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Introduction to Design Aspects of

ELECTRIC VEHICLE

Prof. M. M. Renge
Department of Electrical Engineering
Ramdeobaba College of Engineering and Management, Nagpur
 Outline

➢ Dynamics of vehicle
➢ Motors
➢ Converters
➢ Energy Storage
➢ Future Trend
 Dynamic Forces

➢ Aerodynamic drag force

➢ Rolling resistance losses
➢ Road inclination
➢ Vehicle acceleration
 Aerodynamic Drag

𝜌𝐶𝑑 𝐴𝑓 𝑉 2
𝐹𝑤 =
2
Where,
Ρ = air density
Cd = Drag coefficient
Af = Front area
V = speed of vehicle in m/s
 Aerodynamic Drag

𝜌𝐶𝑑 𝐴𝑓 𝑉 2
𝐹𝑥𝑣 =
2
Where,
Ρ = air density
Cd = Drag coefficient
Af = Front area
V = speed of vehicle in m/s
18-12-2020 11:36
 Aerodynamic Drag

18-12-2020 11:36
 Aerodynamic Drag

𝜌𝐶𝑑 𝐴𝑓 𝑉 2
𝐹𝑥𝑣 =
2
Where,
Ρ = air density
Cd = Drag coefficient
Af = Front area
V = speed of vehicle in m/s
40000

35000

30000

25000

20000

15000

10000

5000

0
0 50 100 150 200
 Rolling Resistance

The rolling resistance of tires on hard surfaces is due to hysteresis in the tire material.
On this tyre a force (Pr), is acting at its centre.

18-12-2020 11:36
 Rolling Resistance

➢ When the tire rolls, the leading half of the contact area is
Unloading
loading and the trailing half is unloading.

Loading ➢ The pressure on the leading half is greater than the pressure on
the trailing half.

➢ This phenomenon results in the ground reaction force shifting

forward. The shift in the ground reaction force creates a
moment that opposes rolling of the wheels.

On soft surfaces, the rolling resistance is mainly caused by

deformation of the ground surface. In this case the ground
reaction force almost completely shifts to the leading half. .

18-12-2020 11:36
 Rolling Resistance

To keeps the wheel rolling, a force Fr, acting on the centre of the
wheel is required to balance this rolling resistant moment. This
force is expressed as
𝐹𝑟 = 𝑓𝑟 𝑀𝑔
Unloading Loading
where
Pr = Normal load acting on the centre of the rolling wheel [N ]
fr = rolling resistance coefficient = a/rdye
rdye = dynamic radius of the tyre [ m]

18-12-2020 11:36
 Gradient Resistance
Grading resistance: When a vehicle goes up or down a slope, its weight produces a
component of force that is always directed downwards, as shown in figure. This force
component opposes the forward motion, i.e. the grade climbing. When the vehicle goes
down the grade, this force component aids the vehicle motion. The grading resistance can
be expressed as
𝐹𝑔 = 𝑀𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼
Fg = mass of vehicle [kg]
g = acceleration constant [m/s2][
α = road angle [radians]
In order to simplify the calculation, the road
angle a, is usually replaced by the grade
value, when the road angle is small.
The grade value is defined
𝐻
i = = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 ≈ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼
𝐿
18-12-2020 11:36
 Force

𝑑𝑉
𝑀 = 𝐹𝑤 − 𝐹𝑎 + 𝐹𝑟 + 𝐹𝑔
𝑑𝑡

Fxv Fw 𝑑𝑉 𝜌𝐶𝑑 𝐴𝑓 𝑉 2
𝑀 = 𝐹𝑤 − + 𝑓𝑟 𝑀𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 + 𝑀𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼
Vw 𝑑𝑡 2

𝑑𝑉
𝜔𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 =0
𝑑𝑡

𝜌𝐶𝑑 𝐴𝑓 𝑉 2
𝐹𝑤 = + 𝑓𝑟 𝑀𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 + 𝑀𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼
2
 Torque Speed Characteristics

Constant speed

Fxv Fw Slip speed: Difference between the

Vw circumferential speed of tire 𝑟𝑤 𝜔𝑠
and vehicle velocity
𝜔𝑠

Velocity/Speed Force/Torque Power

Wheel 𝑉𝑤 𝐹𝑤 = 𝐹𝑎 + 𝐹𝑟 + 𝐹𝑔 𝑃𝑤 = 𝐹𝑤 × 𝑉𝑤
𝜔𝑤 =
𝑟𝑤
Shaft 𝜔𝑤 𝑇𝑠 = 𝐹𝑤 × 𝑟𝑤 𝑃𝑠 = 𝑇𝑠 × 𝜔𝑠
𝜔𝑠 =
1 − 𝑠𝑤
IC Engine Characteristics

Gear System
IC Engine Characteristics

Gear System
Torque Speed Characteristics

DC Series Motor Induction Motor

SRM PMSM
 IC Engine Characteristics

20 30 40 42 50
Torque Tw in Nm/Force Fw in N

𝜌𝐶𝑑 𝐴𝑓 𝑉 2
𝐹𝑤 = + 𝑓𝑟 𝑀𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 + 𝑀𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼
2
60

Fxe Fxv
70

80
Fe

B 𝐹𝑒 > 𝐹𝑤
𝑑𝑉
A 𝑀 = 𝐹𝑒 − 𝐹𝑎 + 𝐹𝑟 + 𝐹𝑔
𝑑𝑡

Acceleration
 Induction Motor Characteristics

28Hz30 Hz 𝜌𝐶𝑑 𝐴𝑓 𝑉 2
𝐹𝑥𝑣 = + 𝑓𝑟 𝑀𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 + 𝑀𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼
2
𝐹𝑥𝑒 < 0
𝑑𝑉
𝑀 = 𝐹𝑥𝑒 − 𝐹𝑎 + 𝐹𝑟 + 𝐹𝑔 < 0
+T 𝑑𝑡

N<Ns Fxe Fxe Fxv

Speed in rpm or rad/s/Velocity in kmph

N>Ns
Fxe Deceleration

-T
Regenerative Braking
 Motors for Electric Vehicle

DC Motors AC Motors

Commutato Asynchronous
Homopolar Synchronous
r (Induction)

Single
Wound PM Polyphase
Phase

Series Shunt Compound

Sinusoidal Brushless Stepper Reluctance
 DC Motor
𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝐸𝑏 𝐼𝑎 = 𝐾𝑎 𝜔𝑒 𝐼𝑎 = 𝑇𝑒 𝜔𝑒
Vdc 𝑇𝑒
Vf 𝐼𝑎 =
𝐾𝑎
𝐸𝑏 𝑉𝑑𝑐 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎
𝜔𝑒 = =
𝐾𝑎 𝐾𝑎
Separately excited DC motor 𝐸𝑏 𝑉𝑑𝑐 𝑇𝑒 𝑅𝑎
𝜔𝑒 = = − 2
𝐾𝑎 𝐾𝑎 𝐾𝑎
DC machine dynamics
𝑉𝑑𝑐 𝑇𝑒 𝑅𝑎
𝑃𝜑𝑍𝑁 𝜔𝑒 60 𝜔𝑒 = − 2
𝐸𝑏 = ∴𝑁= 𝐾𝑎 𝐾𝑎
60𝐴 2𝜋 ωe
2𝜋𝑁 𝑉𝑑𝑐
𝑃𝜑𝑍𝜔𝑒 𝜔𝑒 = 𝜔𝑒0 = 𝑇𝑒 𝑅𝑎
𝐸𝑏 = 60 𝐾𝑎
𝐾𝑎2
2𝜋
𝐸𝑏 = 𝐾𝑎 𝜔𝑒 𝑃𝜑𝑍
𝐾𝑎 =
2𝜋
𝐸𝑏
𝜔𝑒 =
𝐾𝑎
Torque Te
 Field Control
DC Motor

Vdc Torque
Vf

Separately excited DC motor

Speed
ω1 ω2 ω3 ωeb ω4

Torque
 Field Control
DC Motor

Vdc Torque
Vf

Separately excited DC motor

Speed
ω1 ω2 ω3 ωeb ω4

Torque
 Field Control
DC Motor

Vdc Torque
Vf

0.7
Separately excited DC motor 0.8
0.85

Speed
ω1 ω2 ω3 ωeb ω4
 Electric Motor: Efficiency Map
Torque

0.7
0.8
0.85

Speed
ω1 ω2 ω3 ωeb ω4
 Induction Motor

CUT View of Induction Motor

Assembly of Induction Motor

 Torque Induction Motor
30 40 50
20 60
10 70
80

Speed

Voltage Boost V Constant

region

V V/f Constant
Constant
 PWM Inverter

Vdc/2
g Va
Vb
Vc

Vdc/2
 4 𝑉𝑑𝑐
𝑉1 =
𝜋 2
2
𝑉1𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑉
𝜋 𝑑𝑐
𝜋
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = 𝑉1𝑟𝑚𝑠
2
 SVPWM
(Space Vector PWM)

PW M Inverter Induction M otor

Vdc/2 SA = 1
g Va n
Vb
Vc
Vcom vag = 12 Vdc
Vdc/2

PW M Inverter Induction M otor

Vdc/2
g Va n SA = 0
Vb Vcom
Vc
vag = - 12 Vdc
Vdc/2
 SVPWM
(Space Vector PWM)

1
 SVPWM
(Space Vector PWM)

(101)

1
 SVPWM
(Space Vector PWM)

1 1

(100)

0 0

(101)

0
 SVPWM
(Space Vector PWM) (110)

1 1 1

(100)

0 0

(101)

0 0
 SVPWM
(Space Vector PWM) (110)
(010)

1 1 1

0 (100)

1 1

0 0

(101)

0 0 0
 SVPWM
(Space Vector PWM) (110)
(010)

1 1 1

0 0 (100)

(011)
1 1 1

0 0

(101)

1 1

0 0 0
 SVPWM
(Space Vector PWM) (110)
(010)

1 1 1

0 0 0 (100)

(011)
1 1 1

0 0 0

(001) (101)

1 1 1

0 0 0
 SVPWM
(Space Vector PWM) (110)
(010)

1 1 1

0 0 0 (100)

(011)
1 1 1

0 0 0

(001) (101)

1 1 1

0 0 0
 SVPWM
(Space Vector PWM) (110)
(010)

1 1 1

0 0 0 (100)

(011)
1 1 1

0 0 0

(001) (101)

1 1 1

0 0 0
 SVPWM
(Space Vector PWM) (110)
(010)

1 1 1

0 0 0 (100)

(011)
1 1 1

0 0 0

(001) (101)

1 1 1

0 0 0
 SVPWM
(Space Vector PWM)

(II) (110)
(010)

(I)
(III)
(100)

(011)

(VI)
(IV)

(101)
(001)
(V)
q

d
 SVPWM
(Space Vector PWM)

(II) (110)
(010)

(I)
(III)
(100)

(011)

(VI)
(IV)

(101)
(001)
(V)
 SVPWM
(Space Vector PWM)
qs
(II) (110)
(010) V2q (0.5,-√3/2)
(-0.5,√3/2) V2
(I)
(III)
Vq (100)
Vd
(-1,0) V0 ds
(011) V2d V1 (1,0)

(VI)
(IV)

(101) Vd T= V1dT1+ V2dT2

(-0.5,-√3/2) (001) (V) (0.5,-√3/2)
1
0 VqT= V1qT1+ +V2qT2
1
0
1 T0 =T - (T1+ T2)
0
T1 T2 T
0
 Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)

Voltage Harmonics Current Waveform Current Harmonics

Square Wave

Voltage Harmonics Current Waveform Current Harmonics

SPWM Technique
Multilevel Inverters
 Synchronous Motor

𝐼
Power Vt
δ
𝑃 = 3𝐸0 𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜙 + 𝛿)

Torque
𝑃 3𝐸0 𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙 + 𝛿 E0
𝑇= =
𝜔 𝜔

𝐸0 = 4.44𝑓 𝜑𝑇𝐾𝑑 𝐾𝑝

𝑃𝑁
f=
120

𝐸0 = 𝐾𝑏 𝑁
 Synchronous Motor

𝐼
Power Vt
δ
𝑃 = 3𝐸0 𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜙 + 𝛿)

Torque
𝑃 3𝐸0 𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙 + 𝛿 E0
𝑇= =
𝜔 𝜔

P
𝑇 ∝ 𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙 + 𝛿

𝑉𝑡 𝐸0
P= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛿
𝑋𝑠

𝑉𝑡 𝐸0
T= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛿
𝜔𝑋𝑠 δ
Synchronous Motor
Synchronous Motor
 Synchronous Motor

𝜑s
Vt
δ

𝜑f Ef

P P δ

t1 ω
t1 δ

ω t1
Synchronous Motor

𝜑s
Vt
δ

𝜑f
Ef
 Synchronous Motor

𝜑s
Vt
δ δ+∆δ

𝜑f

Ef

∆δ
Synchronous Motor

𝜑s
Vt
δ δ+∆δ

𝜑f
Ef
 Synchronous Motor

𝜑s
Vt
δ δ+∆δ

𝜑f
Ef

𝜕𝛿
∆δ 𝜔−
𝜕𝜔
ω
δ+∆δ
∆δ
ω
δ
∆t
 Synchronous Motor

I 𝜑s
Vt
δ δ+∆δ

∆δ
𝜑f
Ef
P P 𝜕𝛿
𝜔−
𝜕𝜔
t2 ω
t2
δ+∆δ
∆δ
t1 ω
t1 δ
∆t

ω δ
t1 t2
Power Speed characteristic P-δ Characteristic δ Vs time plot
 Synchronous Motor

< 1800

∆δ

T T 𝜕𝛿
𝜔−
𝜕𝜔
t2 ω
t2
δ+∆δ
∆δ
t1 ω
t1 δ
∆t

ω δ
t1 t2
Torque Speed characteristic T-δ Characteristic δ Vs time plot
 Synchronous Motor

< 1800

∆δ

T T 𝜕𝛿
𝜔−
𝜕𝜔
t2 ω
t2
δ+∆δ
Grade=15 %
∆δ
t1 ω
Grade=0 % t1 δ
∆t

ω δ
t1 t2
Torque Speed characteristic T-δ Characteristic δ Vs time plot
 Synchronous Motor

True
Synchronism
< 1800

∆δ

T T 𝜕𝛿
Grade=30 % 𝜔−
𝜕𝜔
t2 ω
t2
δ+∆δ
Grade=15 %
∆δ
t1 ω
Grade=0 % t1 δ
∆t

ω ω δ
t1 t2
Torque Speed characteristic T-δ Characteristic δ Vs time plot
 Synchronous Motor

True
Synchronism
< 1800

∆δ

T T 𝜕𝛿
Grade=30 % 𝜔−
𝜕𝜔
t2 ω
t2
δ+∆δ
Grade=15 %
∆δ
t1 ω
Grade=0 % t1 δ
∆t

ω ω δ
t1 t2
Torque Speed characteristic T-δ Characteristic δ Vs time plot
 Permanent Magnet (PM) Machines

By using high energy magnets such as rare earth based magnets, a PM machine drive
can be designed with
✓ high power density,
✓ high speed and
✓ high operation efficiency.
These advantages are attractive for their application in EVs and HEVs.
 Permanent Magnet (PM) Machines

The major advantages of PM machines are:

➢ High efficiency: The PM machines have a very high efficiency due to the use of PMs
for excitation which consume no power. Moreover, the absence of mechanical
commutators and brushes results in low mechanical friction losses.

➢ High Power density: The use of high energy density magnets has allowed achieving
very high flux densities in the PM machines. As a result of high flux densities, high
torque can be produced from a given volume of motor compared to other motors of
same volume.

➢ Ease of Control: THE PM motors can be controlled as easily as DC motors because

the control variables are easily accessible and constant throughout the operation of the
motor.
 Permanent Magnet (PM) Machines

PM machines also suffer from some disadvantages such as:

▪ Cost: Rare-earth magnets commonly used in PM machines are very expensive.

▪ Magnet Demagnetization: The magnets can be demagnetized by large opposing

magneto-motive force and high temperatures.

▪ Inverter Failure: Due to magnets on the rotor, PM motors present major risks in the
case of short circuit failures of the inverters. The rotor is always energized and
constantly induces EMF in the short circuited windings. A very large current
circulates in those windings and an accordingly large torque tends to block the rotor.
The dangers of blocking one or several wheels of a vehicle are non-negligible.
 Permanent Magnet (PM) Machines

➢ The PM machines are fed by DC-AC converter.

➢ By changing the frequency at which the gates are turned on, the frequency of the
output wave can be varied.to vary the speed.
➢ No commutator (like conventional DC motor) is required (brushless motor).
➢ The construction is robust, compact.
➢ There is no field current or rotor current in PMSM.
➢ The weight of the whole machine assembly is less.
➢ The copper loss due to current flow which is the largest loss in motor is about half that
of induction motor.
➢ Efficiency of the machine is high.
 Permanent Magnet (PM) Machines

Based on the shape of the back emf induced in the stator windings, the PM motors can
be classified into two types:

➢ Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine (PMSM) with sinusoidal back emf (Fig. 1).
➢ Brushless Permanent Magnet DC Machines (BLDC) with trapezoidal back emf (Fig. 2).

Fig. 1 Sinusoidal back emf Fig. 2 Trapezoidal back emf

 Permanent Magnet (PM) Machines
Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine Brushless DC Machines (BLDC)
(PMSM)
Back emf Sinusoidal Trapezoidal

Current Sinusoidal square

Torque Low high
Winding Distributed (more copper) Concentrated (less copper)
Sensor Resolver (expensive) Hall sensors (inexpensive)
PM usage Relatively small Large
Eddy current Relatively small (in PMs) Large
Control Complexity complicated Simple
Speed range wide Narrow
Inverter Price High Low
Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine (PMSM)
 Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine (PMSM)

Based on the construction of the rotor, the PM machines can be broadly classified into
three categories:
➢ Inner rotor machine (Figure 2a)
➢ Outer rotor machine (Figure 2b)
➢ Interior magnet rotor (Figure 2c)

Ref: NPTEL Notes (Module 7; Lecture 22.

 Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine (PMSM)

Realisation of Magnet Pole for Sinusoidal or trapezoidal distribution

 Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine (PMSM)

Shapes of Magnets Radial Magnets

(a) Rectangular (b) Radial (c) breadloaf (a) Surface radial Magnet
(b) Surface parallel magnet
 Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine (PMSM)

• The magnet flux leaves the PM and enters the stator in normal direction to
their surfaces.
• Radially magnetised magnets produce a rectangular flux density
distribution in air gap.
• Parallel magnetised magnets produce a sinusoidal air gap flux density
distribution.
 Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine (PMSM)

Flux and Flux density Radial Magnets

(a) Surface radial Magnet

(b) Surface parallel magnet

(a) Radial Magnet (b) Parallel magnet

 Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine (PMSM)

Radial or parallel magnetisation requires a back iron for the better utilisation of the magnet
 Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine (PMSM)

➢ In a machine, one side of the magnet array faces the stator through the air gap and
the other side sits on the rotor lamination.
➢ Both the rotor and stator have steel lamination

• Radial or parallel magnetisation requires a back iron for the better utilisation of the
magnet.
• To maximize magnet utilisation, iron is required on the both the top and bottom of
the magnet arrangement.
Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine (PMSM)

Halbach Magnet Array

Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine (PMSM)

Flux distribution of halbatch array

Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine (PMSM)

Flux distribution of halbatch array

Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine (PMSM)
Halbach array
➢ There is no flux at top of the magnet
➢ No iron is required
➢ The flux is much more focused.
➢ Higher magnetic potential (1.414 times the conventional)
➢ Leakage flux is negligible in inactive side.
➢ The flux can be focused in any direction as per requirement.
➢ Flux is down word (Interior) or upward exterior on the orientation.
➢ Flux density distribution is almost sinusoidal.
➢ No torque ripple.
➢ Cogging torque is less
➢ No back iron required
 Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine (PMSM)
Flux distribution of halbatch array

Outward Flux Distribution Inward Flux Distribution

Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine (PMSM)

a) Surface PM (SPM)
b) Surface Inset PM (SIPM)
c) Interior PM (IPM)
d) Interior PM with circumferential Orientation
 Brushless DC Motor(BLDC)

✓ Flux distribution is trapezoidal.

✓ Induced emf have constant magnitude for electrical 1200
✓ 15.4% more power density.
✓ Power output can be uniform by exciting the phases by 1200 (electrical).
✓ Duty cycle of phase current is 2/3 as compared to PMSM.
✓ The currents are rectangular in shape, easy to synthesize.
✓ Thermal stability of inverter is better.
✓ Installation of hall effect sensor is simple.
✓ Resolution of position sensor is less.
▪ Torque ripple is high.
 Brushless DC Motor(BLDC)
PMSM BLDC
Current 𝐼𝑝𝑠
𝐼𝑠𝑦 = 2
2 𝐼𝑑 = 𝐼𝑝
3
Copper loss 2
3𝐼𝑠𝑦 𝑅𝑎 = 3𝐼𝑑2 𝑅𝑎
2
2
𝐼𝑝𝑠 2
3 𝑅𝑎 = 3 𝐼𝑝 𝑅𝑎
Relation ship between 2 3
current
3
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑝
2 𝑝𝑠
Power output ratio 𝐵𝐿𝐷𝐶 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
=
𝑃𝑀𝑆𝑀 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
3
2𝐸𝑝 𝐼𝑝 2𝐸𝑝 2 𝐼𝑝𝑠
= = = 1.1547
𝐸𝑝 𝐼𝑝 𝐸𝑝 𝐼𝑝
3 3
2 2 2
Brushless DC Motor(BLDC)
1 3 5

Sensor state Switch

4 6 2
ON
0 0 1 1 6
0 1 0 5 4
0 1 1 5 6
1 0 0 3 2
1 0 1 1 2
1 1 0 3 4
 Sensor state Switch
ON
0 0 1 1 6
1 3 5 0 1 0 5 4
0 1 1 5 6
1 0 0 3 2
1 0 1 1 2
4 6 2 1 1 0 3 4
 Sensor state Switch
ON
0 0 1 1 6
0 1 0 5 4
0 1 1 5 6
1 0 0 3 2
1 0 1 1 2
1 1 0 3 4

1 3 5

4 6 2
Sensor state Switch
ON
0 0 1 1 6
0 1 0 5 4
0 1 1 5 6
1 0 0 3 2
1 0 1 1 2
1 1 0 3 4
 Sensor state Switch
ON
0 0 1 1 6
0 1 0 5 4
0 1 1 5 6
1 0 0 3 2
1 0 1 1 2
1 1 0 3 4

1 3 5

4 6 2
 Sensor state Switch
ON
0 0 1 1 6
1 3 5 0 1 0 5 4
0 1 1 5 6
1 0 0 3 2
1 0 1 1 2
4 6 2 1 1 0 3 4
1 3 5

4 6 2 Sensor state Switch

ON
0 0 1 1 6
0 1 0 5 4
0 1 1 5 6
1 0 0 3 2
1 0 1 1 2
1 1 0 3 4
 Brushless DC Motor(BLDC)

0° 180° 360°

30° 150° 210° 330°

2𝐸𝐼
𝑃 = 2𝐸𝐼 𝑇=
𝜔
𝑃 𝐸
𝑇= 𝑇 = 2𝑘𝑏 𝐼 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘𝑏=
𝜔 𝜔
 Step down chopper

Vin
E In discontinuous current mode,
initial current, i1(t)=I1=0
Ton Toff 𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸 −𝑡𝑅
𝐼1 𝑡 = 1 − 𝑒 ൗ𝐿
DT 𝑅
T
𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸 −𝐷𝑇𝑅ൗ
For t=DT 𝐼1 𝑡 = 𝐼2 = 1−𝑒 𝐿
𝜕𝑖1 𝑅
R𝑖1 + 𝐿 + 𝐸 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝜕𝑡
I2
By taking Laplace Vin
I1(t) E
I1
Ton Toff
DT
T
 Step down chopper
In continuous current mode, −𝐷𝑇𝑅ൗ 𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸 −𝐷𝑇𝑅ൗ
𝑖1 𝐷𝑇 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼1 𝑒 𝐿 − 1−𝑒 𝐿 = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
initial current, i1(t)=I1 𝑅

Vin 𝜕𝑖1
R𝑖1 + 𝐿 +𝐸 =0
I2 E
𝜕𝑡

I1
Ton Toff
DT −𝑡𝑅 𝐸 −𝑡𝑅
𝑖2 𝑡 = 𝐼2 𝑒 ൗ𝐿 − 1 − 𝑒 ൗ𝐿
T 𝑅

− 1−𝐷 𝑇𝑅ൗ 𝐸 − 1−𝐷 𝑇𝑅ൗ

𝑖2 1 − 𝐷 𝑇 = 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 𝑒 𝐿 − 1−𝑒 𝐿 = 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑅
 Step down chopper
In continuous current mode, −𝐷𝑇𝑅ൗ 𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸 −𝐷𝑇𝑅ൗ
𝑖1 𝐷𝑇 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼1 𝑒 𝐿 − 1−𝑒 𝐿 = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
initial current, i1(t)=I1 𝑅
− 1−𝐷 𝑇𝑅ൗ 𝐸 − 1−𝐷 𝑇𝑅ൗ
Vin 𝑖2 1 − 𝐷 𝑇 = 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 𝑒 𝐿 − 1−𝑒 𝐿 = 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛
I2 𝑅
E
I1
Ton Toff
DT
T

−𝐷𝑇𝑅ൗ
𝑉𝑖𝑛 1−𝑒 𝐿 𝐸
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = −
𝑅 1 − 𝑒 −𝑇𝑅ൗ𝐿 𝑅

𝐷𝑇𝑅ൗ
𝑉𝑖𝑛 1−𝑒 𝐿 𝐸
𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 = −
𝑅 1 − 𝑒 𝑇𝑅ൗ𝐿 𝑅
Brushless DC Motor(BLDC)
Brushless DC Motor(BLDC)
Brushless DC Motor(BLDC)
Types of Motors
Power Loss Map
Efficiency Map
Efficiency Comparison
Operating Point
 Motor

𝑃𝑖𝑛
𝑃𝐵𝑎𝑡 =
𝜂𝑖
Energy
 Batteries

Primary Secondary

Flow Nickel
Lead Acid Aluminium Lithium ion Batter Carbon
Battery Battery
y
Dip Cycle VRLA AGM GEL
Candium Metal Hydride
Phosphat Titanate Thin Flim
Polymer
e
Voltage per Cell
Specific Energy
Energy Density
Self Discharge
Life
Operating Temperature
 Lead Acid Battery
Sealed Lead Acid
Several types of sealed lead acid have emerged and the most common are gel, also
known as valve-regulated lead acid (VRLA), and absorbent glass mat (AGM).
The gel cell contains a silica type gel that suspends the electrolyte in a paste. Smaller
packs with capacities of up to 30Ah are often called SLA (sealed lead acid). Packaged in
a plastic container, these batteries are used for small UPS, emergency lighting and
wheelchairs.
Because of low price, dependable service and low maintenance, the SLA remains the
preferred choice for healthcare in hospitals and retirement homes. The larger VRLA is
used as power backup for cellular repeater towers, Internet hubs, banks, hospitals,
airports and more.
 Lead Acid Battery

o When the loads are connected across the plates, the sulfuric
acid again breaks into positive ions 2H+ and negative ions
SO4. The hydrogen ions react with the PbO2 and make PbO
and water H2O. PbO start reacting with the H2SO4 and
creates PbSO4 and H2O.
Discharging o On the other side SO4- ions exchange electrons from Pb,

At Cathode creating radical SO4 which further creates PbSO4 reacting

with the Pb.
Pb + SO42- => PbSO4 + 2e-

At Anode
PbO2 + SO42- + 4H- + 2e- => PbSO4 + 2H2O

Combining above two equation, the overall chemical reaction will be

PbO2 + Pb + 2H2SO4 => 2PbSO4 + 2H2O
 Lead Acid Battery

Charging Discharging
At Cathode
PbSO4 + 2e- => Pb + SO42 Pb + SO42- => PbSO4 + 2e-
At Anode

PbSO4 + 2H2O => PbO2 + SO42- + 4H- + 2e- PbO2 + SO42- + 4H- + 2e- => PbSO4 + 2H2O

Combining above two equation, the overall chemical reaction will be

2PbSO4 + 2H2O => PbO2 + Pb + 2H2SO4 PbO2 + Pb + 2H2SO4 => 2PbSO4 + 2H2O
 Lead Acid Battery
Electrolyte of lead acid battery
➢ Electrolyte of lead acid battery cell is a solution of sulfuric acid and distilled water.
➢ The specific gravity of pure sulfuric acid is about 1.84.
➢ This pure acid is diluted by distilled water until the specific gravity of the solution
becomes 1.2 to 1.23.
➢ The specific gravity of electrolyte must be kept within 1.18 to 1.24.
➢ Specific gravity = Cell open-circuit voltage - 0.825
Lead Acid Battery
Lead Acid Battery
Lead Acid Battery
Lead
Acid
Battery
 Battery Efficiency
➢ The Lead Acid battery is not 100% efficient at storing electricity - you will never get
out as much as you put in when charging. Overall, an efficiency level of 85% is often
assumed.
➢ The efficiency will depend on a number of factors including the rate of charging or
discharging.
➢ The higher the rate of charge or discharge, the lower the efficiency.
The state of charge of the battery will also affect charge efficiency.
➢ It has been found that if a battery is only partially charged, efficiency may be
reduced with each charge. If this situation persists (the batteries never reaching full
charge), the life of the battery may be reduced.
 Lithium Ion Battery

➢ The lithium ion battery was introduced in the early 1990s

➢ It uses a lithiated transition metal intercalation oxide for the positive electrode
➢ and lithiated carbon for the negative electrode.
➢ The electrolyte is either a liquid organic solution or a solid polymer.
➢ Electrical energy is obtained from the combination of the lithium carbon and the
lithium metal oxide to form carbon and lithium metal oxide.
Each cell has essentially three components:
➢ Positive electrode (connected to the battery's positive or + terminal),
➢ Negative electrode (connected to the negative or − terminal), and
➢ Chemical called an electrolyte in between them.
Positive electrode: The positive electrode is typically made from a chemical compound
called lithium-cobalt oxide (LiCoO2) or, in newer batteries, from lithium iron phosphate
(LiFePO4).
Negative electrode: The negative electrode is generally made from carbon (graphite)
and the electrolyte varies from one type of battery to another—but isn't too important in
understanding the basic idea of how the battery works.
When the battery is charging up, the
lithium-cobalt oxide, positive electrode
gives up some of its lithium ions, which
move through the electrolyte to the
negative, graphite electrode and remain
there.
• The battery takes in and stores energy
during this process.
When the battery is discharging, the lithium
ions move back across the electrolyte to
the positive electrode, producing the
energy that powers the battery.
o In both cases, electrons flow in the
opposite direction to the ions around the
outer circuit.
o Electrons do not flow through the
electrolyte: it's effectively an insulating
barrier, so far as electrons are
concerned.
➢ The movement of ions (through the electrolyte) and electrons (around the
external circuit, in the opposite direction) are interconnected processes.If either
stops so does the other.
➢ If ions stop moving through the electrolyte because the battery completely
discharges, electrons can't move through the outer circuit either.
➢ Similarly, if you switch off whatever the battery is powering, the flow of electrons
stops and so does the flow of ions.
➢ The battery essentially stops discharging at a high rate (but it does keep on
discharging, at a very slow rate, even with the appliance disconnected).
➢ Unlike simpler batteries, lithium-ion ones have built in electronic controllers that
regulate how they charge and discharge.
➢ They prevent the overcharging and overheating that can cause lithium-ion
batteries to explode in some circumstances.
Lithion
Battery
 ULTRACAPACTOR

➢ A supercapacitor (SC), also called an ultra capacitor, is a high-capacity capacitor

with a capacitance value much higher than other capacitors.

➢ It typically stores 10 to 100 times more energy per unit volume or mass than
electrolytic capacitors, can accept and deliver charge much faster than batteries, and
tolerates many more charge and discharge cycles than rechargeable batteries.

➢ Unlike ordinary capacitors, supercapacitors do not use the conventional solid

dielectric, but rather, they use electrostatic double-layer capacitance
 ULTRACAPACTOR

➢ Electrostatic double-layer capacitors (EDLCs) use carbon electrodes or derivatives

with much higher electrostatic double-layer capacitance than electrochemical pseudo
capacitance, achieving separation of charge in a Helmholtz double layer at the interface
between the surface of a conductive electrode and an electrolyte. The separation of
charge is of the order of a few ångströms (0.3–0.8 nm), much smaller than in a
conventional capacitor.
➢ Electrochemical pseudo capacitors use metal oxide or conducting polymer electrodes
with a high amount of electrochemical pseudo capacitance additional to the double-layer
capacitance. Pseudo capacitance is achieved by Faradaic electron charge-transfer with
redox reactions, intercalation or electrosorption.
 Electrolytic Capacitors
➢ Two parallel plates with dielectric in
between
➢ Capacitance limited by flat surface area
and dielectric properties

• C is the capacitance
• A is the area
• εr is the relative static permittivity
(dielectric constant)
• εo is the permittivity of free space
(8.854x10-12 F/m)
• d is distance
 Carbon Aerogel
- Aerogel is a low-density solid derived from gel that has had
the liquid component replaced with a gas.

• Composed of nanometer
sized particles covalently
bonded together
• High porosity (>50%
under 100 nm)
• Large surface area (400–
1000 m²/g)
Activated Carbon:
• Extremely porous with a very large surface area.
• Surface resembles a sponge.
• Area allows more electrons to be stored than other
conductors.

Activated Carbon
( Activated Charcoal )
Carbon Nanotubes

 Approximately
1/50,000th the
width of a human
hair
 Strongest and
stiffest material on
earth (>300 X Steal)
 Low density
 Semiconductor
 Double Layer Electrolytic Capacitors
Using Activated Carbon

• Two layers consisting of

nanoporous electrodes
• Separator is impregnated
with an organic
electrolyte
• Thin separator can only
withstand low voltages
 Double Layer Electrolytic Capacitors
Using Activated Carbon

• Two layers consisting of

nanoporous electrodes
• Separator is impregnated
with an organic
electrolyte
• Thin separator can only
withstand low voltages
 ULTRACAPACTOR

In discharged state all the ions are distributed randomly within the cell.
In charged state all the positive ions travel to the negative terminal and vice versa.
The higher the carbon electrode surface area is, the higher the cell capacitance is.
 ULTRACAPACTOR

Main components

Thin aluminium foils, which are attached with “electrode paste”

Electrode paste
➢ Carbon coating with high surface area
➢ Conductive carbon
➢ Adhesives
Rest of the components
➢ Porous separator (plastic or paper)
➢ Liquid electrolyte
➢ Casing
 ULTRACAPACTOR

Conventional capacitor has a solid dielectric and current collectors smooth surfaces.
Supercapacitor has rough electrode surfaces and a liquid dielectric
 Double Layer Electrolytic Capacitors Using Carbon Nanotubes

➢ Under development at MIT

➢ Replaces activated charcoal with carbon
nanotubes
➢ Aligned in a regular pattern that exposes
greater surface area
➢ Dramatically increases effective area of
electrodes
➢ Greatly increases power density
ULTRACAPACTOR
 ULTRACAPACTOR

Supercapacitor vs. alternatives

 ULTRACAPACTOR

Supercapacitor vs. alternatives

 Rechargeable Batteries Vs. Supercapacitors

Supercapacitors: Batteries:
✓ Higher power density ➢ Have higher energy density
➢ Typically 200–1000 charge-discharge
✓ Much faster charge and discharge rate
cycles
✓ Environmentally friendly ➢ Contain highly reactive and hazardous
✓ Extremely low internal resistance or ESR chemicals
➢ Negatively effected by low
✓ High efficiency (97-98%)
temperatures
✓ Over a million charge-discharge cycles
 ULTRACAPACTOR

Applications
➢ Regenerative braking
➢ Releasing the power in acceleration
➢ Starting power in start-stop systems
➢ Regulate voltage to the energy grid
➢ Capture power when lowering loads and assisting when loads are lifted
➢ Back-up power in any application where quick discharge ( or charge) is
required
 ULTRACAPACTOR

Applications
 ULTRACAPACTOR

Applications
 ULTRACAPACTOR

Applications
 ULTRACAPACTOR

Applications