Professional Documents
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In order to improve learning outcomes the Department of Basic Education conducted research
to determine the specific areas that learners struggle with in Grade 12 examinations. The research
included a trend analysis by subject experts of learner performance over a period of five years
as well as learner examination scripts in order to diagnose deficiencies or misconceptions in
particular content areas. In addition, expert teachers were interviewed to determine the best
practicesto ensure mastery of thetopic by learners and improve outcomes in terms of quality and
quantity.
The results of the research formed the foundation and guiding principles for the development of
the booklets. In each identified subject, key content areas were identified for the development of
material that will significantly improve learner's conceptual understanding whilst leading to improved
performance in the subject.
The booklets are developed as part of a series of booklets, with each bookletfocussing onlyon
one specific challenging topic. The selected content is explained in detail and include relevant
concepts from Grades 10 - 12 to ensure conceptual understanding.
The main purpose of these booklets is to assist learners to master the content starting from a
basic conceptual level of understanding to the more advanced level. The content in each booklets
is presented in an easy to understand manner including the use of mind maps, summaries and
exercises to support understanding and conceptual progression. These booklets should ideally
be used as part of a focussed revision or enrichment program by learners after the topics have
been taught in class. The booklets encourage learners to take ownership of their own learning
and focus on developing and mastery critical content and skills such as reading and higher order
thinking skills.
Teachers are also encouraged to infuse the content into existing lesson preparation to ensure in-
depth curriculum coverage of a particular topic. Due to the nature of the booklets covering only
one topic, teachers are encouraged to ensure learners access to the booklets in either print or
digital form if a particular topic is taught.
Table of Contents
1. Foreword i
ii
2. HOW TO USE THIS BOOKLET
This booklet serves as a guide to understanding Grade 12 Physical Sciences. It does not, however,
replace your textbook. The authors have used their experience and focused their attention on the
areas that learners seem to struggle with a lot. The book focuses mostly on the challenges that
have been observed from learners’ responses in the Grade 12 national examinations over the
past few years.
This guide aims to help explain the concepts in your regular textbook further. It also offers more
exercises that serve as building blocks to your own understanding of what is expected of you
in these topics. The book draws on the basic knowledge acquired in the lower grades and
demonstrates how this knowledge fits in with the new chapters encountered in Grade 12, starting
from atomic theory. Figure 1 on section 4 of this book, shows how your study of chemistry is
related to the atomic theory. It is therefore important to remember this theory, the properties of the
parts of an atom and the role that they play throughout chemistry.
The chemistry in your textbook is presented in chapters and sections, but remember to integrate
these chapters when you answer questions, because everything is interrelated. Science, as an
expression of nature, draws from nature; therefore, do not think of concepts in isolation from what
you already know about chemistry or physics! Use the information learnt in other sections to solve
the problems at hand.
All the questions in this booklet have solutions. Some questions have been sourced from past
papers, while the rest were sourced elsewhere. Study each question carefully and make sure that
you understand the steps taken to solve the question. Try some of the questions without looking
at the solutions. After completing an exercise, check your solutions against the answers. Move
on to the rest of the questions and try to understand why you were wrong in instances when you
were actually wrong.
Do not hesitate to ask your teacher if you struggle with any of the exercises.
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3. STUDY AND EXAMINATION TIPS
As you prepare to write your examination, it is important to understand the rules, laws and
concepts that govern certain aspects of your work. Ensure that you understand these rules/
laws/ definitions and concepts very well. Understand what they mean, where they apply,
when they apply, and also when and where they do not apply.
Develop a study timetable and try to be loyal to the time allocated to studying.
Always:
1. Start with the questions that you know you are able to answer.
2. Read the question that you are working on carefully.
3. Understand what it says and what is required of you.
4. Write down the information that you have.
5. Write down the information that you do not have.
6. Use existing information to derive what you need in order to solve the question.
7. All questions have hints that point to the answer.
8. Check your work by going through these steps again.
2
3.3 Overview of electrochemistry
Electrochemistry, as studied in this grade, does more than just show how electrons gained
or lost electrons and form new products using redox reactions. It shows how electrons, if
provided with a pathway can produce light. It also show how electricity can cause a chemical
change by donating electrons to ions and form compounds or elements from ions in solution.
An atom in a different oxidation state displays characteristics that are different from those of
the atom before it changed its oxidation state. The difference could be in the state, colour,
reactivity, etc.
3
4. THE ATOMIC THEORY: ITS PLACE IN CHEMISTRY
Atoms
According to the atomic theory, everything
around us is made up of atoms: food,
medicine, clothes, furniture, plants, animals,
and solutions.
4
Atoms in the periodic table naturally occur as
elements within compounds in nature.
(CAPS, p. 134–137)
This is the name of the process whereby electron(s) are removed from an
atom. Reduction happens when an atom gains electron(s).
Chemical and physical properties of atoms are unique to atoms. An
atom has the same number of protons and electrons. When oxidation or
reduction takes place and one or more electrons are removed or added
to the atom in question, the atom or compound acquires a charge as well
as different physical and chemical properties to those of the original atom
before the removal or addition of electrons. Most noticeable with some
atoms is the colour change.
Note that charged ions will usually exist in solution, e.g. H+ and OH-
(water).
Oxidation brings about charge as well a physical and chemical change.
Oxidation
Changes from Fe2+ Very pale green to
Fe3+ Very pale violet/ brown
Cl2 + H2 → HCl (H+ Cl-)
0 0 1 -1
Oxidation states:
Reduction
In the above reaction, hydrogen gas is added to chlorine gas to form
hydrogen chloride. Thus, chlorine gas is being reduced (from an oxidation
state of 0 to -1) to form hydrochloric acid.
5
Both oxidation and reduction take place. An electron that is given away is readily accepted
in the same reaction. When an electron leaves an atom, it is accepted by another atom in
the same reaction. Hence, the term redox.
TERMINOLOGY
Pay extra attention to the following terminology. Most learners find it very confusing.
Oxidising agent and reducing agent
The oxidation state for copper in CuO in this reaction is 2+ while the oxidation state of oxygen
is 2-. The product of this reaction is Cu0 and H2O. The oxidation state of Cu is now 0 and not
-2 anymore. CuO is an oxidising agent, while H2 is a reducing agent.
A substance that is oxidised, loses electrons. It is called a reducing agent because the
electrons it loses reduce another atom or compound.
6
WORKED EXAMPLES
Activity
1. Calculate the oxidation number for carbon in each of the following compounds:
(a) diamond, C; (b) dry ice, CO2; (c) marble, CaCO3 ;(d) baking soda, NaHCO3
Solution
Begin by recalling that the charge on an ion corresponds to the sum of the oxidation numbers.
For example:
(a) In S2–, the oxidation number of sulphur is 2–.
(b) In SO3 2–, the polyatomic anion has a charge of 2–. Assign oxygen an oxidation number
of –2 and write the equation.
(c) In SO4 2–, the polyatomic anion has a charge of 2–. Assign oxygen an oxidation number
of –2 and write the equation
(d) In S2O3 2–, the polyatomic anion has a charge of 2–. Assign oxygen an oxidation number
of –2 and write the equation.
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4.2 Electrochemistry - a special case of redox reactions
In electrochemistry, the movement of electrons between the metals and ions from species
is directed by using a conducting wire. These electrons then produce energy in the form of
light, heat or power to drive electronic apparatus and machinery. There are many factors that
determine if electrons will readily leave their atom or readily accept electrons. The standard
reduction potential table reflects that potential.
While the galvanic cell produces electricity, the electrolytic cell needs electricity.
Differences between a galvanic cell and an electrolytic cell
8
Galvanic cell Electrolytic cell
1. In a galvanic cell, electrical energy is 1. In electrolytic cell, electrical energy is
produced. consumed.
2. In a galvanic cell, the reaction taking 2. In an electrolytic cell, the reaction that
place is spontaneous. takes place is non-spontaneous - hence
3. The two half cells are set up the need for electricity.
in different containers and are 3. Both electrodes are placed in the solution
connected through a salt bridge or or molten electrolyte in the same container.
porous partition. 4. In an electrolytic cell, the electrons
4. In a galvanic cell, electrons migrate migrate from the anode and migrate to the
to an anode and migrate from a cathode.
cathode. 5. Electrons are supplied by the external
5. The electrons move from the anode source. They enter through the cathode
to cathode in an external circuit. and come out through the anode.
4.2.2.1 ELECTROLYTIC CELLS DRIVE CHEMICAL REACTIONS WHEN ELECTRICAL ENERGY IS APPLIED
The most familiar example of electrolysis is the decomposition (breakdown) of water into
hydrogen and oxygen by means of an electric current. This gives rise to what is generally
termed a hydrogen fuel cell.
The elements, as they appear on the periodic table, are not necessarily found as
elements in nature. They are found in compounds. Nature and human beings have
developed methods of isolating (decomposition/ breakdown) these elements from their
compounds into individual elements, as represented in the periodic table.
Electrolysis is one of the methods used to break down compounds into the desired
elements.
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Electrolysis is the process that can be used to decompose compounds other than water.
An example of electrolysis is the isolation of sodium chloride (table salt) into sodium (Na)
and chlorine (Cl) from sodium chloride. In isolating Na and Cl, an electrochemical cell is set
up by immersing two electrodes in molten NaCl. Chemical reactions occur at each electrode
as electrons are pumped by the energy source from one electrode to the other, causing the
decomposition of NaCl.
Magnesium and aluminium are elements produced commercially by electrolysis from their
compounds.
Remember that all atoms are surrounded by electrons. These electrons, when directed, go
into what seems like a flow (and generally called a flow). This flow gives us electricity. Some
chemical reactions are therefore used to generate electricity, e.g. batteries (a chemical
reaction that produces electrical light).
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An electrode is a conductor that is used to make contact with a non-metallic part of a circuit.
This could be a gas or an aqueous solution.
The cathode supplies electrons to the positively charged cations, which flow to it from
the electrolyte (even if the cell is galvanic, i.e. when the cathode is positive and therefore
would be expected to repel the positively charged cations. This is due to electrode potential
relative to the electrolyte solution being.
11
4.2.2.3 CELL NOTATION
Worked activity
Describe, in shorthand notation, a galvanic cell for which the cell reaction is
Cu(s) +2Fe3+(aq)→Cu2+(aq)+2Fe2+(aq)
Solution
First divide the cell reaction into half-equations
• oxidation: Cu(s)→Cu2+(aq)+2e
• reduction: Fe3++e–→Fe2+
Then write the oxidation as the left-hand electrode, with the reduction on the right.
Cu|Cu2+||Fe2+,Fe3+|Pt
Since both Fe2+ and Fe3+ are aqueous solutions, a Pt electrode is used. Fe0 is the only
oxidation state that is not aqueous for this metal.
The standard reduction potentials are all based on the standard hydrogen electrode. By
using the table of reduction potentials, we can predict if the cell is spontaneous or not. If it is
not spontaneous, it needs electricity to react and it is an electrolytic cell.
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4.3 Examples of cells
13
4.3.2 FOR THE ZINC-COPPER CELL:
Calculations:
Eθcell = Eθcathode − Eθanode
Eθcell = 0,34 − (−0,76)
Eθcell = + 1,1 V
14
Please note:
Look at the following cell notations and insert commas in the correct place:
Activity
Build two spontaneous cells and two non-spontaneous cells using the table above.
15
5. ACTIVITIES AND SOLUTIONS
Exercise 1
1.1 Consider the electrochemical cell represented by the cell notation below, where X is an
unknown metal:
Write down:
1.2.1 The chemical symbol for the electrode in the cathode half-cell. (1)
1.2.2 The NAME of the oxidising agent. (1)
1.2.3 The overall balanced cell reaction that takes place in this cell. (3)
Solutions [14]
1.1.1 Galvanic cell ✓ (1)
1.1.2 Indicates phase boundary/ interphase / phase separator. ✓ (1)
1.1.3 Fe2+→ Fe3+ + e- ✓✓ (2)
1.1.4 EѲcell =EѲreduction − EѲoxidation ✓
0,03 ✓ = EѲreduction - (0,77) ✓
EѲreduction = 0,80 V ✓ = EѲX / X +
∴ X = Silver/Ag✓ (5)
1.2.1 Pt ✓ (1)
1.2.2 Iron(III) (ions)/ ferric ions ✓ (1)
1.2.3 2Fe3+ + Cu ✓→ 2Fe2+ + Cu2+✓ balancing ✓ (3)
[14]
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Exercise 2
2.1 A group of learners use the redox reaction below to construct an electrochemical cell:
2.1.2 Name a substance that should be used as an electrode in the anode half-cell. (1)
2.1.3 Write down the name or formula of the reducing agent. (1)
2.1.4 Calculate the initial emf of this cell under standard conditions. (4)
2.2 In a separate experiment, the learners place a magnesium ribbon in a beaker containing a
blue solution of copper (II) sulphate. After a while, the solution becomes colourless.
2.2.1 Besides the colour change of the solution, state ONE observable change in the
beaker with regard to the magnesium ribbon. (1)
2.2.2 Refer to the relative strengths of oxidising agents or reducing agents to explain why
the solution in the beaker changes colour from blue to colourless. (3)
Solutions [15]
2.1.1 A substance that loses/ donates electrons. ✓✓ (2)
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2.1.3 ✓Pt | Sn2+(aq) , Sn4+(aq) || ✓Ag+(aq) | Ag(s) ✓
OR
Pt| Sn2+(1 mol∙dm-3) ,Sn4+ (1 mol∙dm-3) || Ag+ (1 mol∙dm-3) | Ag(s) (3)
2.2.2 Cu2+ is a stronger oxidising agent (than Mg2+)✓ and will be reduced✓ to Cu. ✓ OR
Mg is a stronger reducing agent (than Cu) ✓ and will reduce Cu2+✓ to Cu. ✓ (3)
[15]
Exercise 3
3.1 Learners set up a galvanic cell and measure its emf under standard conditions.
3.1.3 Write down the overall (net) cell reaction that takes place in this cell when it is
working. (3)
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Different combinations of the half-cells above are compared to determine the highest emf
produced under standard conditions.
3.2.1 Write down the NAME of a suitable electrode for the half-cell Q. (1)
3.2.2 State the standard conditions under which the half-cells should operate to ensure a
fair comparison. (2)
3.2.3 Write down the name or formula of the strongest reducing agent in the half-cells
above. (1)
3.2.4 Which combination of half-cells will produce the highest emf? Choose from PR, PQ
or QR. (NO calculation is required.) (1)
[14]
Solutions
3.1.1 Voltmeter/ multimeter ✓ (1)
3.2.4 PQ ✓ (1)
[14]
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ELECTROLYTIC CELLS
Electroplating:
Electroplating is used to protect metals that oxidise easily, by covering them with a thin layer
of a metal that does not oxidise easily, e.g. chromium, silver or gold.
A relatively cheap metal is covered by an expensive metal.
Silver is used to cover cutlery, as it is too expensive to make a spoon of pure
silver, and it is too weak to use. Chromium can be used to cover car
parts like bumpers.
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• For example: electroplating a spoon
with silver. When the half reactions do
not include conductors/ metals (i.e.
when the half-cell involves gases/ ions),
unreactive/ inert electrodes are used,
e.g. carbon or platinum.
• The anode is silver. It will be oxidised
to Ag+ ions. The mass of the silver
electrode decreases.
• The cathode is the object (spoon) to be
plated. The Ag+ ions from the electrolyte
will be reduced to form silver metal,
which plates the spoon.
• The anode and electrolyte always
contain the plating metal.
The concentration of ions in the solution remains constant, as they are produced at
the same rate as they are used. Rate of oxidation = rate of reduction.
Oxidation half-reaction (anode): Ag(s) → Ag+(aq) + e –
Reduction half-reaction (cathode): Ag+(s) + e− → Ag(s)
Nett cell reaction : Ag+(aq) + Ag(s) → Ag+(aq) + Ag(s)
21
Refining of copper:
• When copper is purified, the process is
similar to that of electroplating.
• Impure copper is used, as the anode
and the cathode is pure copper.
• At the anode, the copper is oxidised to
produce Cu2+ ions in the electrolyte.
• The mass of the impure copper anode
decreases.
• At the cathode, the Cu2+ ions in the
electrolyte are reduced to form a pure
copper layer on the cathode.
• The mass of the cathode increases.
The other elements and compounds found in the impure copper anode are
precipitated to the bottom of the reaction vessel.
Oxidation half-reaction (anode): Cu(s) → Cu2+(aq) + 2e–
Reduction half-reaction (cathode): Cu2+(aq) + 2e–→ Cu(s)
Nett cell reaction: Cu2+(aq) + Cu(s) → Cu(s) + Cu2+(aq)
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Extraction of aluminium
• Aluminium is found in the mineral known as bauxite, which contains primarily
aluminium oxide (Al2O3) in an impure form.
• Bauxite is not found in South Africa, so it is imported from Australia for refining.
STEP 1
Converting impure Al2O3 to pure Al2O3 .
Bauxite treated with NaOH – impure Al2O3
becomes Al(OH)3.
Al(OH)3 is heated (T > 1000 °C).
Al(OH)3 becomes pure Al2O3, alumina.
STEP 2
Melting Al2O3 Alumina is dissolved in
cryolite (sodium aluminium hexafluoride –
Na3AlF6).
The melting point of Aℓ2O3 is higher
than 2 000°C. Cryolite is added to the
➢ Owing to the high temperature of the
ore before it is heated.
reaction, the oxygen produced reacts
Cryolite does not lower the melting point
with the carbon electrodes to produce
of Aℓ2O3 -it dissolves it.
carbon dioxide gas.
Aℓ2O3 dissolved in molten cryolite can be
The carbon electrodes therefore need
electrolysed easily.
to be replaced regularly.
Less electricity is required to extract
C + O2→CO2
the aluminium, thereby decreasing the
➢ Aluminium extraction uses a large
extraction cost.
amount of electrical energy ∴ the cost
STEP 3
of aluminium extraction is very high.
Molten alumina (Al2O3) – cryolite mixture
placed in reaction vessel.
Anodes (+) are carbon rods in a mixture.
Cathode (-) is the carbon lining of the tank.
At cathode Al3+ ions are reduced to Al metal.
Oxidation half-reaction (anode): 2O2−(aq) → O2(g) + 4e–
Reduction half-reaction (cathode): Al3+ (aq) + 3e− → Al (l)
Nett cell reaction : 2Al2O3 (aq) → 4Al(l) + 3O2(g)
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ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF THE EXTRACTION OF ALUMINIUM:
• The ecological impact of Aℓ extraction includes: loss of landscape due to the size of the
chemical plant needed; disposal of red mud (iron (III) oxide) formed during extraction
of aluminium oxide from bauxite, into rivers, lagoons and ground water.
• The environmental impact of Aℓ extraction include the following: carbon dioxide from
the burning of the anodes contributes to the greenhouse effect, which causes global
warming. Fluorine and its compounds lost are from the cryolite during the electrolysis
process and are poisonous. Chemicals in the red mud dams drain into the soil and
contaminate ground water.
• Pollution caused by power generation (for electrolytic process) using coal-fired plants
leads to acid rain and adds to the greenhouse effect.
• There is noise pollution from the extraction plant.
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Exercise 4
The diagram below shows an electrolytic cell that is used to electroplate an iron rod with
copper. Solution X is made up of an unknown nitrate.
4.1.1 Write down the general term used to describe these solutions. (1)
4.3 Which electrode (A or iron rod) is the negative electrode? Give a reason for your answer.
(2)
4.4 Write down the half reaction that takes place at electrode A. (2)
4.5 Electrode A is now replaced by a silver rod without making any other changes to the cell.
After a while, two metallic ions are found to be present in the solution.
4.5.1 Name the two metallic ions present in the solution. (2)
4.5.2 Refer to the relative strength of oxidising agents to explain which one of the
two ions will preferably be involved in the plating process. (2)
[11]
25
Solutions
4.1.1 Electrolyte✓ (1)
4.5.2 Ag+/silver (I) ions is a stronger oxidising agent than Cu2+/copper (II) ions✓ and will
be reduced more readily to form silver/Ag on the iron rod. ✓ (2)
[11]
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Exercise 5
The graph below represents the changes in mass that occur at electrode A and electrode B
in an electrolytic cell during purification of copper.
5.2 Which graph, A or B, represents the change in mass of the anode during electrolysis?
Motivate your answer. (2)
5.3 Write down the equation of the half-reaction that takes place at the cathode of this cell. (2)
5.4 Use the information in the graph to calculate the percentage purity of the impure copper. (4)
[10]
Solutions
5.1 The chemical process by which electrical energy is converted to chemical energy.
OR
The use of electrical energy to produce a chemical change. (2)
5.2 B.
The anode where oxidation takes place will be eroded and becomes small in size. (2)
m(Cu)
5.4 % Purity = x 100
m(Cu) impure
4,4✓
% Purity = x 100 ✓
5✓
% Purity = 88%✓ (4)
[10]
27
Exercise 6
The simplified diagram below represents an electrochemical cell used to refine copper. One
of the electrodes consists of impure copper.
6.1 What type of power source, AC or DC, is used to drive the reaction in this cell? (1)
6.2 When an electric current passes through the CuCℓ2(aq), the mass of electrode P
increases.
Is electrode P the cathode or the anode? Write down the relevant half-reaction to support
your answer. (3)
6.3 The impure copper contains zinc impurities that are oxidised to zinc ions.
Refer to the relative strengths of oxidising agents to explain why zinc ions will not influence
the quality of the pure copper produced in this cell. (3)
6.4.2 How will the concentration of the electrolyte change as the reaction proceeds?
Choose from increases, decreases or remains the same. (2)
[11]
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Solutions
6.1 DC ✓ (1)
6.2 Cathode ✓ ✓
Cu2+(aq) + 2e- → Cu ✓✓ (3)
6.3 Cu2+ is a stronger oxidising agent ✓ than Zn2+ ions ✓; therefore Zn2+ ions will not be
reduced (to Zn). ✓ (3)
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Exercise 7
Below are simplified diagrams of two electrochemical cells, A and B, which are used in
industry. Cell A is used in the purification of copper ore containing silver and platinum
impurities. Cell B is used to electroplate a bracelet with a layer of copper.
7.1 Write down the name of the type of electrochemical cell (electrolytic or galvanic) of which
the above two cells are examples. (1)
7.2 Pure copper is used as one of the electrodes in each of the cells above. In which cell (A or
B) is the pure copper the:
7.3.1 How will the intensity of the blue colour change whilst the cell is functioning? Write
down increases, decreases or remains the same. Give a reason for your answer. (3)
7.3.2 Write down the reaction that takes place at the pure copper electrode. (2)
7.4.1 Give a reason why the sludge formed in this cell is of economic importance. (1)
7.4.2 Name one negative impact that the energy usage in this process has on the
environment. (2)
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Solutions [11]
7.2.1 A ✓ (1)
7.2.2 B ✓ (1)
7.3.1 Remains the same. ✓ The rate of oxidation of copper at the anode is equal to the
rate of reduction of copper (II) ions at the cathode. ✓✓ (3)
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6. MESSAGE TO GRADE 12 LEARNERS FROM THE WRITERS
The author would like to wish you well in your examinations at the end of the year. Make use
of this material and your textbook to prepare for the finals.
Remember that you need to start now and not on the eve of the examination. It is never too
early to start.
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