZhdanovaN., (2008) Fungi and ionizing radiation from radionu-
clides, FEMS Microbiol Lett 281, 109-120.

Durvasula R. V., Rao, D.V.S (2018), Extremophiles: From Biology to Biotechnology, CRC Press.

Eldredge, N., Gould, S. J., (1972). Punctuated equilibria: an alternative to phyletic gradualism" In
T.J.M. Schopf, ed., Models in Paleobiology. San Francisco: Freeman Cooper. pp. 82-115.

Elewa, A. M. T., and Joseph, R. (2009). The History, Origins, and Causes of Mass Extinctions.
Journal of Cosmology, 2, 201-220.

Ehlmann, B.L.; Mustard, J.F.; Murchie, S.L.; Bibring, J.P.; Meunier, A.; Fraeman, A.A.; Langevin,
Y. Subsurface water and clay mineral formation during the early history of Mars. Na-
ture 2011, 479, 53–60.

Eliceiri K, Rueden C (2005). "Tools for visualizing multidimensional images from living speci-
mens". Photochem Photobiol. 81 (5): 1116–22. doi:10.1562/2004-11-22-IR-377.

Frydenvang, J., Gasda, P. J., Hurowitz, J. A., Grotzinger, J. P., Wiens, R. C., Newsom, H. E., et
al. (2017). Diagenetic silica enrichment and late-stage groundwater activity in Gale crater, Mars.
Geophysical Research Letters, 44, 4716–4724. https://doi.org/10.1002/2017GL0733 23.

Gerday, C. & Glansdorff, N. (2007) Physiology and Biochemistry of Extremophiles, ASM press.

Gladman, B., Dones, K. Levison, H.F., Burns, J. A. (2005). Impact seeding and reseeding in the
inner solar system. Astrobiology, Jul 2005, 5(4):483-496 DOI: 10.1089/ast.2005.5.483 PMID:
16078867

468 Journal of Cosmology, 2020, Vol 29, (1)

Girish V, Vijayalakshmi A (2004) Affordable image analysis using NIH Image/Image J. Indian
Journal of Cancer 41: 47

Grotzinger, J. P., et al. (2014). A habitable fluvio-­‐‑lacustrine environment at Yellowknife Bay, Gale
Crater, Mars, Science, 343, doi:10.1126/science.1242777.

Grotzinger, J. P., et al. (2015). Deposition, exhumation, and paleoclimate of an ancient lake de-
posit, Gale Crater, Mars, Science, 350, 6257, doi:10.1126/science.aac7575.

Gutstadt A.M. (1979) Pseudofossil. In: Paleontology. Encyclopedia of Earth Science. Springer, Berlin, Hei-
delberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-31078-9_115.

Häntzschel, W., 1975. Trace fossils and problematica, in C. Teichert, ed., Treatise on Invertebrate
Paleontology, pt. W, Miscellanea, suppl. 1. Lawrence, Kansas: Geol. Soc. Amer. and Univ. Kansas
Press, 269p.

Hausrath, E.M., Ming, D. W., Rampe, E. B., 2018 Reactive transport and mass balance modeling
of the Stimson sedimentary formation and altered fracture zones constrain diagenetic conditions
at Gale crater, Mars, Earth and Planetary Science Letters Volume 491, 1 June 2018, Pages 1-10.

Hofmann, B.A., Farmer, J.D., von Blanckenburg, F., Fallick, A.E. (2008). Subsurface filamentous
fabrics: an evaluation of origins based on morphological and geochemical criteria, with implica-
tions for exopaleontology. Astrobiology 8: 87-117.

Jones, B., Renaut, R.W., Rosen, M.R. (2001). Biogenicity of gold- and silver-bearing siliceous
sinters forming in hot (75C) anaerobic spring waters of Champagne Pool, Waiotapu, North Island,
New Zealand. Journal of Geological Society of London 158: 895-911.

Joseph, R. (2010). Extinction, Metamorphosis, Evolutionary Apoptosis, and Genetically Pro-

grammed Species Mass Death. In "The Biological Big Bang," Edited by Chandra Wick-
ramasinghe, Science Publishers, Cambridge, MA.

Joseph R. 2016. A High Probability of Life on Mars, The Consensus of 70 Experts, Cosmology,
25, 1-25.

Joseph, R. Graham, L., Budel, B., Jung, P., Kidron, G. J., Latif, K., Armstrong, R. A., Mansour,
H. A., Ray, J. G., Ramos, G.J.P., Consorti, L., Rizzo, V., Gibson, C.H., Schild, R. (2020a). Mars:
Algae, Lichens, Fossils, Minerals, Microbial Mats and Stromatolites, in Gale Crater. Journal of
Astrobiology and Space Science Reviews, 3 (1); 40-111, ISSN 2642-228X, DOI:
10.37720/jassr.03082020. Reprinted in Astrobiology Perspectives on Life of the Universe, (Eds).
Beech, M., Gordon, R., Seckbach, J., Wiley-Scrivener, Beverly, Massachusetts, USA

Joseph R., Panchon, O., Schild, R. (2020b). Seeding the Solar System with Life: Mars, Venus,
Earth, Moon, Protoplanets. Journal of Cosmology, 29, 1.

469 Journal of Cosmology, 2020, Vol 29, (1)

Joseph, R., Planchon, O., Duxbury, N.S., Latif, K., Kidron, G.J., Consorti, L., Armstrong, R. A.,
Gibson, C. H., Schild, R., (2020c) Oceans, Lakes and Stromatolites on Mars, Advances in Astron-
omy, 2020, doi.org/10.1155/2020/6959532

Joseph R., Armstrong, R., Kidron, G., Gibson, C. H., Schild, R. (2020d). Life on Mars: Colonies
of Photosynthesizing Mushrooms in Eagle Crater? The Hematite Hypothesis Refuted Journal of
Astrobiology and Space Science Research, 5, 88-126, Published: 4/19/20 ISSN 2642-228X,
DOI:10.37720/jassr.04172020

Joseph, R., Duxbury, N., Kidron, G., Gibson, C.H., Schild, R., (2020e) Mars: Life, Subglacial
Oceans, Ice, Abiogenic Photosynthesis, Seasonal Increases and Replenishment of Atmospheric
Oxygen, Journal of Cosmology, October, 29.

Kaźmierczak, J., (2016). Ancient Martian biomorphs from the rim of Endeavour Crater: similari-
ties with fossil terrestrial microalgae. In book: Paleontology, Stratigraphy, Astrobiology, in com-
memoration of 80th anniversary of A. Yu. Rozanov, Publisher: Borissiak Paleontological Institute
RAS, Moscow, Editor: S.V. Rozhnov, pp. 229-242.

Kazmierczak J (2020) Conceivable Microalgae-like Ancient Martian Fossils and Terran Ana-
logues:MER Opportunity Heritage. Astrobiol Outreach 8: 167. DOI: 10.4172/2332-
2519.1000167.

Kontorovich, A. E. et al. (2008) A section of Vendian in the east of West Siberian Plate (based on
data from the Borehole Vostok 3), Russian Geology and Geophysics 49(12):932-939DOI:
10.1016/j.rgg.2008.06.012.

Krupa, T. A. (2017). Flowing water with a photosynthetic life form in Gusav Crater on Mars,
Lunar and Planetary Society, XLVIII.

Lanza NL, Wiens RC, Arvidson RE, Clark BC, Woodward W. Fischer WW, Gellert R,
Grotzinger JP, Hurowitz JA 2016. Oxidation of manganese in an ancient aquifer, Kimberley
formation, Gale crater, Mars, Geophy Res Letters, 43, 7398-7407.

Levin, G.V., Straat, P. A. (1977). Life on Mars? The Viking labeled release experiment, Biosys-
tems 9 :2-3, pp. 165-174.

Levin, G.V., Straat, P.A., and Benton, W.D. (1978). Color and Feature Changes at Mars Viking
Lander Site. J. Theor. Biol., 75: 381-390.

Levin, G.V., Straat, P.A. (2016) The Case for Extant Life on Mars and its Possible Detection by
the Viking Labeled Release Experiment. Astrobiology 16 (10): 798-810,
doi:10.1089/ast.2015.1464.

Macey MC, Fox-Powell M, Ramkissoon NK, Stephens BP, Barton T, Schwenzer SP, Pearson
VK, Cousins CR, Olsson-Francis K. 2020. The identification of sulfide oxidation as a potential

470 Journal of Cosmology, 2020, Vol 29, (1)

metabolism driving primary production on late Noachian Mars, Sci Rep 10, 10941 (2020).
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-67815-8

Magdalena N. Georgieva, Crispin T. S. Little, Jonathan S. Watson, Mark A. Sephton, Alexander

D. Ball & Adrian G. Glover (2019) Identification of fossil worm tubes from Phanerozoic hydro-
thermal vents and cold seeps, Journal of Systematic Palaeontology, 17:4, 287-329, DOI:
10.1080/14772019.2017.1412362

Mares, D., Romagnoli, C., Andreotti, E., Forlani, G., Guccione, S., Vicentini, C.B. (2006) Emerg-
ing antifungal azoles and effects on Magnaporthe grisea. Mycological Research 110: 686-696.

Marshall, C.P., Emry, J.R., Marshall, A.O. (2011.). Haematite pseudomicrofossils present in the 3.5-
billion-year-old Apex Chert. Nature Geoscience 4, 240.

McKay C.P. (1996) Oxygen and the Rapid Evolution of Life on Mars. In: Chela-Flores J.,
Raulin F. (eds) Chemical Evolution: Physics of the Origin and Evolution of Life. Springer,
Dordrecht

McKay, C.P. (2010) An Origin of Life on Mars, Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology, doi:
10.1101/cshperspect.a003509

McMahon, S., Bosak, T., Grotzinger, J.P., Milliken, R.E., Summons, R.E., Daye, M., Newman,
S.A., Fraeman, A., Williford, K.H., Briggs, D.E.G., 2018. A Field Guide to Finding Fossils on
Mars. Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets, 123, 29 p. doi.org/ 10.1029/2017JE005478.

Mileikowsky, C., Cucinotta, F.A., Wilson, J.W., Gladman, B., Horneck, G., Lindegren, L.,
Melosh, J., Rickman, H., Valtonen, M., Zheng, J.Q. (2000), Natural transfer of viable microbes
in space. Part 1: From Mars to Earth and Earth to Mars. Icarus, 145, 391-427.

Mojzsis, S.J., Arrhenius, G., McKeegan, K.D., Harrison, T.M., Nutman, A.P., Friend, C.R.L.,
1996. Evidence for life on Earth before 3,800 million years ago. Nature 384, 55-59.

Nagovitsyn, A. (2009) Fossil of Kimberella quadrata, Arkhangelsk Regional Museum, Russia.

Nemchin, A. A., Whitehouse, M.J., Menneken, M., Geisler, T., Pidgeon, R.T., Wilde, S. A. 2008.
A light carbon reservoir recorded in zircon-hosted diamond from the Jack Hills. Nature 454, 92-
95.

Noffke, N. (2015). Ancient Sedimentary Structures in the < 3.7b Ga Gillespie Lake Member, Mars,
That Compare in macroscopic Morphology, Spatial associations, and Temporal Succession with
Terrestrial Microbialites. Astrobiology 15(2).: 1-24.

Norlund LI, Baron C., Warren, LA 2010. Jarosite formation by an AMD sulphide-oxidizing environmental en
richment: Implications for biomarkers on Mars, Chemical Geo 275, 235-242.

471 Journal of Cosmology, 2020, Vol 29, (1)

Onofri, S., et al (2018). Survival, DNA, and Ultrastructural Integrity of a Cryptoendolithic Ant-
arctic Fungus in Mars and Lunar Rock Analogues Exposed Outside the International Space. As-
trobiology, 19, 2.

Parnell J, McMahon S, Boyce A. 2018. Demonstrating deep biosphere activity in the geological
record of lake sediments, on Earth and Mars. Int. J Astrobio 17, 380–385.

Pettijohn, F. J. (1957). Sedimentary Rocks, 2nd ed. New York: Harper & Row,

Pickerill, R.K. and Harris, I.M., 1979. A reinterpretation of Astropolithon hindii Dawson 1878.
Journal of Sedimentary Research, 49(3), pp.1029-1036.

Rabb, H. (2018). Life on Mars, Astrobiology Society, SoCIA, University of Nevada, Reno, USA.
April 14, 2018.

Rajwa B, McNally H, Varadharajan P, Sturgis J, Robinson J (2004). "AFM/CLSM data visualiza-

tion and comparison using an open-source toolkit". Microsc Res Tech. 64 (2): 176–
84. doi:10.1002/jemt.20067. PMID 15352089.

Rampe EB, et al., Mineralogy and geochemistry of sedimentary rocks and eolian sediments in Gale
crater, Mars: A review after six Earth years of exploration with Curiosity, Geochemistry
(2020),January 2020, 125605 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemer.2020.125605

Retallack, G. J. (2015) Reassessment of the Silurian problematicum Rutgersella as another post-

Ediacaran vendobiont" Journal of Palaeontology 39(4). 10.1080/03115518.2015.1069483

Rizzo, V. (2020). Why should geological criteria used on Earthnot be valid also for Mars? Evi-
dence of possiblemicrobialites and algae in extinct Martian lakeslakes. International Journal of
Astrobiology, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1473550420000026

Rizzo, V., & Cantasano, N. (2009) Possible organosedimentary structures on Mars. International
Journal of Astrobiology 8 (4): 267-280.

Rizzo, V., Cantasano, N. (2016). Structural parallels between terrestrial microbialites and Martian
sediments. International Journal of Astrobiology, doi:10.1017/S1473550416000355.

Rosing, M. T., 1999. C-13-depleted carbon microparticles in > 3700-Ma sea-floor sedimentary
rocks from west Greenland. Science 283, 674-676.

Rosing, M. T., Frei, R., 2004. U-rich Archaean sea-floor sediments from Greenland - indications
of > 3700 Ma oxygenic photosynthesis. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 217, 237-244.

Rueden CT, Eliceiri KW (July 2007). "Visualization approaches for multidimensional biological
image data". BioTechniques. 43 (1 Suppl): 31, 33–6. doi:10.2144/000112511.

472 Journal of Cosmology, 2020, Vol 29, (1)

Ruff, S, W., Farmer, J.D., (2016). Silica deposits on Mars with features resemblinghot spring bi-
osignatures at El Tatio in Chile. Nature Communications, 7: 13554, DOI: 10.1038/Ncomms13554.

Sancho L. G., de la Torre, R., Horneck, G., Ascaso, C. , de los Rios, A. Pintado,A., Wierzchos,
J.,Schuster, M. (2007). Lichens Survive in Space: Results from the 2005 LICHENS Experiment
Astrobiology. 7, 443-454.
Santelli, C.M., Webb, S.M., Dohnalkova, A.C., Hansel, C.M. (2011). Diversity of Mn oxides pro-
duced by Mn(II)-oxidizing fungi. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 75: 2762-2776.

Schidlowski, M.A., 3800-million-year isotopic record of life from carbon in sedimentary rocks,
Nature , 1988, vol. 333, pp. 313–335.

Schidlowski, M.A., Carbon isotopes as biogeochemical recorders of life over 3.8 Ga of Earth his-
tory: evolution of a concept, Precambr. Res. , 2001, vol. 106, pp. 117–134.

Schopf, J.W. (2004). Earth’s earliest biosphere: status of the hunt. In: The Precambrian Earth:
Tempos and Events, Ed P.G. Eriksson, W. Altermann, D.W. Nelson, W.U. Mueller, and O. Ca-
tuneanu. Elsevier, New York, pp 516-539.

Schopf, J.W., Kudryavtsev, A.B., Czaja, A.D., Tripathi, A.B. (2007). Evidence of Archean life:
stromatolites and microfossils. Precambrian Research 158: 141-155.

Schneider, C., Rasband, W. & Eliceiri, K. NIH Image to ImageJ: 25 years of image analysis. Nat
Methods 9, 671–675 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1038/nmeth.2089

Schulze-­‐‑Makuch, D., et al. (2005). Scenarios for the evolution of life on Mars, Journal of Geo-
physical Research: Planets, 110, E12.

Small, L. W, (2015). On Debris Flows and Mineral Veins - Where surface life resides on Mars.
https://www.scribd.com/doc/284247475/On-Debris-Flows-eBook.

Squyres, S. W., Knoll, A. H., (2006) Sedimentary rocks at Meridiani Planum: Origin, diagenesis,
and implications for life on Mars. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 240, 1-10

Squyres, S. W. et al. Overview of the Opportunity Mars Exploration Rover mission to Meridiani
Planum: Eagle Crater to Purgatory Ripple. J. Geophys. Res. 111 E12S12 doi:
10.1029/2006JE002771 (2006).

Syed A, Armstrong RA. Smith CUM (2000) Quantification of axonal loss in Alzheimer’s disease:
an image analysis study. Alzheimer’s Reports 3: 19-24.

Tashiro, T., Ishida, A., Hori, M., Igisu, M., Koike, M., M.jean, P., Takahata, N., Sano, Y., and
Komiya, T., Early trace of life from 3.95 Ga sedimentary rocks in Labrador,
Canada, Nature , 2017, vol. 549, no. 7673, pp. 516–518. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature24019

473 Journal of Cosmology, 2020, Vol 29, (1)

Taylor, P. D., Vinn, O.,m Wilson, M. A. (2010). Evolution of biomineralization in lophophorates,
In Alvarez, F and Curry, GB (Eds). EVOLUTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE BRACHI-
OPOD SHELLPublisher: PALAEONTOLOGICAL ASSOCiation, Special Papers in Palaeontol-
ogy 84(84):317-333.
Thomas-Keprta, K. L., et al. (2009). Origins of magnetite nanocrystals in Martian meteorite
ALH84001. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 73, 6631-6677.

Tosca, N. J., Scott M. McLennan M. Darby Dyar Elizabeth C. Sklute F. Marc Michel, Fe
oxidation processes at Meridiani Planum and implications for secondary Fe mineralogy on Mars,
JGR Planets, 113, E5, 2008

Trainer, M.G., et al. (2019) Seasonal Variations in Atmospheric Composition as Measured in Gale
Crater, Mars, JGR Planets, 124, 3000-3024, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019JE006175

Vago, J.L., Westall, F., Pasteur Instrument Teams, Landing Site Selection Working Group, and
Other Contributors, 2017. Habitability on Early Mars and the Search for Biosignatures with the
ExoMars Rover. Astrobiology, 17 (6-7), DOI: 10.1089/ast.2016.1533.

Valtonen, M., et al. (2008). Natural Transfer Of Viable Microbes In Space From Planets In Extra-Solar
Systems To A Planet In Our Solar System And Vice Versa, The Astrophysical Journal, Volume 690, Num-
ber 1

Vannier, J., Gaillard, I., Christian, G., Żylińska A. (2010). Priapulid worms: Pioneer horizontal
burrowers at the Precambrian-Cambrian boundary Geology 38(8).:711-714.
DOI: 10.1130/G30829.1

Vickers-Rich, P., Komarower, P. (2007) The Rise and Fall of the Ediacaran Biota, Geological
Society, ISBN: 978-1-86239-233-5.

Wacey, D., Saunders, M., Kong, C., Brasier, A., Brasier, M. (2016). 3.46 Ga Apex chert ‘microfossils’
reinterpreted as mineral artefacts produced during phyllosilicate exfoliation. Gondwana Research 36,
296-313.

Wallis, M.K. and Wickramasinghe, N.C., 2004. Interstellar transfer of planetary microbiota, Mon.
Not. R. Astron. Soc. 348, 52–61 doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.07355.x

Webster, C.R. et al. (2018). Background levels of methane in Mars' atmosphere show strong sea-
sonal variations Science 360,1093-1096.

Wickramasinghe, N.C., Wallis, J., Wallis, D.H., Schild, R.E., Gibson, C.H. 2012. Life-bearing
primordial planets in the solar vicinity. Astrophys. Space Sci 341, 295-299.

Williams, A.J., Sumner, D.Y., Alpers, C.N., Karunatillake, S., Hofman, B. (2015) Preserved fila-
mentous microbial biosignatures in the Brick Flat Gossan, Iron Mountain, California. Astrobiology
15: 637-668.

474 Journal of Cosmology, 2020, Vol 29, (1)

 Yen, A. S., Ming, D. W., Vaniman, D. T., Gellert, R., Blake , D. F., Morris, R. V., et al. (2017).
Multiple stages of aqueous alteration along fractures in mudstone and sandstone strata in Gale
crater, Mars. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 471, 186–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
epsl.2017.04.033

Yu, A., et al. (2010). New finds of skeletal fossils in the terminal Neoproterozoic of the Siberian
Platform and Spain, Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 57 (1), 2012: 205-224 doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.4202/app.2010.0074.

Zhang, Z. -F. et al. (2014). An early Cambrian agglutinated tubular lophophorate with brachiopod
characters, Scientific Reports, 4, 4682, doi: 10.1038/srep04682.

Zhdanova, N. N., T. Tugay, J. Dighton, V. Zheltonozhsky and P McDermott, (2004) Ionizing ra-
diation attracts soil fungi." Mycol Res. 2004, 108: 1089-1096.

475 Journal of Cosmology, 2020, Vol 29, (1)

View publication stats