Re American Journal of Freie Metin and Patons
December 1984
Ana Maris Di Lonardo Cris
ian Orrego*
Pierre Darlu Mary-Claire King*
Max Baur
Human genetics an
d human rights
Identifying the families of kidnapped children
ABSTRACT Between 1975 and 1983 in Argentina, at
least 145 children were kidnapped with their parents or
born in capt vity to imprisoned women and then separated
from their mothers. The parents of these children gener-
ally remain among the missing persons. However, the
grandparents of the kidnapping victims and the Argen-
tinian government are concerned with identifying these
children. Genetic analysis can ad in determining whether
a child who may be among the kidnap victims is related
biologically to a particular family. Laboratory analysis
of genetic markers in human blood enables te calculation
of an “index of grandpaternity.” This index reflects the
probability that a child shares genes with a specified set
of grandparents because he is their grandchild eompared
to the probability he and they share similar genes only by
chance. The most useful system for this analysis is HLA,
although otter genetic markers including blood groups,
red cell enzymes, plasma proteins, and DNA polymor-
pphisms ean be tested to provide adequate information in
families with only one or two living grandparents. This
approach has been applied successfully in Argentina, with
an index of prandpaternity for one family of 99.9%, based
on HLA typing only,
From Laboratorio Inmunolgis. Hospital Carlos G. Durand
Bucnos Airs, Argentine (AMDL) Groupe de Recherches de
Genetigue Epidemiciogque, INSERM, Chatese de
Longehamp, Pars France (PD Bometrsche Abtellung és
Diabetes orschungsintuts, Dussiéork West Germany
(MB): Laboratory of Molecular Blogs. National Institutes
St Health, Bethsds, Marsland (CO); and Schoo of Pubic
Heath. Unversty of Calfornia Berkely, California (Mt
ra)
INTRODUCTION
In Argentina, since the early 1970s and particularly
following the March 1976 military coup, “disap-
pearance” virtually replaced formal arrest and im-
prisonment of real or imagined opponents of the
government.()) The involvement of the military
government in the disappearances subsequent to the
coup was documented in 1980 by the Inter-Ameri-
can Commission on Human Rights (ICHR) of the
Organization of American States. The ICHR af-
firmed itself to be“... morally convinced that, in
general, these (governmental) authorities could not
have been ignorant of the events (disappearances)
as they were occurring and did not adopt the nec-
essary measures to terminate them.") Following
democratic elections in Argentina in 1983, the
National Commission on the Disappearance of
Persons was established in December of that year.
It has received testimony concerning 8,800 persons
who disappeared in the preceding 10 years.) The
‘Commission, as well as human rights organizations
in Argentina, believe the actual number of “miss-
ing” persons to be considerably higher.
These abductions, carried out by special intelli-
* Member ofa scientific delegation sponsored by the American
{Association for the Advancement of Science that traveled to
‘Argentina in June 1984, atthe request of the National Com
mission on the Disapperance of Persons of the Republic of
Argentina
339Human genetics and human rights
gence units of the military and police, also included
children and pregnant women.) One hundred
forty-five cases of missing children have been doc-
umented by the Grandmothers of the Plaza de
Mayo.) a human rights group formed in 1977,
Sources of information about these children have
been primarily witnesses later released from de-
tention and torture centers. In addition, the
Grandmothers have taken note of potentially forged
birth certificates with information that matched
disappeared infants. Of the missing children, 120 are
known to have been born during the detention of
their mothers. Nearly all of these mothers remain
among the missing. The rest of the children were
abducted with their parents. To date, the Grand-
mothers have located 25 children and have evidence
that some of them are living with families of the
same military personnel responsible for the disap-
pearance of their parents. Circumstantial evidence
is generally not adequate to establish the biological
relationship of such children and their possible rel-
atives. Therefore, the Argentinian National Com-
mission on the Disappearance of Persons and the
Grandmothers of the Plaza de Mayo asked us to
investigate how genetic analysis could be used to test
whether a child is biologically related toa known set
of grandparents.
METHODS
1e approach
The use of genetic analysis to determine paternity
in cases of disputed parentage is well established in
civil courts in Europe and North America. !2) An
analogous method can be used to establish grand-
paternity. The biological basis of the approach is
that whereas many features of a child can be al-
tered—his clothes, his name, his hair color, even his
morphological features—his genes never change,
nor do the genes of his true family. Thus the evi-
dence for relationship of a child to his true, biological
family remains with that child and his biological
relatives forever. Similarly, the evidence that can
prove that a child is nor the biological child of the
couple with whom he is living remains with these
individuals forever. If the family with whom the
kidnapped child now lives falsely maintains that they
are the biological parents, itis possible to disprove
such a claim, Furthermore, it is possible to deter-
mine the probability that a family looking for their
grandchild has in fact located their true grand-
child.
‘A hypothetical family of interest is illustrated in
Figure 1: other family structures are of course pos-
340
i
ir
‘A hypothetical family ofa kidnapped child, The child indicated
by the square at the bottom of the pedigree may be the grandson
of the four grandparents at the top of the figure, The child's
Parents are assumed to be dead. Squares represent males: circles
females; slashes deceased persons. Designations I, 5, ete, indicate
genotypes at a hypothetical genetic marker with eight alleles.
Using genetic analysis, itis possible to determine the probability
thatthe childs 1,8 because hes related to this family rather than
sharing alleles 1 and 5 with these individuals only by chance,
sible as well. In this ease, a child was kidnapped or
born in captivity to two parents who have disap-
peared and are presumed dead. Suppose all four
grandparents are living, but the child has no siblings,
uncles, or aunts. A child has been located who is
potentially the grandchild in this family. Blood
samples are drawn from each of these five people by
venipuncture, Twenty to thirty millimeters are
drawn into liquid heparin or acid citrate dextrose
and delivered to an appropriate tissue typing labo-
ratory within 24-48 hours. The genes examined may
include those coding for human leukocyte antigens,
of HLA," blood groups,'4) red cell enzymes,(15)
and plasma proteins. In addition, genetic markers
‘can be examined at the DNA level using restriction
enzyme analysis of DNA. polymorphisms.(!6.!7)
Table | indicates the most informative genetic
markers. Each of these genes is present in various
forms in nearly every ethnic group.('*) Each genetic
variant is benign, and their physiological functions
are irrelevant to testing genetic relationships. Every
person has two copies of each gene, one copy in=
herited from his mother and one from his father. The
parents, in turn, have inherited their genes from the
grandparents. Thus for each gene, a grandchild in-
herits one copy from his maternal grandparents and
one copy from his paternal grandparents.
Consider only one gene in the family described
Suppose this gene exists in eight forms, or alleles,
and the tested individuals have the combinations of
alleles, or genotypes, indicated below:
Paternal grandfather 12
Paternal grandmother 34
Maternal grandfather 56
Maternal grandmother 78
Hypothetical grandchild 1s
The American Journal of Forensic Medicine and PathologyDi Lonardo et al.
TABLE 1
Gonetic Markers Particularly Useful for Estimati
of Far
ies and Kidnapped Children
Genetic Marker Abbreviation ‘No. of Alleles or Haplotypes
1. Human leukocyte antigens HLA-A, B, DR ~8,000
2. Blood groups
Rhesus BH 8
Duty FY 3
Kidd uk 2
MNSs MNS 4
Kell K 2
3. Red cell enzymes and plasma proteins
Phosphoglucomutase Pomt 4
Acid phosphatase ACPI 3
Transferrin TF 5
Vitamin D binding globulin Go 3
Galactose-1-phosphate uridy! transferase GALT 3
Adenylate kinase AKA 3
‘Transcobalamin I T2 4
Esterase 0 ESD 3
Proteaso inhibitor PL 5
Glutamate-pyruvate transaminase ert 4
Haptoglobin HPA 4
Peptidace A EPA 2
Third component of complement os 3
‘Adenosine deaminase ‘ADA 3
Immuno globin heavy chain om 8
4. DNA polyniorphisms
{AS of 1984, approximately 150 different DNA polymorphisms are known. The number of alleles ps
marker varies trom
two to dozens. New DNA polymorphisms are detected monthly. At ths ime, each laboratory screening ONA polymorphisms
Uses a fraction of the markers available, so the DNA polymorphisms to be teste fora family will depend on the collaborating
laboratory. Frequencies for DNA polymorphisms are now being estimated by several groups. At present, DNA polymor-
phisms need to be used with caution, because litle information on gene frequencies is available. In the future, ONA
polymorphisms will be extremely informative, DNA trom family members or kidnapped children can be preserved and
Aditional DNA markers screened in the future as necessary.
* Genes with th most alleles are generally the most informative. Markers with codominant alleles are moro informative than markers with
dominance. For many families, HLA testing wil be sufficient. For sil more families, screening HLA ard blood groups willbe adequate. Tho
‘other genotic markers can be used for lames with few surviving relatives.
Suppose also that the eight alleles of this gene are
equally frequent in the population from which this
family is drawn. Clearly this child could be the
grandchild of these grandparents, because his alleles
(1 and 5) are among those of the grandparents.
However. in principle, he could have these forms of
this gene sir ply by chance, especially if alleles | and
5 are common in the population. We have chosen to
work throuzhout our studies with genetic markers
for which all alleles can be distinguished from one
another: i.e., codominant markers for which gen-
types are equivalent to phenotypes. For such ge-
netic markers, this information is used to calculate
the probabi ity P(gp|c) that these ancestors are the
true biological grandparents (gp), given the phe-
notype of the child (c). From Bayes theorem we
know that
Pax Plo
Peaple) = 22% Pele)
, Poi X (clan)
December 1984
where Po; is the prior probability of relationship of
this child to the ith set of grandparents in the pop-
ulation, and P(c|gp)) is the probability of the child’s
phenotype given the ith set of grandparents. If all
members of the population are hypothetically
equally probable ancestors, then:
PoX Plclep)
"0X PCe|gp) + (IPP)
where P, is the prior probability of relationship of
this child to these grandparents, P(c|gp) is the
probability of this child’s phenotype if these are his
true grandparents, and P(c) is the probability of this
child's phenotype if he were drawn at random from
the population, rather than this particular family,
We call P(gp|c) the “index of grandpaternity.”
Of the three probabilities contributing to the
index of grandpaternity P(gp|c), P(c|gp) is derived
directly from the pedigree data as described below.
P(c) is based on the frequencies of the child's alleles
in the population, which are published for the larger
Plgple) =
341Human genetics and human rights,
populations of the world,("?18-' and Po is the prior
probability of relationship of this child to these
grandparents, based on nongenetic evidence. For
kidnapped children, such evidence might include
suspicious birth certificates and testimony of wit-
nesses.
Because Po is not based on genetic analysis, it is
inevitably somewhat arbitrary. However, the choice
of Po has little influence on the final estimate, be-
cause the estimate of P(gp|c) from the first genetic
marker is used as the prior probability P, for the
estimate of the probability of grandpaternity using
the second genetic marker, and so on in a stepwise
fashion. The final probability of grandpaternity does
not depend on the order in which genetic markers
introduced, and is little influenced by the original
estimate of Py when many markers are investi-
gated.®) By analogy with the index of paternity,(®
we set P, = 0.50 for the first genetic marker, so
that:
—Piclep)__
P(lgp) + Plc)
For the family in Figure 1, itis straightforward
tocalculate P(gp|c). First, we calcualte P(c|gp), the
probability of this child given these grandparents,
‘The probability that the paternal grandparents
transmit allele | to the child, if he is in fact their
grandchild, is 0.25, since there are four alleles
present in this couple and one of the four is inherited
by the grandchild. Similarly, the probability that the
maternal grandparents transmit allele 5 to the child
is 0.25, Thus the probability that this child has
phenotype 1,5, if he is a grandchild in this family,
is P(c|gp) = (0.25) (0.25) = 0.625.
Next, we calculate P(c), the probability that this
child has genotype 1,5 without being related to this
family at all. We have assumed that alleles 1
through 8 at this genetic marker are equally fre-
quent in this population. Therefore fi = fs = 0.125.
Furthermore, P(c) = 2fyfs because a child of ge-
chosen at random from the population
allele 1 from his mother and 5 from his
father, or vice versa. Thus, P(c) = 2(0.125) (0.125)
= 0.03125. Therefore, for this marker:
0.625
0.625 + 0.03125
‘That is, based on this one marker only, the proba-
bility that this child is the grandchild of these
grandparents is 66.7%.
‘Suppose now we test another, independent genetic
marker in the same family, with the following re-
sults:
Peeplc!
Pgple 667
Paternal grandfather Wl
342
Paternal grandmother 1
Maternal grandfather 1
Maternal grandmother 1
Hypothetical grandchild 1
‘Suppose also that for this marker allele 1 is very
common in this population, with a frequency of 0.99,
and that allele 2 is rare, with a frequency of 0.01.
Then P(c|gp) = (1.0) (0.25) = 0.25, P(c) = 2(0.99)
(0.01) = 0.0198, and P, = 0.667, so:
(0.667) (0.02:
(0.667) (0.25) + 1(1-0.667) (0.0198)
= 0.962
Pigple)
Thus, based on two independent genetic markers,
the index of grandpaternity in this hypothetical
family is 96.2%.
The most informative situations are clearly those
in which a child shares a rare allele with a grand-
parent. It may be necessary to test many genetic
markers to find such an allele, in which case all
markers are incorporated into the probability esti-
mate. Of course, if a child carries an allele at any
marker not present in one of the hypothetical
grandparents, that is adequate evidence to exclude
the possibility of relationship, assuming tests are
properly conducted and no new mutations have oc-
curred. Common alleles shared by the child and his
hypothetical grandparents will have little influence
on P(gp|c).
Incorporating linked markers
The most informative genetic markers, such as
HLA, consist of two or more genes closely linked on
the same chromosome, so they are inherited as a
unit. Under the assumption that the child is related
to the hypothetical grandparents, it is generally
possible to construct all potential HLA haplotypes
for each relative given the antigens present in each
individual. Therefore, P(c|gp) can be calculated as
before, considering HLA to be just one marker.
Next, to estimate the probability P(c), that this child
exists in this population independently of these
grandparents, we must consider all possible com-
binations of haplotypes. That is, if an individual
carries two antigen specificities for HLA-A, two for
HLA-B, and two for HLA-DR, eight pairs of hap-
lotypes are possible. To estimate P(c) for each
possible pair of haplotypes i and j, we calculate 2fifj,
and P(c) is the sum of up to eight terms of this form,
For each possible haplotype i, f; will be very small,
so P(c) will be small despite the several terms that
contribute to it. Haplotype frequencies for HLA and
for MNSs are published for most of the world’s
populations, so these calculations are feasi-
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