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ASSIGNMENT REFERENCE MATERIAL (2020-21)

BPCE - 011

School Psychology

SECTION-A

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Q1. Discuss the major behavioural disorders in children.

Ans.Early child development can be seriously compromised by social, regulatoryand emotional

impairments. Indeed, young children are capable of deep andlasting sadness, grief, and

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disorganisation in response to trauma, loss, and earlypersonal rejection. The preschool years are vital
in laying the foundation foremotional development and for future social and cognitivelearning. Paying
attention to mental health needs in these formative and dynamicyears is critically important, and new
research sheds light on how to do this well.

Some children’s challenging behaviours are not effectively addressed by adultvigilance and use of

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appropriate guidance. For these children, the behavioursmay result in injury to themselves or others,
a
cause damage to physicalenvironment, interfere with the acquisition of new skills, and or socially
isolatethe child. It is clear that inappropriate behaviours such as these seldom resolvethemselves
without systematic intervention.
b
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1. Child Behaviour Disorders: Young people can have mental, emotional, and behavioural problems
that arereal, painful, and costly. These problems, often called “disorders,” are sources ofstress for
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a
children and their families, schools, and communities.

Mental health disorders in children and adolescents are caused by biological,environmental as well as
b
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a combination of these two factors. Examples ofbiological factors are genetics, chemical imbalances
in the body, and damage tothe central nervous system, such as head injury. Many environmental
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factorsalso can affect mental health, including exposure to violence, extreme stress,and the loss of an
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important person.
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2. Anxiety Disorders: Young people, who experience excessive fear, worry, or uneasiness may have
an anxiety disorder. Anxiety disorders are among the most common of childhood disorders and these
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include:
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1) Phobias, which are unrealistic and overwhelming fears of objects or situations.

2) Generalised anxiety disorder, which causes children to demonstrate a pattern of excessive,

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unrealistic worry that cannot be attributed to any recentexperience.

3) Panic disorder, which causes terrifying “panic attacks” that include physicalsymptoms, such as a
rapid heartbeat and disziness.

3. Depression: The disorder is marked by changes in emotions, motivation, physical well beingand
thoughts. As for emotions, children with depression feel sad, cry and expressfeelings of
worthlessness. In regard to motivation, it is seen that children sufferingfrom depression lose interest in
all activities that were ofinterest to them earlier.There is also a decline in their school performance.
Children suffering from depression also suffer from certain physical ill health as for example, loss of

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appetite, poor sleep and vague physical complaints etc. Even their thinking gets affected in that they
are unable to do anything right. Some are also suicidal and hence one has to be very careful to keep a
watch on them and take what they say about not wanting to live in this world etc., seriously.

4. Bipolar Disorder: Youngsters suffering from this disorder have mood swings that range
fromextreme highs (excitedness or manic phases) to extreme lows (depression. Periodsof moderate
mood occur in between the extreme highs and lows.

5. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Young people with attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder are unable to focus their attention and are often impulsive and easily distracted.
Most children with this disorder have great difficulty remaining still, taking turns, and keeping quiet.
Symptoms must be evident in at least two settings, such as home and school, in order for attention

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deficit hyperactivity disorder to be diagnosed.

6. Learning Disorders: Learning disorders can show up as problems with spoken and written
language,coordination, attention, or self-control.

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Q2. Explain the principles to be a successful play therapist. Discuss the effectiveness of play
therapy.

Ans.Principles of successful play therapist

a .
This is a general observation that the professionals in their respective fields are expected to have
certain specific qualities and characteristics by their academic qualifications or background
experiences. This is true for play therapists as well.
b
To be a successful play therapist, there are certain qualities which one need to posses and/or develop.

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Axline (1947) introduced eight such principles: 40
a
First Principle: “The therapist must develop a warm, friendly relationship withthe child, in which
good rapport is established as soon as possible”.
b
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Second Principle: “The therapist accepts the child exactly as he is”.
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Third Principle: Play Therapy “The therapist establishes a feeling of permissiveness in

therelationship so that the child feels free to express his feelings completely”.
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Fourth Principle: “The therapist is alert to recognise the feelings the child isexpressing and reflects
those feelings back to him in such a manner that he gainsinsight into his behaviour”.
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Fifth Principle: “The therapist maintains a deep respect for the child’s ability tosolve his own
problems if given an opportunity to do so. The responsibility tomake choices and to institute change is
the child’s”.
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Sixth Principle: “The therapist does not attempt to direct the child’s actions orconversation in any
manner. The child leads the way; the therapist follows”.

Seventh Principle: “The therapist foes not attempt to hurry the therapy along. Itis a gradual process
and is recognised as such by the therapist”.

Eighth Principle: “The therapist establishes only those limitations that arenecessary to anchor the
therapy to the world of reality and to make the childaware of his responsibility in the relationship”.

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However, later researchers cautioned the therapists by suggesting that if theypossess these qualities to
a high degree, they would be considered an “ideal”person and the client/child would not identify
themselves with these therapists.

Q3. Discuss the goals and major domains of school psychology.

Ans. Goals of School Psychology

School psychologists work within the educational system to help children withemotional, social, and
academic issues. The goal of school psychology is tocollaborate with parents, teachers, and students
to promote a healthy learning environment that focuses on the needs of children.

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School psychology is still a relatively young profession. The National Associationof School
Psychology (NASP) was established and formally recognised as adoctoral specialty by the American
Psychological Association (APA) in 1968. In2002, U.S. News and World Report named school
psychology one of the top ten“hot professions.” Many school psychologists in the field are retiring,

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creating ademand for qualified school psychologists.

A few of the duties that a school psychologist might perform on a regular basisinclude:

• Helping students with behavioural problems

a .
• Evaluating students experiencing academic difficulties

Major domains of school psychology

b
1. Child Development and Learning: Family is considered to be the smallest unit of society and

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mother is consideredto be the first and foremost teacher of a child. The child enters the school
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a
systemlater, mostly starting from the play school. His psycho-social development takesplace during
his socialisation and he starts learning to cooperate and other lifeskills from others. However, the
scenario is not as glittering always and for everychild. We come across few kids in and around the
b
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school who exhibit signs andsymptoms of various development disorders.
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2. Problematic Behaviour of School Children: In the starting paragraphs of this unit, you read about
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some instances in whichthe school children exhibited various forms of problematic behaviours. For
thesystematic study of these problem behaviours, it is necessary to classify orcategorise them so that
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proper description and treatment could be done in orderto help the children. Two agencies at
international levels have contributed a lotin this direction. World Health Organisation (WHO)
publishes InternationalClassification of Diseases (ICD) and currently the 10th Revision of
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thisinternational standard diagnostic classification is in use and is referred to asICD-10. Another

guide, commonlyused in United States and in varying degrees in other parts of the world, is
theDiagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) that is publishedby the American
Psychiatric Association. Presently the ‘Text Revision” of theDSM-IV (DSM-IV-TR, published in
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2000) is in use and organises variousdisorders or disabilities into five levels (axes). It covers, for
example, learningdisorders under ‘Disorders usually first diagnosed in infancy, childhood,
oradolescence’ and includes reading disorder (315.00), mathematics disorder(315.1), disorder of
written expression (315.2) and learning disorder – not otherwise specified (315.9).

3. Role of School Psychologists: School psychologists, in order to help the school children attain
their best inschool, studies and life, directly work with students, teachers and parents inorder to assess,
diagnose and design various treatment plans for students’ learningand other disabilities. Thus, the
school psychologists have to play a very seriousand challenging role in the lives of the school
children. Hence, the schoolpsychologists need to be inevitably well conversant with the psychological

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needsof the school children, symptoms of distress, behavioural problems and treatmentplans in order
to provide efficient school psychology services.

SECTION-B

Q4. Discuss the role of biological factors in the etiology of abnormal behavior.

Ans.There are different models of Psychology and each model represents its ownunique interpretation
of the etiology and treatment of abnormal behaviour. Thesemodels include biomedical,
psychoanalytical, humanistic, behavioural, andcognitive models or approaches to understanding the
etiology of abnormalbehaviour. All these models combine together in Bio-Psycho social approach
ormultidimensional integrative approach. The biological factors focus on genetics,the interaction of

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genes and environment. This model also focuses on neuron,brain and spinal cord.

Biological Factors: Genes and Its Interaction with Environment

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The study of neuro-anatomy and neurophysiology is the study neuroscience. The Neuron Billions of
tiny nerve cells, called the neurons form the basic building blocks of the brain. Each neuron has four
major anatomic components:

• the soma, or cell body,

• the dendrites,

• the axon, and

a .
b
• the axon terminal.

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a
The dendrites branch out from the soma.

They serve the primary function of receiving messages from other cells.
b
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The axon is the trunk of the neuron.
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Messages are transmitted down the axon toward other cells with which a givenneuron communicates.
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Scientists have found that disruptions in the functioning of variousneurotransmitters or oversupply or

undersupply of neurotransmitters are thecauses for mental disorders.
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Q5. Explain family therapy as a counselling approach for behavioral problems.

Ans.Therapy for children is incomplete if we do not take family into consideration. The practice of
treating psychological problems in the context of the family did not actually begin until the mid
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1950’s. However, the developmental roots of family therapy were founded much earlier in social and
theoretical changes and developments in the field of psychology. Family therapy evolved out of the
reigning paradigm of psychoanalysis and the medical psychiatric model as patients’ treatment needs
seemed to go beyond the psychoanalytic workroom.Today more contemporary cultural influences
such as managed health care etc.,have favored the usually quicker approach of treating the entire
family as opposedto each individual member.

The advent of family therapy ushered in a whole new way of understanding andexplaining
humanbehaviour. Family therapists proposed that psychologicalproblems were developed and
maintained in the social context of the family.This new contextual perspective relocated the

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responsibility for the problemsand the focus of treatment from the internal world of the individual
patient to theentire family.

Two of the most important concepts that influenced family therapy include:

a) The process and content of group discussions; and

b) Role theory.

Therapists recognised the need to understand not only the content of what thegroup members said but
also the manner in which they communicated this. Byfocusing on the process of their discussions,
therapists were able to help familiesimprove the way they related to each other and thus enhance their

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own capacityto deal with the content of their problems.

Several other aspects of group dynamics contributed to the treatment approaches developed in family
therapy, some of which are still used today. These included:

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i) Acting out familial conflicts with the group instead of discussing them.

ii) Instructing individual group members to imagine that the group is their family of origin, with the
intention of enabling group members to allow unresolved family and emotional issues to surface and

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be dealt with in a more objective setting.
a
All of these applications of group dynamics to family therapy involved shifting the focus of treatment
from individuals to the group itself, and involved a growing understanding of themes and dynamics
common to all members.
b
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Q6. Define exceptional children. Discuss the types of exceptional children.
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a
Ans. An exceptional child is one who deviates physically, intellectually, emotionallyor socially, from
the normal or average child so markedly that he cannot receivemaximum benefit from the regular
b
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school programme and requires modificationin the school practices and programmes or requires
special educational servicesor supplementary instruction and services to enable him/her to develop to
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theirmaximum capacity. Such a child begins to show signs of exceptionality frombirth or during the
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developmental stages as the child races ahead of others orlags behind in terms of growth and
development in various dimensions, viz.,Physical, Mental, Emotional, Social and Moral to such an
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extent that he or sheexhibits problems and maladjustments in academics, the school setting itself,
inbehaviour and in terms of adjustment problems with other children. Anexceptional child has some
needs like those of the normal child and like his peergroup children, and does have some different
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needs pertinent to the child’s ownparticular type of exceptionality. Since the child has some special
needs, he / sheis also referred to as a child with special needs.

Although the terms impairment, disability, and handicap are sometimes usedinterchangeably, they are
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not synonymous.

Impairment refers to the loss or reduced function of a particular body part ororgan (e.g., a missing
limb). A disability exists when an impairment limits aperson’s ability to perform certain tasks (e.g.,
walk, see, add a row of numbers) in the same way that most persons do. A person with a disability is
not consideredhandicapped, unless or otherwise the disability leads to educational, personal, social,
vocational, or other problems. For example, if a child who has lost a leglearns to use a prosthetic limb
and thus functions in and out of school withoutproblems, she is not handicapped, at least in terms of
her functioning in thephysical environment.

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Handicap refers to a problem or a disadvantage that a person with a disability oran impairment
encounters when interacting with the environment. A disabilitymay pose a handicap in one
environment but not in another. The child with aprosthetic limb may be handicapped (i.e.,
disadvantaged) when competing againstnondisabled peers on the basketball court but may experience
no handicap in theclassroom. Individuals with disabilities also experience handicaps that havenothing
to do with their disabilities but are the result of negative attitudes andthe inappropriate behaviour of
others who needlessly restrict their access andability to participate fully in school, work, or
community activities.

At risk refers to children who, although not currently identified as having a disability, are considered
to have a greater than usual chance of developing one. The term is often applied to infants and
preschoolers who, because of conditions surrounding their births or home environments, may be

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expected to experience developmental problems at a later time. The term is also used to refer to
students who are experiencing learning problems in the regular classroom and are therefore at risk of
school failure or of being identified for special education services.

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Q7. Explain the assumptions and therapeutic process of solution-focused therapy.

Ans.Assumptions of Solution Focused Therapy

The following core assumptions are at the root of SFT and provide key ideas that drive the practice
and techniques of this counseling model.
a .
1) The therapeutic focus should be on the client’s desired future rather than on past problems or
current conflicts.
b
2) Patients are experts on their lives. Therapist’s job is to support and amplify this expertise.

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a
3) Change is constant, inevitable, and contagious. Solution-building conversations identify, elaborate,
and reinforce change behaviour.
b

4) Even small increments of change lead to large increments of change.

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5) Presuppositional language emphasises the presumption that change will occur, creating an
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atmosphere of “when,” not “if.”

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6) Clients have strengths, resources, and coping skills that drive change whilegenerating optimism and
hope.
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Therapeutic Process

1. Assessment: Therapists using this approach of therapy avoid any assessment of how problems
develop; neither the patterns of behaviour that might be perpetuating those problems are evaluated.
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Instead therapists are concerned with identifying those patterns of behaviour that existed when the
problem wasn’t operative. Since solution focused therapists are interested in listening to clients’
constructions of their problems first hand and without any preconceptions, a detailed history intake is
not considered important.

2. Goal Setting: In solution focused therapy the setting of specific, concrete, and realistic goals is
very important. Goals are formulated and amplified through Solution Focused conversation about
what clients want different in the future. As a result in SFT Solution Focused Therapy clients set the
goals. Goals need to be small so that several small goals can be met quickly. Once a beginning
formulation is in place, therapy focuses on exceptions related to goals, regularly scaling how close

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clients are to their goals or a solution, and co-constructing useful next steps to reaching their preferred
futures.

3. Therapeutic Relationship: In solution focused therapy both the therapist and the client work in a
close and collaborative partnership, in which the therapist conveys respect to a competent, resourceful
problem solver. The clients do more of the talking, and what they talk about is considered the
cornerstone of the resolution of their complaints. The therapist uses more indirect methods such as the
use of extensive questioning about previous solutions and exceptions to help the client reach to a
solution.

The client is considered the expert, and the therapist takes a stance of “not knowing” and of “leading
from one step behind” through solution-focused questioning and responding. It requires a more

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positive and egalitarian stance from the therapist than the conventional “expert” position.

Q8. Describe Jung’s approach to art therapy.

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Ans. Eisdell (2005) regards Carl Jung as the forerunner of art therapy. While Jungbroke away from
the psychoanalytic movement and founded ‘AnalyticalPsychology’, his approaches had much in
common with Freud’s. Both approachesare grounded in the belief that our inner (subjective) life is
determined by feelings,thoughts and impulses beyond conscious awareness, but which may
findexpression in symbolic form.

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Archetypes were said by Jung to cluster around the most fundamental anduniversal life experiences –
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birth, parenthood, death and separation – and to reflect the psyche itself; revealing themselves by way
of such inner figures suchas the ‘anima’, ‘shadow’ and ‘persona’. As such, our dreams, fantasies and
imagesall derive in part from a collective reservoir of symbols and myths that repeatthemselves
b
universally. An example of one such symbolic form frequently citedin Jungian literature is the

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mandala. Mandala is an ancient Sanskrit word meaningmagic circle. Mandalas assume many forms
but a basic mandala is a geometricfigure in which a circle is squared or a square is encircled.
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Mandalas are found in the art of many religious traditions where they are employed in the service of
personal growth and spiritual transformation. Jung considered the mandala to be an expression of the
self and an archetypal symbol of wholeness. Jung used the mandala as a therapeutic tool and believed
creating Mandalas helped patients make the unconscious, conscious.

SECTION-C

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Q9. Developmental psychopathology

Ans. Developmental psychopathology is a new approach to abnormal psychology that emphasises the
importance of developmental norms which include age graded averages so as to determine what
constitutes abnormal behaviour. Developmental psychopathology can be defined in a variety of ways,
all having to do with development on the one hand and the resulting set of maladaptive behaviours on
the other. Developmental psychopathology focuses on and integrates these two areas, looking at
maladaptive processes themselves as well.

Q10. Referrals and coaching

Ans. Behavioural and mental health problems when occur in milder form can be dealt by educating

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family members, teachers or caregivers, but when the problem is unmanageable it requires help of a
professional counselor or even mental health professionals who are trained and authorised to deal with
these problems. These professionals are clinical psychologists, psychiatrists, or psychiatric social
workers. Teaching programmes can be organised by schools to develop specific skills in children to

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combat with mental health problems.

Q11. Asperger’s disorder

Ans. This is a separate autistic spectrum disorder which does not meet criteria for other pervasive

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developmental disorders or schizophrenia. Features of Asperger’s disorder includes severe and
sustained impairment in social interaction, repetitive patterns of behaviour, interests and activities and

Q12. Assumptions of narrative therapy

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significant impairment in social, occupational and other important areas of functioning.

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Ans. The assumptions of narrative therapy are: 40
a
1) Realities are socially constructed
b
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2) Realities are constituted through language
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3) Realities are organised and maintained through language

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4) There are no essential truths

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(Adapted from Freedman and Combs, 1996)

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With these assumptions it is intended that stories an individual narrates isculturally loaded and the
language is also contributory element to the issue athand. The language individual uses maintain the
problem strength, and make itdifficult to resolve. But, these languages and ideas are amiable to
deconstruction,and if and when deconstructed a new reality has space to germinate and grow.
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Q13. Characteristics of slow learning

Ans.The characteristics of slow learners are as given below:

• They have limited cognitive capacity.

• For them rational thinking is impossible.

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• They have the capacity for rote learning and can retain in memory what ever is learnt only with lot
of practice and revision in comparison with the normal child.

Q14. Special education

Ans. An exceptional child has some special and unusual needs which can be met only through special
education as part and parcel of the general education. This would involve.

• Specially designed instruction.

• Special curriculum.

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• Specific facilities.

• Special services.

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Q15. Life span development

Ans. Lifespan development is a process beginning at conception that continues until death. Lifespan
development can be defined as a methodical, intra individual change associated with progressions
corresponding to age. Levinson has put forward that the lifespan consists of four 25 years. The first 25

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years belong to childhood and adolescence, the second 25 years to early adulthood, the next 25 years

Q16. Characteristics of learning disability

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to middle adulthood and the last 25 years to late adulthood.

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Ans. The most common characteristics of children with learning disability are:
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a
• Hyperactivity

• Perceptual motor impairments

b
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• Emotional liability (frequent shifts in emotional mood)
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• General co-ordination deficits

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• Attention disorders (short attention span distractibility, perseverance)

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• Impulsivity
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• Specific academic problems ( reading, writing, arithmetic, spelling)

• Speech and hearing disorders

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• Irregularities in EEG (electro encephalography).

Q17.Conduct Disorder

Ans. Young people with conduct disorder usually have little concern for others and repeatedly violate
the basic rights of others and the rules of society. Conduct disorder causes children and adolescents to
act out their feelings or impulses in destructive ways. The offenses these children and adolescents

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commit often grow more serious over time. Such offenses may include lying, theft, aggression,
truancy, the setting of fires, and vandalism.

Q18. Risk factors for behavioural disorders

Ans. The causes of ODD, CD and ADHD are unknown but some of the risk factorsinclude:

1) Gender – Boys are much more likely than girls to suffer from behaviouraldisorders. It is unclear if
the cause is genetic or linked to socialisationexperiences.

2) Gestation and birth – Difficult pregnancies, premature birth and low birthweight may contribute
in some cases to the child’s antisocial behaviourlater in life.

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3) Learning difficulties – Such as problems with reading and writing.

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