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Culture Documents
to Symplectic
Geometry
Rolf Berndt
Graduate Studies
in Mathematics
Volume 26
Rolf Berndt
Translated by
Michael Klucznik
Graduate Studies
in Mathematics
Volume 26
Originally published in the German language by Ftiedr. Vieweg & Sohn Verlagsge-
sellschaft mbH, D-65189 Wiesbaden, Germany, as "Rolf Berndt: Einfnhruug in die Sym-
plektische Geometrie. 1. Auflage (1st edition)" © by Ftiedr. Vieweg & Sohn Verlagsge-
sellschaft mbH, Braunschweig/Wiesbaden, 1998.
Translated from the German by Michael Klucznik
ABSTRACT. The notions of symplectic form, symplectic manifold and symplectic group appear
in many different contexts in analysis, geometry, function theory and dynamical systems. This
book assembles tools from different mathematical regions necessary to define these notions and to
introduce their application. Among the topics treated here are
symplectic and Kiihler vector spaces,
the symplectic group and Siegel's half space,
symplectic and contact manifolds, the theorem of Darboux,
methods of constructing symplectic manifolds: Kiihler manifolds, coadjoint orbits and sym-
plectic reduction,
Hamiltonian systems,
the moment map,
and a glimpse into geometric quantization (in particular the theorem of Groenewold and
van Hove) leading to some rudiments of the representation theory of the Heisenberg and
the Jacobi group.
The goal of the book is to provide an entrance into a fascinating area linking several mathematical
disciplines and parts of theoretical physics.
Copying and reprinting. Individual readers of this publication, and nonprofit libraries
acting for them, are permitted to make fair use of the material, such as to copy a chapter for use
in teaching or research. Permission is granted to quote brief passages from this publication in
reviews, provided the customary acknowledgment of the source is given.
Republication, systematic copying, or multiple reproduction of any material in this publication
is permitted only under license from the American Mathematical Society. Requests for such
permission should be addressed to the Assistant to the Publisher, American Mathematical Society,
P. 0. Box 6248, Providence, Rhode Island 02940-6248. Requests can also be made by e-mail to
Preface ix
vii
viii Contents
Bibliography 185
Index 189
Symbols 193
Preface
This text is written for the graduate student who has previous training
in analysis and linear algebra, as for instance S. Fang's Analysis I and Lin-
ear Algebra. It is meant as an introduction to what is today an intensive
area of research linking several disciplines of mathematics and physics in
the sense of the Greek word ouµrrMecet.v (which means to interconnect, or
to interrelate in English).' The difficulty (but also the fascination) of the
area is the wide variety of mathematical machinery required. In order to
introduce this interrelation, this text includes extensive appendices which
include definitions and developments not usually covered in the basic train-
ing of students but which lay the groundwork for the specific constructions
11 want to thank P. Slodowy for pointing out to me that the name symptectic group, which
eventually gave rise to the term sympkche geometry, was proposed by If. WEYL, [W], 1938, in
his book, The Classical Groups (see footnote on p. 165). The symplectic group was also called
the comples group or an Abelion linear group, this last to honor ABEL, who was the first to study
them.
xi
xii Preface
the Heisenberg group and the Weil representation of the symplectic group
(more precisely, its metaplectic covering). The theorem of Groenewold and
van Hove then says that this quantization is maximal; that is, it cannot be
extended to polynomials of higher degree.
The remainder of the fifth chapter consists in laying the groundwork
for the general situation, which essentially follows KIRILLOV [Ki]. Here a
subalgebra p, the primary quantities, comes into play, which for the case
of M = T*Q turns out to be the arbitrary functions in q and the linear
functions in p. Here yet more functional analysis and topology are required
in order to demonstrate the result of Kirillov that for a symplectic manifold,
with an algebra p in F(M) of primary quantities relative to the Poisson
bracket, a quantization is possible. That is, there is a map which assigns
to each f E p a self-adjoint operator f on Hilbert space N satisfying the
conditions
(1) the function 1 corresponds to the identity idN,
(2) the Poisson bracket of the two functions corresponds to the Lie
bracket of operators, and
R. Berndt
Chapter 0
Some Aspects of
Theoretical Mechanics
I
2 0. Some Aspects of Theoretical Mechanics
to
The variational calculus now says (am Coua4w -HILBERT [CII], p. 170)
that for the minimum curve y = q(t) the system satisfies the Euler-Lagrange
equations
d 8L 8L
(1)
dt 8qi 8qi 0,
The basis of this concept is the Legendre transformation (see ARNOLD [A].
p. 61 f.) between tangent and cotangent bundles (see Section A.3)
TQ -* T'Q,
(q, 4) '--' (q, p)
Then the time development described on TQ by the Lagrange function L =
L(q, 4, t) (which we can and will assume to be convex in the second argument:
see, for example. ARNOLD ([A], p. 65)) is replaced by the Hamiltonian
function H on phase space T'Q defined by
The Lagrange equations (1) are here translated into Hamilton's equations
8H 8H
(2) q = , p = - .
ap aq
dH = dp + aq dq + dt
dH = 4dp - -q dq - dt.
8L
Comparing()
1 and p = a4 , we get
OH OH
q=-;, OL
aq = - aq
-p. W=--
OH 8L
8t
.
Ys a2S =
qk + 0.
aqk sac at aac
0.3. The Hamilton-Jacobi equation 5
a2S OH
Oak Oat
- qk I = 0, t=1....,n,
OPk
and since
as
det { )oo
ag Oa
Taking the difference of these two equations yields, considering the satisfac-
tion of the relation = q,
W OH
Pe=-aqt
There is yet another way (which at first glance looks different) to derive
the Hamilton-Jacobi equation (see ARNIOLD [A], pp. 253-5). Here the path
integral
is taken along the curve y from (qe. te) to (q. t) that minimizes the integral,
and it is shown that
dS = pdq - Hdt.
Then it is immediately clear that for S the equations
as _ and
q, t) as = P
9
NiBpi
Given a vector field X, the question immediately arises as to the exis-
tence of integral curves 'y; that is, curves whose tangent vectors ^ (t) at every
point of -y(t) are equal to the given vector of the vector field at that point,
which, in symbols then, is ry' (t) = XH ('y(t)). For
7(t) = (q(t), p(t))
this condition leads to Hamilton's equations (2)
8H . 8H
8p = q, 8q = -p-
With the help of a little bit more from the theory of differential forms (see
Section A.4), this can be reformulated as follows: there exist a 2-form
w = > dqi n dpi E 02 on T'Q
i
and an inner product i such that, from any vector field X, the 2-form w
gives us a 1-form i(X)w. Then Hamilton's equations (2) are equivalent to
(4) i(XH)w = d. H.
From this it does not take too much work to see that, generally, for the time
development of an observable given by f. the above system must satisfy the
condition
(5') f = (f, H).
0.6. Towards quantization
The term quantization will indicate the process by which a corresponding
quantum system is constructed from a given classical system. Thus we must
find a transition from the point in phase space T'Q which describes the state
of a classical system to an element v (more accurately. a 1-dimensional sub-
space vC) of a complex Hilbert space f with the aid of the probability
distribution for the state of a quantum mechanical system. This transition
should give, for the Hamilton function H and the classical observables f.
corresponding self-adjoint operators H and f in fl for the quantum situa-
tion. Thus one would expect that the equation (5')
f={f.H}.
giving the time course in T'Q in the classical case should pass to an analo-
gous equation on the operators
f =c[f,H]j
where [ , J is here the natural Lie bracket,
[A.B] =AB-BA.
where c = - 2* (c is. up to the factor i, a factor ensuring the symmetry of
the operators, a constant from physics, and h is called Planck's constant).
We will later examine for which f E .F(T*M) one may define a mapping
f i-, f whose images are self-adjoint operators and which satisfies
1'--.1=id7
and
{f1f } = c [fl, f2] .
With this process considerable problems will appear, but we will finally
see that, at least for the so-called primary quantities (that is. f either a
polynomial of degree 2 in q and p or a linear function of the pl, ... , p and
an arbitrary function of the q , . . . . , solutions can be found.
Chapter 1
Symplectic Algebra
0 }
Now let V2 be the w--orthogonal complement of El, so
V2:_{vEVjw(v,vl)=0 forallvlEEl}.
We have El nV2={0}and V=El GV2,and for vEV
v - w(v, el) e,,+1 E V2.
Given that w # 0 on V21 one may repeat the above procedure for V2 and
obtain e2 as well as so that w (e2, 1. Inductively we get the
claimed matrix we. 0
The statement ii) clearly holds as well for more general fields K # R.
Let V` denote the dual space of V and e` the dual basis to e on V',
which satisfies
ei (ei) = (ei, a=) = 8 j.
One of the basic results of (multi-)linear algebra (see also Section A.4) is
that the space A9(V, K) of skew-symmetric q-linear functions from V9 to K
is isomorphic to the qth exterior product A9 V' of V*. AQV ` has as K-basis
the set
e;, A ... A e,*, with it < ... < iq.
12 1. Symplectic Algebra
i=1
a) w is non-degenerate.
b) wb is an isomorphism.
C) w"= )A...Aw#0.
Although these statements are left unproved, we will not hesitate to use
them later in the text.
In parallel to the situation in Euclidian geometry, we may form the
following definition in symplectic geometry.
DEFINITION 1.6. Two vectors v, w from the symplectic vector space
(L; w) are called w-orthogonal, skew-orthogonal or - when there is no doubt
about which w is intended - simply orthogonal, whenever
w (v, w) = 0.
This is also indicated by v 1 w.
14 1. Symplectic Algebra
EXAMPLE 1.7. Ken with the symplectic form w given by w (v, v') _
(xi2 - xyi) for
v = xlel + ... + xnen + glen+1 + ... +yne2n,
v' = x11e1 +... + y'e2
Remark 1.9. Relative to this last example, note that a symplectic space
V has many decompositions V = W ® W*. Let e be a symplectic basis for
V, such that W is the span of el,... , en. Then W is isomorphic, via wb,
to the subspace spanned by en+1, ... , e2n; so V = W ®W * with the form
defined in the previous example.
EXAMPLE 1.10. There is for every k E N a p = (2n + k)-dimensional
K vector space U with a skew-symmetric bilinear form w: U x U K of
rank 2n. Then the annihilator of w,
Uo:={uEU; j(u,w)=0 for all wEU},
has dimension k, and i induces a symplectic form w on V := U/Uo. We will
say that the symplectic space (V, w) is given by the reduction of (U, w).
When (VI1 w1) = (V2, w2) = (V, w), any symplectic map 0 must be an
automorphism of (V; w). The collection of symplectic automorphisms forms
a group under the usual composition, called the symplectic group of (V; w)
and denoted Sp(V). In particular, for V = Ken with the standard form,
this group will be written as (unfortunately it is also written as
in the literature!).
The elements M E are naturally matrices from G" (K). They
can be written in the following way. For the standard form, we have
=E , ,
J=J 0 E
-E 0
and column vectors v, v' with tv = (xl,... , x, yl,... , can also be
written as
w (v, v') = tvJv'.
The matrix M leaves this form invariant, that is.
W (Mv, Mv') = w (v, v'),
exactly when
(+) tMJM = J.
Then from simple computation, we get
Remark 1.13. For A, B, C, D E M (K), the following are equivalent:
t) M = ` C D) E Spn(K),
uv
= (0 V`) with V* = (IV)-t,
and
m= (0 E) withtS=S.
Proof. Consider
P (t) = det(M - tE2"),
the characteristic polynomial of M. Then by using (+) and the fact that
det M = 1, we have
P (t) = det(1M - tE2n) = det (J-' (LM - tE2,=)J)
=
det(M_1
- tE2n) = det M-1 det(E2n - tM)
= t2n det(M - (1/t)Fj ).
0
Remark 1.16. For K = R, if M E Sp,t(K) as a complex matrix has the
eigenvalue A E C. then M also has the eigenvalues A, 1/A and 1/A.
_ (M E tMJ + JM = 0}.
Here, as in the last proposition, we have. for Al E sp,,(R) that if A is an
eigenvalue then so is -A, and both have the same multiplicity.
the symplectic space associated to W. This satisfies dim R"'d = 21, and for
a subspace U C V with
Wr`d = rad W e U,
(U, w1 u) is symplectic and isomorphic to Wred. U is also w--orthogonal
to rad W. Therefore, we can also write W = rad W1U. Further, U'
with Wl = rad W ® U' is symplectic and isomorphic to the reduced space
(Wl)red = Wl/rad W.
The most important examples of subspaces of a symplectic space (V, w)
are the following.
DEFINITION 1.25.
From i) there are elements e=. E V so that for P' = (e,, e;,) we have
PJP for i0 j, andP'1W', i=1,...,r.
The rule (e,.) := e;. then gives the desired extension of 0.
From the previous corollary, Sp (V) acts transitively on L(V); that is,
for any pair LI, L2 E G (V), there is a ¢ E Sp (V) with
0 (LI) = L2
In such a case, it is a general fact that L (V) has the structure of a ho-
mogeneous space. The concept of homogeneous space will later play a very
important role (see Section 2.5). We will briefly make its acquaintance here
with a special example.
Denote by GL the isotropy group of L EC (V); that is,
GL :_ {O E Sp (V), 0 (L) = L}.
Let e = (e;, ej.)f=l,...,,, be an L-related symplectic basis of V; that is,
(el,... , e,) = L and (el., ... , e,,,.) = L1. Then, relative to this basis,
V K2R, Sp(V) ?d L Lo :_ (ei,...,en), where (et) are the
canonical unit vectors inK2ia, and
GL '-
GL. =I( A B \I ;BD ='DB,'AD =
This is because M(Lo) = Lo. and thus
\C D/\0/EL°
forces C = 0, so that from Remark 1.13 about the general form of symplectic
matrices we get the claimed transitive action.
From this we get a bijection between C (V) and the set of cosets of GL,.
in Sp (K); thus
Sp,,(K)/GLO 2L (V), M i--> M(Lo),
because, from
M(Lo) = M'(Lo),
it follows that
M-IM' E GLo.
In a similar vein, we can describe another family of interesting subspaces
of a given symplectic space. Fix T (L), for a given Lagrangian subspace
L C V, to be the collection of all Lagrangian subspaces L' transverse to L,
so that
T(L):= {L' EL(V), LPL'=V}.
The proofs already given show that GL operates transitively on T (L). Take
(e=) to be a basis of L and (e;.) a basis of L' (so that both together form
a symplectic basis of V). Then, relative to this basis, the isotropy group
1.3. Subspaces of symplectic vector spaces 23
GL,L' C GI C SpV that fixes L and L' can be identified with the group of
matrices \
A
0 iA-I/
0 f ' A E GL,,(K),
C
which is naturally isomorphic to GL"(K). We then get that
7 (L) GL/GL"(K),
In VAISMAN [V], pp. 36-38, the following statement and a few of its conse-
quences are discussed.
THEOREM 1.31. T (L) has a natural structure as an affine space over K
of dimension n (n + 1)/2.
An affine space is a triple (A, V, ir), where A is a set, V is a K vector
space and 7r : A x A -* V is a morphism, such that 1rIfor a fixed
point ao E A, is a bijection and for all a, b, c E A we have
ir(a, b) + a(b, c) = ir(a, c).
This definition can easily be brought into agreement with the definitions
which often appear in elementary textbooks. Of the proof which is contained
in VAISMAN [V], we give only a sketch:
By choosing the earlier required basis, the matrix of a morphism which
carries L' E T (L) to L" E T (L) has the form
(A B
l with X ='X.
0 E,
This shows already thatT (L) rel/ative to a fixed basis of V is in bijection
to a set of symmetric n x n matrices, and therefore can be seen as an
(n (n + 1)/2) -dimensional affine subspace of K"2. This observation can be
made basis-independent, in that the symmetric matrix X can be defined
as a coordinate-independent quadratic form q on the dual space P. The
following remarks can then be established:
Remark 1.32. For any pair (L, L') of Lagrangian subspaces of (V, w),
there exists a mutually transverse Lagrangian space L".
Remark 1.33. Let L, L', L" be Lagrangian subspaces of (V, w), and let
L fl L' = L fl L". Then there exists a (not unique) symplectic transformation
of V which fixes every vector of L and carries L' to L".
EXERCISE 1.34. The reader would benefit from supplying proofs for
these remarks (which in any case can be found in VAISMAN [V]).
24 1. Symplectic Algebra
v= 1 X
In the case that V is symplectic with the form w, then we call the complex
structure J compatible with w if
w(Jv, Ju') = w(v. w) for all v. w E V.
Slightly changing the notation as in the previous example. (V, J) with an
arbitrary J can be made into a C vector space via
V"--l V := Jv.
Further. J can be extended linearily to the complexification
6', :=VSRC.
Then J has the eigenvalue fv=l, and from Jw = Aw we deduce that
-w=J2u+_AJu,_.A2u'.
The eigenspace of \1.2 = f is n-dimensional, and is given by
V+:={v-%/---I JvvEV}, V :={v+v/ I Jv. vEV}.
We then have that
V, =VC+ gV,,
and
c- V - y-IJV
defines a C vector space isomorphism between (l: J) and (1' . ).
In the case that J is a complex structure compatible with the symplectic
form w. we have
g(v, w) := w(v. Jw) for v, w E V.
From the compatibility of J and w we have also
g(Jv, w) = w(v, w)!
26 1. Symplectic Algebra
Ma(B) =
A2n
Then B is the unique self--adjoint positive operator with
B2=-A2.
'This notation will later be clarified: It will be shown that g can be extended to a hermitian
metric on the complexificatlon of V.
1.4. Complex structures of real symplectic spaces 27
Jn = ` -1 q),
and (v, w) _ 'vw, /
we clearly have A = -Jn. So A2 = -E, B = E, and so J = -Jn gives the
positive complex structure, and g (v, w) = 'vw.
28 1. Symplectic Algebra
The scalar product described above is called the hermitian metric, since
g induces a hermitian bilinear form gc on the complexification Vc of V by
9c(vCiv,w)=-9c(v, f Tw)=vi9(v,w) for v,WEV.
Then there is the restriction of gc to V.
gc(v - v/--l Jv, w - Jw) = 2 [9 (v, w) - viw(v, w)],
and then
h (v, w) := g (v, w) - %/'--I w(v, w) for v, to E V
is a usual hermitian metric on (V, J) as C vector space. This immediately
gives us
Remark 1.38. The map
V D v ,-+ -(v - vr1 Jv) E V+
is an isomorphism of the hermitian spaces (V, J, h) and (V+, 9c).
From linear algebra (V, J, h) has an orthonormal basis relative to h,
thus a C-basis (ej ), j = 1, ... , n, with
h (ej, ek) = bjk.
Since h = 9 - vl'--l w and g (v, w) = 9 (Jv, Jw) = w (v, Jw), this is equiva-
lent to
g(ej, ek) = 9(Jej, Jek) = bjk, g(ej, Jek) = 0.
From this we may conclude that (ej, Jej; j = 1, ... , n) is a real g orthonor-
mal basis of V and, with ej. = Jej, the family (ej, ej.), j = 1, ... , n,
is a symplectic basis of V.
In the other direction, if (ej, Jej) is a real unitary basis of (V, w, J),
that is, a g orthonormal basis and at the same time a symplectic basis, then
(ej) is also an h-basis, and we have a corresponding C-basis of V+ given by
well as (V+, gj with C", where h in the complex coordinates (zj) relative
to (ej) is the canonical hermitian metric
h(z,z')zizi.
1=1
Here we then have that
U(V, J) c U (n) = {U E GLn(C); UtU = En}.
On the other hand, for the Euclidian vector space (V, g), O(V, g) is the
orthogonal group of linear isomorphisms which fix g. With the help of a g
orthonormal basis this group is identified with O(2n). The above discussion
can be summarized in the following proposition.
THEOREM 1.39. Let (V, w) be a real symplectic space and J a positive
compatible complex structure. Then
U(V, J) = Sp (V) fl O(V, g).
v=
the canonical basis e = (ei, e;,) and the coordinates ( Vi.
basis (e!, Je,) there is a unitary transformation which takes (ei, Jei) to
(e;, Je,), and so L to V. The unitary group U(V. J) operates transitively
on G (V), and the isotropy group which fixes an L is the group which carries
L-related bases to themselves and is thus isomorphic to the orthogonal group
O(L,g). Thus we have shown
THEOREM 1.40. We have that
,C(V) .,, U(V, J)/O(L, g) '=' U(n)/O(n).
Now we will fulfill the promise made at the beginning of this section;
that is, we describe the collection
9=J(V,w)
of all compatible positive complex structures J on real symplectic space
(V, w), and so the set of possible ways (V, w) can be made into a Kahler
vector space. From this it will follow that 3 can be identified with the Siegel
upper half plane
15n ^-' Spn(R)/U(n)
From Remark 1.37, for a fixed J E J, the space (V, J) can be identified
with a subspace V+ of the complexification of V. Here V+ is a Lagrangian
subspace of V, where the symplectic structure w of V is linearly extended
to V. This is because we have
w(v - Jv, W - Jw)
= w(v, w) - w(Jv, Jw) - (w(Jv, w) + w(v, Jw)) = 0.
Furthermore, since g(v, w) := w(v, Jw),
-/ w(v, `v) = 2g(a, a) > 0 for 0 96 v := a - Ja E V+,
and, additionally, Jv = -,./--l(vl - v2) for
V=V+$Vc 9v=vl+v2,
Then the Lagrangian subspace F of (V, w) is called positive if
forall0&vEF.
Remark 1.41. There is a natural bijection between 9 = 3(V, w) and
the collection L+ = L+(V,,) of positive Lagrangian subspaces of (Va, w).
Proof. i) The mapping 3 - G+ is defined from the map J - V+
ii) For F E G+ F is also a Lagrangian subspace of V, since w is real.
From the positivity of F, it follows that F fl F = {0} and so V = F (D F.
Now we can define J : V -+ V by
vl,v2EF
1.4. Complex structures of real symplectic spaces 31
Then J2 = -id, w (Jv, Jw) = w (v. w). for all v, w E V, and J (V) = V,
and so for v E Vc we have the bijection
vEVav=v.
Finally, we have
w(v, Jv) = -2vr--1w(vi, 1Y1) > 0 for 0 34v = vl + v1 E V,
and so J E J(V, w).
iii) The morphisms 3 -. G+ from i) and L+ - J from ii) are clearly
inverse to one another.
and so
n
O(ei) = ei, 0(ei.) = ei. +EejZiji, (Z;j) = Z.
j=1
(M, r) -. M(r) := ar
+d
for M=[ a d f E SL2(R) and r E 551,
The Siegel half space $ has many uses in the area of moduli problems
of Abelian varieties. It can be given the structure of a complex manifold of
dimension n(n + 1)/2 (see SATAKE [Sa], p. 78). The study of the geom-
etry of these manifolds and the holomorphic, as well as the meromorphic,
functions on 15 with known invariant or covariant properties under the op-
eration of the group or its subgroups was initiated by SIEGEL (see
his Symplectic Geometry [Sil] or Topics in Complex Function Theory [Si2]);
for some time it was exactly these topics introduced by Siegel that formed
the subject of symplectic geometry. One may find a new and particularly
nice treatment of these traditional topics in MUMFORD: Tata Lectures on
Theta, Vol. 2 ([Mul]). Nowadays, however, symplectic geometry refers to
a much broader range of topics, which we will consider in the next chapters.
Chapter 2
Symplectic Manifolds
35
36 2. Symplectic Manifolds
where Xt(m) is the tangent vector at m' = Ft(m) E M' to the curve s
F,(m). Let (at)tER be a 1-parameter family of differential forms on M.
Then we have
Proof. a) The statement will first be proved for the special case M =
M' = N x I, where N is an n-manifold, I is an interval, Ft = vt with
r(it(x, a) = (x, 8 + t) for x E N, and 8 E I. A differential form at on N x I
of degree k, which depends on x, a and the parameter t, can be written as
at = ds A a (x, a, t) dxk + b (x, s, t) dxk+i
where the coefficients are given in the abbreviated form
a(x, a, t) dxk ai,...ik (x, 8, t) dxi, A ... A dxik.
i1G..<4
With this, we clearly have
ytat =dsAa(x, s + t, t)dxk+b(x, s+t, t)dxk+i
and so
d
(iP at) = ds A T (x, s + t, t)dxk + -(x, s + t, t) dxk+i
dt 8s as
(1)
+dsA (x,a+t,t)dxk+ 5i(x, a+t, t)dxk+i
We immediately deduce that
i(Xt)crt = i ( a ) of = a(x, s, t) d?
and
s)
+ (x, s, t) dxj Adxt, A... AdxiR},
ax 7-
jOl...ik)
which can be written more briefly as
84
(3) t,I d (i(Xt) at) = (x, s + t, t) ds A dxk + 4a (x, s + t, t) dxk+1_
as
With the same notation,
8b
dot = -ds A 4a (x, s, t) dxk+1 + (x, s, t) ds A dxk+l + 4b (x, s, t) dxk+2
8s
is then
and
Adding (2), (3) and (4) and equating this with (1) gives the claim for this
special case.
2.2. Darboux :s theorem 39
b) The general case will now be derived from the case a). via the following
decomposition:
Ft=Foi,toj with j:A1-Al xI.
m,-+(m.0),
t;'"t:AMxl-Alxl.
(m, s) -. (m. S + t).
F:MxI - A1'.
(m, s) F,s(m)
given by the diagram
(at)F(t,m ) (F*)(m.t)
8 (m,t)
I , (m,o),...,(F.)(m,t>(rlk,0)
_ (rcl)(mt),...,(tik,0)
(Ll(m,t)(mO)
_ 8
: F*at ((rh, 0), ... 0))
88
i)
F: (-E,e)xU - M,
(t, m) Ft(m) is differentiable,
For the further properties we will later need we refer to Section A.4 as well
as to ABRAHAM-MARSDEN ([AM], pp. 61-67).
The result stated at the beginning of the section is then a direct conse-
quence of the general theorem:
THEOREM 2.6. (Darboux's Theorem) Let wo and wi be two nondegen-
erate and closed forms of degree 2 on a 2n-dimensional manifold M with
wok,,, = wi Im for some m E M. Then there exist a neighborhood U of m and
a difeomorphism F : U -. F (U) C M with F (m) = m and F`wl = wo.
F1 = F,
Ft (m) = m, and
Ftwt = wo, for all t E I with wt :_ (1- t)wo + twi,
and so, in particular, F'wl = wo. The Ft are realized as flows to the time
dependent vector field Y on Ft(U) with
0=
dt
(Ft wt) = Ft (awl + i(Yt)dwt + d(i(Yt)wt)) .
2.2. Darboux's theorem 43
Since wo and wl are closed, so are all wt; that is, dwt = 0; the necessary
condition is equivalent to
a = da with a = J(i(Xt)u)dt.
0
Then by substitution into the given formulas we get from this a the desired
family (Y)tEj, respectively (Ft)tEI, as in c).
In GUILLEMIN-STERN BERG ([GS], p. 156) there is a further equivariant
sharpening of this theorem, which we will now describe, although this deals
with the situation of manifolds with group operations, which we will study
in detail later. We will consider the operation of a compact group G on the
symplectic manifold M. Let m E M be a fixed point under this group oper-
ation. Then wo, as well as wI, will be G-invariant symplectic forms on M.
Then there exist a G-invariant neighborhood U of m and a G-equivariant
diffeomorphism F from U into M with F (m) = m and F*wl = "70. The
proof of this statement requires adding just a little bit more additional work
to the proof just given.
The result stated at the beginning of this section is then a consequence
of Darboux's theorem:
COROLLARY 2.7. For each point m on the symplectic manifold (M, w)
them- exist an open neighborhood U of m and a symptectomorphism F of U
onto a subset F (U) of R2" equipped with the standard symplectic form wo.
Proof. Here we will require a little more external yet routine analysis.
This will assure the plausible existence of a diffeomorphism Fl : UI , U
of a neighborhood UI of the origin of the tangent spaces T,,,M H22n to a
neighborhood U of m in M. Then wI := Fi w is a symplectic form on U1.
Therefore, after a linear transformation, it can be assumed that w1lo = wolo.
Darboux's Theorem 2.6 now guarantees that there exist a neighborhood
Uo C UI of 0 and a diffeomorphism
Fo:Uo - Fo(Uo)CU1with Fo(0)=0and Fowl=wo.
F (FI o Fo)-I, which is clearly the desired symplectomorphism.
As we have already mentioned, the coordinates given by the corollary
will be called symplectic and will be written as (q, p).
The fact, just proved, that all symplectic manifolds of the same dimen-
sion are locally the same immediately raises questions about finding global
distinguishing features. We will take a glance at some results on these ques-
tions at the end of this chapter in Section 2.7, and explore a little of what is
today a very active area of research. But first we need to give a few examples
of symplectic manifolds.
2.4. Kahler manifolds 45
This form is called the Liouville form. The form can also be understood,
using the notation from Appendix A, as follows: t9 is defined as a 1-form on
M, given by
19-(11) :=
for in E M. (Thus m = (q, µ,,), where k is a 1-form on Q, 71 E T,,,M, 7r is the
canonical projection M = T'Q Q carrying m = (q, p,,) to q, and (7r=),
is the induced map T,,,M - TTQ.) For the negative of the inner derivative
w := -dd, we have, in terms of the (q, p)-coordinates,
-dd=dgAdp=Jdq,Adp;.
==1
order to introduce them, we need the material of Section 1.4. There, among
other things, we defined:
A complex structure on a 2n--dimension R vector space V is a J E
Aut V with J2 = -idv.
-- A symplectic R vector space (V, w) is called Kdhler, if it has an w-
cvmpatible complex structure J (with J E Sp(V)) which satisfies
w (v, Jv) > 0.
8
Jn, (Im) i:i; =1,...,n.
The compatibility of these structures J,,, with the holomorphic coordinate
transformation functions allows one to give a formulation of the above-
mentioned integrability condition. We will not go into this here (see CHERN
[Ch], p. 14, for details). We continue with the definitions.
DEFINITION 2.9. A complex n-manifold M with a symplectic structure
(as real 2n-manifold) is called a Kahler manifold, if for every point m E Al
the l[t vector space (T,,,M, w,,,, Jm) is Kahler.
This is equivalent to the description given at the beginning of this sec-
tion:
DEFINITION 2.10. Let M be a complex n-manifold with a hermitian
metric g. Then M is a Kohler manifold if the skew symmetric bilinear form
w (. , ) := g (J., ) is as an exterior 2--form, a closed differential form on M.
In the case when the differential form w associated to this g,n is closed, we
call it a Kahler metric. The findings from Section 1.4 on the connection
between skew-symmetric bilinear forms w and symmetric ones g apply here
immediately to verify the equivalence of Definitions 2.9 and 2.10.
In practice we find ourselves with the following procedure: we are given
a complex n-manifold M on which there is a Riemannian metric g, so that
g,n and J,n are compatible at every point m E M. This means a non-
degenerate 2-form w is also given. To see M as Kahler, and so also as
48 2. Symplectic Manifolds
Proof. Since G leaves the complex structure and the metric fixed. G
also leaves w and hence dw unchanged. Therefore, for all g E Gm and
u, v, w E 7,n M..
dwm(p,n(9)u, 8m(g)v, gm(9)W) = dwm(u, V, w).
Here setting p (g) = .In, and applying the formula twice yields
dwm(u, v, w) _m(Jmu, Jmv, J,nu) = clw.n(Jmt+, Jmu, Jmw)
= -v, -w) _ -dwm(u, v, w) = 0.
0
This criterion can be used to show that complex projective space P (C"+I) _
CP" is a Kahler manifold (see Section 2.6).
AEBIsCHER et al. ((Ae], pp. 27 ff.) go on to prove the following crite-
rion. The condition d.o = 0 is equivalent to
VxJ = O for all X E r (TM).
By V, we here mean the connection corresponding to the R.iemannian metric
g (see Section A.4); by X a vector field, thus a global section of the tangent
bundle; and the complex structure J appears as a tensor field of type (1,1)1
thus as a global section of T(RI)M
2.4. Kahler manifolds 49
They ([Ae], pp. 28 ff.) then use this criterion to show that the unit ball
in C",
B" :_ {z E C", [[zj[ < 1},
with the aid of the Bergmann-metric with the kernel
n! 1
K,,(z,tP) a" (1-Zip)"+lz,iPE B",
(cp, U) with coordinates z = (z1, ... , z,.) a positive definite hermitian matrix
is defined, for each m E U, by
The connection of Definition 2.10 with the real theory described above
is that the Kiihler form via (*) can be transformed into a real differential
form.
EXERCISE 2.15. By a short calculation, show that
0=- 8jk(dxj A dxk + dyj A dyk) + ajkdxj A dyk.
j <k j,k
Here the (ajk) = A = ReH form a symmetric matrix, while the (Ojk) _
B = Im H form a skew-symmetric one. We have
H(z, z') = tzHz'
= txAx' + tyAy' + txBy' - tyBa'
+ i(txBx' + tyBy' + tyAx' - txAy')
2.5. Coadjoint orbits 51
This can then be likened to the earlier real theory. There we spoke of a
real compatible metric g on Al as a 2n -dimensional real manifold with a
complex structure J. thus with
g(e', w) = g(w, v) = g(Jv. Jw) for all v. u' E T..Al R2".
When the matrix of g is replaced by
precisely, the goal of this section will be to discuss the following theorem of
Kostant and Souriau
Let G be a Lie group with H1(g) = H2(g) = {0} for g = Lie G. (Here
by Hk(g) we mean the k-th cohomology group of g (see Appendix Q.
Then there is (up to covering) a one-to-one correspondence between the
symplectic manifolds with transitive G-operation and G-orbits in g*.
The study of the coadjoint orbits was introduced by KIRILLOV, and
the reader may find in [Ki], pp. 226 if., a readable introduction to this
topic. Here though, we will follow the treatment of AEBISCHER et al. ([AeJ,
pp. 32-39), where one may find a summary of the detailed treatment of
GUILLEMIN-STERNBERG ([GS], pp. 172 ff.).
Remark 2.16. Via this identification of I (G) with AQg*, the operators
of exterior differentiation on 52l (G) are exactly the coboundary operators
6 on AQg* defined in Section C.2. Thus, in particular, the space Z2(g) of
2-cycles in A'g* can be identified with the space of left-invariant closed
differentials on G.
(Lxc)(X1,...,Xq) = LX(a(Xi,...,Xq))
(*) q
a(Xi, ... , [X, Xd,... , Xq).
i=1
As described in Section A.4 and as a special case of Lemma 2.3, the Lie
derivative is related to inner multiplication through the formula
ii) Now let a be an element of f2' (G) and X. Y elements of LA(M). Then
a(Y) is constant on G and, therefore.
Lx(a(Y)) = 0.
The formula (*) for q = 1 then says that
(Lxa)(Y) + a([X, Y]) = 0.
Since i(X)a = a(X) is also constant on G. it further follows from (**) that.
(i(X)da)(Y) = -a([X. Y]).
This can then be formulated as
da(X, Y) = -a([X. YJ).
and with this we have the formula for 5. when a is taken as an element of g.
iii) Let. w be an element of f22 (G) and X. Y, Z elements of Vj(G). Then
w(Y. Z) is constant, and therefore
Lxw(Y. Z) = 0.
The equation (*) for q = 2 then gives
(Lxw)(Y Z) + w([X. Y]. Z) + w(Y, [X. Z]) = 0.
Front (**) we arrive at
(Lxw)(Y, Z) = (i(X)dw)(Y. Z) + d(i(X)w)(Y. Z).
which then. using the result of part ii) for a = i(X)w. gives
(Lxw)(Y, Z) = dw(X. Y. Z) - w(X. [Y, ZJ).
Putting these two statements together. we get
dw(X. Y, Z) = -w([X, YJ, Z) +w([X. ZJ. Y) - w.'(IY. Z], X),
thus the formula for b for q = 2.
iv) Through further and analogous iteration we get the formula for the
general case.
EXERCISE 2.17. Verify the formula (*) for q = 1 and 2. and fill in the
details for step iv) of the proof.
THEOREM 2.18.
a) A symplectic group operation G x M M defines a map
41 : M Z2(9),
in -' Winw,
with
QUESTION 2.19. Are there, for a given G-orbit G#w in Z2(g), a sym-
plectic manifold M and a map 4 : M Z2(g) as above with G#w = 41(M)?
One of the central theorems of the theory of Lie groups now says that,
given such an l,,,, there exists, up to covering, exactly one connected sub-
group H,,, C G with Lie H. ^_- 4, In this case, this delivers the desired
Hw.
THEOREM 2.21. Suppose that H., is closed. Then there is exactly one
symplcctic form ;a on X := G/H, with w = pr* , where
pr:G-G/H4,=Mw
is the canonical projection.
Proof. Here again we will need some external help. We begin by showing
that the condition that H is closed implies that G/H;,, = M,,, is really a
differentiable manifold. We note first that the orbits aH4J (which is an
abbreviation for ai(H,,,)), a E G, generate the points of M, At the least,
this gives a locally transparent description of M,,, in coordinates, in which
the orbit aH, of a E C in G can be seen as an integral manifold of a
differential system A (also called a distribution). Here we can use a few
concepts and the central statement from the theory of systems of (partial)
differential equations (as can be found in the text STERNBERG ([St), p. 130),
for example):
2.5. Coadjoint orbits 57
ii) Such a system A is called smooth if for each a E G, there exist (a)
a neighborhood U(a) of a in G, and (b) smooth vector fields Z1..... ZZ on
U(a), such that for every m E U(a) the vectors (Zl )m, ... , (Z,),,, form a
basis of A (p) (this condition takes on a much more elegant form in the
language of vector bundles).
v) Now we return yet again to the special situation of the proof of The-
orem 2.21. In particular, we want to interpret the Lie algebras as subspaces
of tangent spaces in order to define a differential system D by
A (e) := f) for the identity element e E G
and
i<j
With this, we are essentially done. The integral manifolds Na of 0 are
the fibers of the projection pr : G M,,, = G/H,,, and M,,, is described in
the local coordinates (xi.... , xk). For
k
0:= aij(xl,...,xk)&, Adxj
s<j
we naturally have pr`w = w. It is now routine to see that in this manner
also a global form 0 on M,,, with the desired properties can be given. 0
In GUILLEMIN-STERNBERG ((GS], p. 174), Theorem 2.21 is given for
a somewhat more general case. In this generality it lays the groundwork
for the so-called symplectic reduction, which has the goal of projecting a
given manifold onto a (smaller) symplectic manifold by exploiting additional
2.5. Coadjoint orbits 59
Now that this construction of Mme; for a given G-orbit of w E Z2(g) for
closed Hw has positively answered Question 2.19, we naturally turn to the
question of its uniqueness
60 2. Symplectic Manifolds
Hint. As indicated in B.2 and used more explicitly in Example 4.22, the
elements B E g = so(3) can be identified with b E R3 in such a way that the
Lie products [B, B'] correspond to the vector products b x Y. In this way,
we come up with a form
w = xl dxa A dx3 + x2dx3 A dx1 + x3dxj A dxa
which, if we put coordinates on S2 by
xI = coscicos
X2 = cos ti sin Q5,
X3 = sin e9,
2.6. Complex projective space 63
pulls back to
wo = cos t9d0 A dt9.
Remark 2.29. In the same way, one can construct symplectic manifolds
as orbits G#3 for the Galilei and the Poincare group which are of great
importance for physics. One is tempted to do it here, but it would take too
much space. The interested reader may consult GUILLEMIN-STERNBERG
[GS], pp. 122--130, 437--445, or SouRIAU [So], pp. 144-192, and also the
thesis of M.A. EL GRADECHI [EG].
x
. x )- =
z- '' 1 +IIxI2 (x
with x as column, is associated the map of tangent spaces
'
Then as a bilinear form on T(=)P" we take the pullback of the bilinear form
living on V; thus
g (u, u) = tr(a (u) a (u)).
From this, after a little calculation involving substitutions of the form
tr((I )(1,r)()(1,ii))=(1+(x,u))2.
2.6. Complex projective space 65
we arrive at
9 (u, u') =
(u, u') + (u', u)
1+ Ix12
- (u, x) (x,(1u')+ (x12)2
+ (x, u) (u', x)
This can now be recognized as the two-fold real part of the hermitian metric
given above (after substitution of it = ei and u' = e1).
ii) In AEaISCHER et al. ([Ae], p. 40), this metric is carried over to the
definition of Pn as the space of one-dimensional subspaces of Cn+i. Then
the map
Cn+1\{0} * Pn D Uo = {z.,,, zo # 0} - C°,
X,
with xi = zi/zo for (i = 1, ... , n), induces the map of tangent spaces
Cn+1 = TZCn+1 T=lm TZCn = Cn,
(z, z)
Here we can substitute for , respectively i;', as well as z an (n + 1)-tuple
with (;poir).(l;) = ( as well as cpon (z) = x (that is, & = (;zo, Co = 0), and
then we get straightaway the form of the metric given above in i).
The formalism developed in Section 2.4 can now be applied to
h( , ):=Re((,))
This then says that this is a Riemannian metric on P" which is J-invariant;
that is, for the complex structure J for which JIT(z) operates on TT(.)P" as
multiplication by i = v1---1 on W, we have
hp(Jpv, Jw) = hp(v, w) for p = 7r (z).
To show that the exterior 2-form w associated to h is closed, one uses Mum-
ford's criterion from Section 2.4. To this end, let G be the group of diffeo-
morphisms of P" which leave the complex structure and h invariant; thus
G = SU(n + 1). (Here, we are exploiting the classical isomorphism
P" SU(n + 1)/U(n).)
It is then observed that
SU(n + z U(W)
and that the representation pp in Mumford's criterion, Theorem 2.11, is here
given by
B,r(z) : SU (n + U (W).
Then we clearly have JI,r(z) = iE,i E U(W), and the criterion says that
(- ,)=h
is closed, thus that P" is Kiibler. Mumford proves this directly in (Mu],
p. 87. In AEBiscHER et al. [Ae] this is crystalized to the criterion of
Theorem 2.11.
iii) Thus with a little calculation one not only arrives at the metric but
also gets a good feeling as to its origin. On the other hand, one may arrive
at the metric a little more quickly using the formalism of Definition 2.12, by
2.6. Complex projective space 67
giving a potential from which the Kahler form is gotten through differenti-
ation. And this is given on U; = {(z).,,, z; # 0} C P", with the coordinates
xEC",by
I
f = log K with K(x, T) = + > xJaJ.
J=1
Then, in the formalism of Section 2.4, this can be written as
r( ! f
,Oaf tlxjAdxj
K
Y n xkdk
K2
i=I J,k
and this can be interpreted as a Kahler form from a hermitian matrix, which
belongs to the Fubini--Study metrics given earlier.
iv) It is then pretty nice to demonstrate (AEBISCHER et al. ([Ae], pp.
41 ff.)) that P" can also be realized as a coadjoint orbit. Here again the
underlying group is naturally G = SU(n + 1). It can be shown that
9=su(n+1)={AEg((n+1,C); `A=-A, trA=O}
is the associated Lie algebra. On the vector space of these traceless skew
hermitian matrices, we can give a scalar product (,) by the formula
(A, B) = Re(tr AFB).
This makes possible an identification
9 - 8w,
A FGA with cpA(B) (A. B),
which we will consider fixed in what follows.
Now we consider the coadjoint orbit in g',
G#B = {Ad'(a) B; a E G} = {a-IBa; a E G},
for the special case B = B0 with
a=( T 0t
Theorem 2.27 now says that the symplectic form won P" is given by
w (X, Y) :_ (-B, IAx, AY))
68 2. Symplectic Manifolds
C2 (Conformality): We have
c(M, aw) = Ialc(M, w) for all a E W.
Hamiltonian Vector
Fields and the Poisson
Bracket
Already in Sections 0.4 and 0.5 it was shown how the fundamental Hamil-
ton's equations of theoretical mechanics can be elegantly formulated (and
then also studied) with the help of the formalism of symplectic geometry.
This formulation will be further detailed in this chapter. Sources for this
material are, among others, KIRILLOV ([Kij, pp. 231-233), GUILLEMIN-
STERNBERG ([GSJ, pp. 88 ff.) as well as ABRAHAM-MAP.SDEN ([AM], pp.
187-208).
3.1. Preliminaries
For a given vector field X E V(M), there are, as we've already partly seen
in Chapter 2, several operations on the spaces of functions, vector fields and
differential forms on M. You may find a collected, systematical overview on
these topics in Sections A.4, A.5 and B.I. However, the information we now
need is also collected here.
71
72 3. Hamiltonian Vector Fields and the Poisson Bracket
(a' a -a= 8 ).
X=En
=1 , dqi aPi
k
1. da (Xo, ... , Xk) = >(-1)'Lx, (a (Xo,... , Xi, ... , Xk))
i=0
5. (Lxa)(Xl,...,Xk) = Lx (a(Xi,...,Xk))
k
- Ea(X., ..., [X. Xi],..., Xk).
i=1
8. Lxda = dLxa.
where the summation is taken over all the permutations o of 1, ... , k. How-
ever, in the normalization that appears in, for example, KIRILLOV [Ki], one
must take in the above formula (1) an additional factor of k + 1 on the left
side as well as applying an additional factor to the operator i(X).
74 3. Hamiltonian Vector Fields and the Poisson Bracket
XH = 8H 8
8qi
8pi i
8H 8
-
8Qi api ,
dp=eE+-vxB,
and so
for each of the triplets (i, j, k) E {(1, 2, 3), (2, 3, 1)j (3, 1, 2)}. In this situa-
tion these quantities satisfy the relation
3
M
P V,
-V / j=1
M = T'R3 with the coordinates (q, p) = (Q1, q2, q3, pl, p2, p3),
3
w = wp - (e/c)w8 with wo = E dqj A dpi,
j=1
WB = Bidgj A dqk,
(i,j,k}
3
H(q, P) = 2m p; + 0(q) with -gradO = E.
3_1
b) In the relativistic case, there is the Minkowski space R1.3 with the co-
ordinates q = (qo, Q1i 92i q3) and the metric ds2 = dqa - dqi - dq2 - dq3,
76 3. Hamiltonian Vector Fields and the Poisson Bracket
so
uro=dgoAdpo-dq,Adpi,
wF = wB + WE,
3
WE=>E=dq,Adgo,
i=1
a(s) _ (XH)ry(5)
Hint. Use the following formula from relativity:
dt 1
ds c 1-u/
c) A variant of b) arises for the case that
M = T'R"3,
w = curd, and
H(q, p) = H(q, p - (e/c)A(q)) with A = (Ao, Al, A2, A3),
3
so that da = wF for a = > A. dq;.
i=o
It is easy to see that b) and c) describe equivalent problems. In GUILLEMIN-
STERNBERG (EGS], pp. 143-144) a recommendation is given of how a particle
with spin would be described in this formalism.
Now we fill in more details of the general theory.
Remark 3.6. (Liouville's Theorem) Let Ft be the flow of XH. Then Ft
is symplectic; that is, we have
lw = w,
and consequently Ft preserves the volume form r,,.
Proof. From Lemma 2.3, we have
d (Fiw) =F (i(XH)dw+d(i(XH)w)).
3.2. Hamiltonian systems 77
i) i (X) w is closed, or
ii) Lxw = 0 holds, or
iii) the flow Ft of X consists of symplectic maps.
0- R .F(M) '+Ham(M)-+0.
The fundamental duality w# now says that this sequence is exact; this follows
precisely because it is the constant functions which give rise to the trivial
vector field. Thus Imi = ker j. We will call this the fundamental exact
sequence .
Id
V(M) x V(M) V (M)
Wb
{.}
S21(M) x S21(M) S21(Af )
Since V (M) has a Lie algebra structure with respect to the Lie bracket [ , ],
so does 111(M) with respect to the Poisson bracket { , }.
THEOREM 3.11. For a, $ E 01 (M), we have
{a, Q} _-LQ#$+Lj.a+d(i(a#)i(/3#)W)
Proof. Here we will use the calculus of the Lie derivatives (see Sec-
tion 3.1). The starting point is formula (1) of Section 3.1 (this is the same
as material in Section C.2):
(dw)(X,Y, Z) = LX(w (Y, Z)) + Ly(w (Z, X)) + Lz(w (X, Y))
-w([X,Y],Z) -w([Y,Z],X) -w([Z,X],Y).
80 3. Hamiltonian Vector Fields and the Poisson Bracket
For X = a#, Y =,3*, it follows from the observation w(a#, Z) = a (Z) that
0 = LQ* (,d (Z)) - L,3* (a (Z)) - LZ (i (a#) i ((3#) w)
+{a, 01(Z) +a (LO, Z) - ,3 (LQ* Z),
and from this, with an application of the standard formula LxY = [X, Y],
as well as (1) and (5) from Section 3.1, we derive that
0 = (La*(3)(Z) - (Lq*a)(Z) - d (i (a#) i (f#) w)(Z) + {a, 3}(Z).
0
COROLLARY 3.12. If both or and,3 E 01(M) are closed, then {a, #} is
exact.
Proof. Since for a closed 1-form y we have, from (3) in Section 3.1,
Lxy = d(i(X )y),
Theorem 3.11 immediately gives the result. 0
The closed and the exact 1-forms generate Lie subalgebras of III(M).
Since every function f E F (M) brings along a 1-form d f and via w#
also a vector field X f? we may define Poisson brackets on functions.
DEFINITION 3.13. For f, g E F(M) we take as Poisson bracket the
function
If, 9} -i (X f) i (Xg) w,
thus
= w (X f, Xg).
(goFt)=-{f,9}oFt.
Thus g is constant along Ft exactly when (f, g} = 0. Because of the anti-
symmetry of (f, g}, we also get the equivalence of ii).
Remark 3.18. The relation {H, H} = 0 then says that H remains con-
stant on the curves of the tangent vector field XH, and therefore leads to
the theorem of the conservation of energy.
Finally, we can bring the Poisson brackets from Section 0.5 into the
picture:
COROLLARY 3.19. In canonical coordinates, i.e., with a chart in whose
coordinates (q, p) the symplectic form w has the standard form wt = dq A dp,
we have, for functions f, g E F (M),
Ofa9of891l
aqi 8p; ap; aq8
82 3. Hamiltonian Vector Fields and the Poisson Bracket
X9
=w#(dg)=ag a - ag a
aP a9 eq aP'
and so
dq + !M l ag a Of agOf ag
q} aq ap aq ap Op 8q
0
COROLLARY 3.20. For a Hamiltonian vector field XH E Ham(M) with
}low F` we have
THEOREM 3.22. F (M), as Ii vector space with the Poisson bracket, has
the structure of a Lie algebra.
In the context of this formalism, we can give a useful criterion for when
a diffeomorphism of symplectic manifolds is symplectic.
THEOREM 3.24. (Jacobi, 1837) Let (M, w) and (M', w') be symplectic
manifolds and F : M - M' a diffeomorphism. Then F is symplectic exactly
when for all h E .F (M') we have
F.Xh.F = Xh
Proof. We begin with
XA =W '# (dh) and Xhop = w# (d (h o F)).
Thus, for all Y' E V (M'),
w (Xh, Y') = dh (Y').
84 3. Hamiltonian Vector Fields and the Poisson Bracket
i(XhoF)W = i(XhoF)F*w'
Since every X,,, can be taken locally to be of the form (Xh.F)m for an
h E F (M), we arrive at the claim F'w' = w. 0
Symplectic maps can be defined by the property that they preserve the
symplectic structure. They can also be characterized as preserving the Pois-
son bracket:
THEOREM 3.25. The difeomorphism F from M to M' is symplectic
precisely when F preserves the Poisson bracket of functions on M or the
Poisson bracket of 1-forms on M. In other words, exactly when
171:.F(MI) F(M),
f r-. f o F,
or, respectively,
F*: ill (M') 0I (M),
19 F't9,
+-+
Remark 3.26. Let (U, gyp) be a chart with coordinates (q, p). Then this
is a symplectic chart, that is, with
wo=1: dg1Adpi,
we have w = V*wo exactly when
{q1, gi} _ {p:,Pj} = 0 and {q:, pi} = btj,
for i, j = 1, ... , n.
EXERCISE 3.27. Prove the remark.
Proof. Let w = -dt9. Then by Theorem 3.29 there are a chart (U, gyp)
and coordinates (q1, ... , qn, pi, ... , pn, w1) such that in U
d(t9->pidb) = 0,
i=1
and so locally for w = w(q1i... , w1)
dw.
j=1
Then, since 6 A (dt9)" 0, (ql, .... qn, p1, ... , pn, w) are also usable as co-
ordinates. 0
3.4. Contact manifolds 87
The reader may find a more direct proof in AEBISCHER et al. ([Ae]. pp.
168-171).
The study of contact manifolds will be enlightened by the introduction
of a particular differential system; that, is, by the introduction of a system
of smoothly varying subspaces of the tangent spaces of a fixed dimension, as
we have already seen in the discussion of FYobenius' theorem in Section 2.5.
Alternatively, this may be given as particular subbundles of the tangent
bundle TM.
DEFINITION 3.32. Let. w be an element, of S22(M). Then we call
R,,,.:_ {(m, Xm) E TMI i(Xm)wm = 0}
a characteristic bundle of w. X E V(M) is called a characteristic vector
field of w if
i(X)w=0.
Remark 3.33. When w E S12(M) has constant rank, then Rte, is a subbun-
dle of TM, and its sections generate a differential system (the differential
system of the characteristic vector fields). When w is closed. R,,, is involutive.
One should be careful about the word usage, which wee have here taken
from ABRAHAM-MARSDEN [AM]. In BLAIR [B1], the differential system
D of a section of R, is called a contact distribution and an element X of
a one -dimensional complement of D in V(M) a characteristic vector field
with the contact structure given by d. Such an X is then fixed by d(X) = 1
and dd(X, Y) = 0 for all Y E V(M). The following examples should make
clear what may be confusing at this first glance.
EXAMPLE 3.37. Let M = lR2,+1 come with a contact structure via
n
d=dw - EPidh.
i=1
Then X = 8,, is, in the above sense, a characteristic vector field of d, and,
for w=dr9dq,Adp,, we have
d(X) = 1 and i(X)u) = 0;
that is, X also spans a one-dimensional space of characteristic vector fields
to w in the sense of the first definition. Further, the contact distribution D
is here spanned by
Xi:=0q,+p,8,, and i=1,...,n,
and then, clearly, for i = 1, ... , n,
d(Xi) = 19(Xn+i) = 0.
EXAMPLE 3.38. Let Se be a regular energy surface for a Hamiltonian
system (M, w, H), that is. a connected component of H-1 (e) for a regular
value e of H: in other words, for those in which dH,,, 0 0 for all m E H-1(e).
S, is then a submanifold of M of codimension 1. And it is (Sei t'w) for
t : Se --+ M, a weak contact manifold. XH IS, is a characteristic vector field
of Ow and induces the characteristic line bundle of Ow . To see this is
not difficult. In particular, we have i(XHIs)t'w = 0 because of the relation,
defined on XH,
wm((XH)m, t) = (dH)m(t) = 0
it can be easily shown that t90 A (dt3o)n on Se has no zeroes (see ABRAHAM-
MARSDEN ((AM, p. 373)).
This last example can be formulated in more abstract terms with the
help of a theorem.
THEOREM 3.40. Let i : S ' lR2i+2 be the immersion of a smooth hy-
persurface, where no tangent space of S meets the origin of R2n+2. Then S
has a contact structure.
And it will be given by i' a for
a = xldx2 - x2dx1 + ... + x2 +Idx2n+2 - x2n+2dx2n+I,
when x1i ... , X2n+2 are the coordinates in R2n+2 (for a proof, see BLAIR
(Bi], pp. 9-10)).
The next example takes the form of a recommended exercise.
EXERCISE 3.41. Give the 3-dimensional torus T = R3/Z3 a contact
structure as well as an associated characteristic vector field so that the con-
tact distribution D can be made explicit.
EXAMPLE 3.42. Closely related to Example 3.39 is the example, partic-
ularly interesting for the physicist, of the construction of a contact manifold
arising from a time-dependent Hamiltonian function. Here, one is given a
symplectic manifold (M, w) and a time direction R on R x M. Then we let
7r2:RxM - M,
(t, m) '-- in,
C D:= axw, and t be the vector field on R x M given by
t(s,m} = (1,0) E TR x TmM = T(,,,,,) (R x M) for (s, m) E R x M.
Then the following statements are easy to see (see ABRAHAM--MARSDEN
([AM), p. 374)).
Remark 3.43.
i) (R x M, w) is a weak contact manifold.
ii) R;, is generated from the vector field t E V(R x M).
iii) if w = dt9, then for 0 = dt + 7r2W also D = dt9, and (R x M, z9) is a
contact manifold.
EXAMPLE 3.44. This last example can be varied by the inclusion of a
time-dependent Hamiltonian function H. For this the following formalism
is useful. Let
X.RxM-+TM
90 3. Hamiltonian Vector Fields and the Poisson Bracket
be a time-dependent vector field; that is, for every fixed t E R, a fixed vector
field on M is given. Then X represents, via
X:RxM -+ T(RxM),
(t, M) '-' ((t, tn), (1, X(t,m)),
a vector field X E V(R x M), called the suspension of X. Tb an integral
curve 7 of X through m E M (that is,
ry:I M,
t -Y (t),
with -y(t) = X(t,.,(t)) for all t E I and y(O) = m) there is associated the
integral curve 7 of X through (0, m) E R x M given by
ry:I RxM,
t '--. (t, 7(t)),
with 7(t) y(t)) = (1, X(t,. (t))) and 1-Y(0) = (0, m). If we now have
a symplectic manifold (M, w) along with a time-dependent Hamiltonian
function H E.F(R x M), then with
Ht:M R,
m --r Ht(m) = H(t, m),
XH, is, as in the above, a time-dependent Hamiltonian vector field. At
each 'M E M the vector is represented by (XH,) ,, and XH is the associated
suspension. If we now put
wH :=Ca +dHAdt,
we get the following statement as a variant of Remark 3.43.
Remark 3.45.
i) (R x M, wH) is a weak contact manifold.
ii) XH generates the characteristic bundle RAH which satisfies
t(XH)WH = 0 and i(XH)dt = I.
iii) For w = dig, tH := 1r2W + Hdt and we have wH = d19H. In the case
that H+(t901r2)(XH) vanishes nowhere, we have that (R x M, 19H)
is a contact manifold.
Thus here the contact manifold carries physical information, and the
conservation of energy, which in the case of time-independent Hamiltonian
functions H can be written as LXHH = 0, is here
LXHH=
3.4. Contact manifolds 91
The phenomena described in the examples can in large part be found in the
following influential viewpoint of WEINSTEIN which forms the starting point
for further study (see AEBISCHER et al. ([Ae], p. 174)). Let (M, w) be a
symplectic manifold and i : S - M a hypersurface given as the vanishing
set of f E F(M) with df Is # 0. Then all the multiples of the Hamiltonian
vector field X f are called the characteristic line fields on S. and from this
GS:={cXf;CER}.
S is said to be of contact type if there is 1-form fl on S with
dt9 = i'w and t9(X) 6 0 for all X E Cs\{O}.
In the context of the concepts presented at the beginning of this section,
every cX f is then a characteristic vector field to d in the sense of Bt.AiR as
well as a characteristic vector field to d O in the sense of Definition 3.35. The
contact structure on S is naturally not uniquely defined; given /3, a closed
1-form on S with (t9+13)(X) 0, then t9+,3 also defines a contact structure
on S.
We close the chapter with a nice result that shows just how tightly
symplectic and contact manifolds are interwoven.
THEOREM 3.46. A manifold with an orientable contact structure can be
realized as a hypersurface of contact type in a symplectic manifold.
A very helpful technique used in classical mechanics for the solution of com-
plex problems consists of deriving integrals (that is, expressions which re-
main constant with the motion of the system) by analyzing the symmetry of
the given system. The conservation of momentum and angular momentum
in systems with invariance under respectively translations, rotation.-,, is the
most frequent example. In this, the following beautiful and at. first glance
rather abstract formalism has been crystalized from the influential work of
Souriau, Kostant, Smale and Marsden. This is linked to the discussion in
Section 2.5.
4.1. Definitions
For what follows, we fix (M, w) to be a symplectic manifold, on which the
Lie group G operates symplectically via 0; that is, for
GxM M,
(g, m) ' -' gm = Og(m),
where all the Qg, g E G, are symplectic diffeomorphisms with ¢e(m) = m
and Ogg,(m) = tg(og,(m)). We let g denote the Lie algebra of G and g"
its dual. In this situation, g can be realized as the tangent space TG to G
at the element e E G. and this is in turn identified with the left--invariant
vector fields VI(G) on G. In the same manner, 9' can be realized as the
cotangent space T, G, which in turn is the left. invariant 1-forms on G.
For X E g, we denote by XM the vector field on M which for all m E M
is given by the rule
93
94 4. The Moment Map
or, equivalently, by
(XM)m
or, yet again, by
(XM)m (Vm)seX for u,,,, :G - M,
g'-- V4. (g) = gm.
EXERCISE 4.1. It is recommended that the reader, using the introductory
material of Appendix A, verify that these three definitions coincide with one
another, and also verify the formula
Lx.v w = 0.
X,M will be called the infinitesimal generator of the operation on M
associated to X.
DEFINITION 4.2. A map 4? : M - 9' is called a moment map for the
group operation 0 if for all Y E g we have
(ie) d (Y)=i(YM)w
with
6(Y):M -+ R,
m 4b (m)(Y).
Remark 4.3. Here we have what might at first sight appear to be con-
fusing notation:
6 (Y)(m) = 4 i (m)(Y) f o r m E M, Y E 9,
which says, in any case, that 4i is fixed by 4i. With the abbreviation of
X f for the (Hamiltonian) vector field (*) associated to f E F (M), this is
equivalent to
Xi(y) = Yu.
The meaning of the moment maps will be made a little clearer in the
following statement about their behavior.
THEOREM 4.7. Let fi be a moment map for the operation ¢ of G on Al,
and let H E F (M) be invariant under this operation, that is,
H (m) = H (Og(m)) for all mEM and9EG.
Then 4' is an integral for the vector field XH associated to H; that is, for
the flow Ft, t E I associated to XH, we have
4) (Ft(m)) = 4, (m) for all »t E Af, t E I.
Proof. For all Y E g, we have
H (mexpty(m)) = H (m),
since H is invariant. Here, after differentiating with respect to t and evalu-
ating at t = 0, we get
(dH)m((Y.Yt)m) = 0,
and so
LYA, H = 0 for Yaf =
From Theorem 3.14, we then have
(Y)}=0,
and from Corollary 3.16, we have
`F (S')(Ft(m)) (Y) (m)
for every Y E g. Thus we arrive at the claim. O
In the most important examples, the moment map has yet another nice
equivariance property. In order to describe this we recall the definition of the
coadjoint representation from Section 2.5 or D.3. The adjoint representation
Ad is given by
G x TeG - TeG,
(g, Y) Ad(g)Y = Ad9Y with Ado = (p 1 \9
and the coadjoint representation Ad' by
G X (TeG)` (TeG)' = T, *G.,
(g, a) Ad`(g)a = (Ad(g''))'a =: Ady`._,a,1
from which we define
(Ad(g))*
: (TTG)` (TAG)',
a e {Y -a (Ad(g)Y)},
1Thia usage is common in the literature of the moment map, and we will use it here also.
96 4. The Moment Map
and so
(Ad(g)'a)(Y) = a (Ad(g)Y).
DEFINITION 4.8. A moment map 4' on the group operation 0 is called
Ad'-equivariant, when
(09 (m))=Ad; 4D (m) for all mEM andgEG;
that is, when, for all g E.G, the following diagram commutes:
m
M
Ad'(g)= Ad, w
g
(CA!)rn :_ -dttlexpt'(()It=o'
We will later need several properties of this generator:
Remark 4.10. For E 9 and g E G we have
((Ad94)A1)m = im
dl OexptAdt;(m')It=O+
and from the definition of Ad9 that
d
dtO9(exPg)9-,(7n)It-o'
Then, since 0 is a group operation,
F
M
far
11
TF=F.
TM TN.
Thus
d i(eM)w,
that is,
(t;):=i(£M)t9 foreE9,
thus satisfying the characterizing relation of the moment map b.
ii) To demonstrate the Ad'-equivariance, we must show that
ii (C)(Og(m)) = $ (Adg-i)(m) for all g E G, M E M and E 9.
But from i) this is equivalent to
(i(Cnf)t9)(O (m)) ((Adg-1j)af)19)(m),
and so to
4i is given by
4' (q, aq) :=
This can also be written as
$ w = 1'
where, for a vector field X E V (Q),
P (X) : T*Q R,
Were the usual coordinates (q, p) for a point m E T'Q used, then the
momentum corresponding to Xq = E (X, (q) i9q,) E TQQ would be
(q, aq) q.
ii) {J}=0 ,
iii) {f,P(X)}=X(f).
The proofs follow by routine computations (which appear in ABRAHAM--
MARSDEN ([AM], p. 284)).
From Theorem 4.17, a moment map can be established on the tangent
bundle M = TQ whenever Q is a Riemannian manifold with a scalar prod-
uct ( , ) on the tangent spaces TqQ (it is actually sufficient that Q be
pseudorieinannian) and a group C operates by isometries V. on Q such that
this operation can be extended in a natural way to symplectomorphisms
;pg = Tcpg on TQ. Then from Theorem 4.17, the following statement can be
deduced (or it can be proven directly in exact analogy to the proof of that
theorem).
THEOREM 4.19. The moment map (P associated to cp is given, for
(q,vq)ETQ with qEQ, vgETgQ,
by
p) _ Me
which is also
4, (q,P)=P.
the momentum.
This is to be understood in connection with the conservation statement
in Theorem 4.7. For every system with a Hamiltonian function invariant
under the action of G = lR", the momentum is a conserved quantity (an
observation which the physicist makes. however, without the need of the
whole apparatus here constructed.)
EXAMPLE 4.22. Let Q = W', and let G be a Lie subgroup of GL" (1R).
The elements q E Q will be thought of as columns, and G will operate as
usual through multiplication; thus
GxQ - Q.
(A, q) ' -' Aq = P.t(q)
The infinitesimal generator for B E g = Lie G C Af,,(R) is BQ with
(BQ)q = Bq. We have further. from Theorem 4.17. that there is then an
Ad'-equivariant moment map given by
4 (B)(q P) = P (Bq)
where p is meant to be a row vector.
In the special case of n = 3 and G = SO(3). we have (see the end of
Section B.2)
g = so (3) = {B E A13(1R). B = -1B} )R3
with
0 -b3 b2 b1
B= b3 0 -bt b= b2 E 1R3.
-b2 bl
0 b3
Were we now to realize the moment map 4 on TQ. as in Theorem 4.19, the
result would be. with the standard scalar product (.) on 1R3.
6 (B) (q, v) = (v, Bq)
= (b x q, v) = det(b. q, v)
= (g x v, b).
Thus, with the identification of so (3) with R3 and 1R3 with (1R3)". we have
4(qv)=qxv.
104 4. The Moment Map
which is the usual angular momentum. For instance, for the harmonic os-
cillator with the Hamiltonian function
H(q,4)=(1/2)(IIq 112+114112),
this moment map is an integral.
EXAMPLE 4.23. The Lie group G operates on itself by left translation
GxG -+ G,
(g, h) - gh _ Ag(h).
Then the infinitesimal generator associated to this operation &, for f E g =
Lie G is given by the right-invariant vector field that takes on the value
at e; thus (£G )g = (eg, )el;, where Bg is the right translation. From this we
get for the moment map on T'G
4' ( )(g, ag) _ 1(Pgs)e!O _ (pgag);
that is,
4' (g, ag) = B?ag(e)
ABRAHAM-MARSDEN [AM] discuss further examples in their exercises.
Also related to the material of this section, GUILLEM[N-STERNBERG [GS]
introduce the example of the operation of the Euclidean group E (3) _
SO(3) x 1R3 on 1R3.
ii) GF, operates without fixed points and properly on 4>-1(p). Here prop-
erly means the following: if (mj) and (¢,,,m3) are convergent series in Al,
then ¢(gg) has a convergent subsequence in C. This condition is, for exam-
ple, automatically satisfied when G is compact. It is then a fundamental
statement (see, for example, ABRAHAM-MARSDEN ([AM], p. 266)) that
the above introduced space M. = 4r1(µ)/G,, is a manifold and that the
canonical projection
7rµ . 4;-1(ld) - Mµ = 4'-1(1,)/Gµ
is a submersion. That Al. in this situation is symplectic is the content of
the following theorem.
THEOREM 4.24. Let (M, w) be 9ymplectic with a symplectic G-operation
and an Ad* -equivariant moment map satisfying the conditions given above.
Then Mµ = 4t-1 (µ)/Gµ has a uniquely defined syniplectic form wµ with
T,,w,,
o)
is then also a symplectic form on T'Q. This then further induces a sym-
plectic form on T*QM, and there is a symplectic embedding
x1,:MM- 7"Q-
to a subbundle over Qm. Ya is then a diffeomorphism of T'QM precisely when
9 = 9N = Lie GM.
Q Q/Gµ=Q.
Vim is clearly an embedding, and is surjective precisely when g = gµ. We
also have that am is G.--equivariant. With this pr o ioN factors through the
quotients Mj, and so defines x,.. From the definition of symplectic structure
on M. Xv is symplectic. 0
Remark 4.30. ABRAHAM-MARSDEN ([AM], Section 4.5) discuss more
concrete systems with symmetry; these examples really bring Theorem 4.29
to life. They also construct differential forms aµ of degree 1 for this theorem.
It is worth remarking that for p = 0, one may assume that aµ = 0. When
Gisabelianwehave g=gM,andsoM,,-T'Q,,.
Examples.
EXAMPLE 4.31. The theorem of Jacobi and Liouville discussed at the
beginning of this section now takes the following form. Let (M, w) be a
symplectic manifold, and let
fl, ... , fk E F (M) with { fi, ff } = 0 for all i, j.
Since the associated flows Ki, respectively K,, to X f, and X f; commute (this
is a consequence of Corollary 3.16), we get (locally) a symplectic operation
of G = Rk defined on M. The associated moment map is then 4t = Kl x
... x Kk. It can then be taken that the dfi are independent at every point,
so that every u E Im 4; is a regular value of 0. Since G is abelian, we have
Gµ = G, and it gives rise to a symplectic manifold M. = 4i-1(p)/G of
dimension 2n - 2k.
It then remains to show (see ABRAHAM-MARSDEN ([AM), p. 304)) that
every invariant Hamiltonian system on M canonically induces a Hamiltonian
system on M,,. In the important special case n = k, the system is called
completely integrable.
In this sense, an example of a completely integrable system is the Hamil-
tonian system (M = T'R3, wo, Hv) belonging to a central force field, thus
with
Hv(q, p) = (1/2)p2 + V(q),
where V (q) is an SO(3) invariant potential. Then
fi =H, f2=111112, f3=I3 with I=qxp
are integrals with vanishing Poisson bracket.
4.3. Reduction of phase spaces by the consideration of symmetry 109
Xy(9 p) =
n+I
Pi
a a l.
- 9i api
i=I aqi
and the associated flow is
Ft : (q, p) s -. (q cos t + p sin t, p cos t - q sin t).
Quantization
111
112 5. Quantization
This representation lives on the subspace 7{,,_, of smooth vectors v in 7{, for
which the differentiation process is practicable. There are many deep theo-
rems from representation theory (in particular, from NELSON and HARISH-
CHANDRA) which deal with this space and give answers to the question of
when 71 is dense in W. In the given case, 7t = S(R") is the Schwartz
space, and all works well.
By differentiation of the unitarity condition
(7r(exp tX)v, ir(exp tX)w) = (v. w)
for v, w E 7{x and ) the scalar product in f, we get
(da(X)v, w) + (v,dzr(X)w) = 0.
Thus the operators dzr(X) are skew hermitian. These become hermitian
after multiplication by ±i, and so. because
dir(a({f, g})) = [d r(a(f)), dir(a(g))),
the transformation
F° f a(f) = X da(X) fid7r(X) f
satisfies the condition
if, g) =±idir(a{f,g}) = T-i[f, g].
Choosing here the factor -i, we see that the condition (*) is also satisfied;
that is, once the constant is normalized to 1 by an appropriate choice of
units (as is often done in the case of physical problems). It is naturally easy
here instead of multiplication by -i to use multiplication by c-1. so that
the relation (*) is realized with the constant c.
As the most obvious candidate for 2 to which the general procedure
applies, we consider the Poisson algebra .F2 of the quadratic polynomials in
F. thus (on account of the simplifying assumption n = 1)
.7° = F2 = (gp,P2,g2)
{gp,P2} = 2p2,
{gp,g2} = -2q2.
.F2 is, via j. isomorphic to the subalgebra Ham2(M) of Ham(M), which for
Ht = qp, H2 = (1/2)p2, H3 = (1/2)q2
is generated by the vector fields
o'! P
114 5. Quantization
Thus F2 is isomorphic to the Lie algebra g = S12 = Lie SL2(R), which can
be written as
s12=(H,F,G)
with
H=( -1), F=( 0 0 ), G=(1 0
and so
[F,G]=H, [H,F]=2F, [H, G]=-2G.
EXERCISE 5.1. It is recommended that the reader fill in the simple com-
putational details for this example.
Fvj = -(1/(21+))vj+2,
Gvj = (µl2)j(.j - 1)vj-2
Verify that this describes a representation of s[2.
we see that .F1(M) is not, a Lie subalgebra of 1(AI) (but .F<1(M) is). The
associated Hamiltonian vector fields are
a a
XP = and X.
57q 57p-
0 IR .F(M) - J Ham(M) 0
91
H(fl22n) 1R 2n
.F<1(M)--91=1R2n
that is, for a group satisfying the Heisenberg commutation relations (1)
This task is solved by
116 5. Quantization
0 0 0 -1
0
' Q=
0 0 1
0o00
0
R-
0
0000
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
5.2. Polynomials of degree I and the Heisenberg group 117
In what follows we will most often take as our starting point the descrip-
tion in a), which is also the one most often seen in the modern literature.
The Lie algebra h of the Heisenberg group will naturally be called the
Heisenberg algebra. For the natural basis elements (n = 1)
P=(1,0,0), Q=(0,1,0), R=(0,0,1)
118 5. Quantization
It is yet another easy exercise to calculate that from (7) it follows that
(on account of simplicity we take n = 1)
iS
7((t, 0, 0)) f (x)It _0 fi(x),
(7) 1 = 1, 4=(1/i), P = x,
which is the first step in the process of quantization. Physicists may be
uneasy that the position variable q represents a differential operator while
p corresponds to a multiplication operator. But this follows from the par-
ticular form of the Schrodinger representation used here, which is the usual
one from the standpoint of function theory. This can be easily converted to
the form more familiar to physicists by considering instead a 7rs -equivalent
representation. The form we have chosen will very soon lead to the usual
formula for the Well representation, and so we will keep this possibly unfa-
miliar usage for now and make the appropriate transformation only in the
larger context.
From the general theory (see Appendix D) it makes sense to carry this
over to the complex numbers. In particular, let
Yf := (1/2)(P±iQ), Zo := -iR.
Then tic =b®RC=Y±,Zo' with
(5') [Z4,Y±]=0 and [Y+, Y- Zo,
as well as
1 d
(r) s (Y) = 2 dx
21rmx and * (Zo) = 2irm.
Hint for a): GJ(R) can be realized as the subgroup of Sp2(R) in which
H(1R2) is embedded as described in Section 5.2 while introducing the Heis-
enberg group, and SL2(R) is embedded as follows:
a 0
labl
b 0
M=
0100
c d JJ ~ c 0 d 0
0 0 0 1
Further details on this and for all that will follow in Section 5.3 can be
found in BERNDT-SCHMIDT ([BeS], Chapters 1 and 2).
The operation of SL2 on H fixes, in connection with the already men-
tioned theorem of Stone and von Neumann, a distinguished projective repre-
sentation of SL2, the so-called Weil representation. Using the Schrodinger
representation, r := 7rs on L2(lR), from Exercise 5.5, we can let every
M E SL2 give a rIVI, which acts by
rM(h) := T (hM) for h E H,
giving a representation of H. Since this representation has the same effect as
r on the center of H, it follows from the theorem of Stone and von Neumann
that they are equivalent; that is, for every Al E SL2, there exists a unitary
operator U(M) such that
(8) U(M) T(h) U(M-I) = r(hM ) for all h E H.
This relation fixes U up to a constant factor by a general statement from
representation theory (the so-called Schur's lemma, see for example, KIR-
ILLOV ([Ki], p. 119)). So we have
(9) U(MI)U(M2)=c(MI, M2)U(MIM12).
Therefore c(MI, M2) E CI = {z E C, I z I = 11, and for these c we have. on
the basis of the associativity law in SL2, the relation (see KIRILLOV ([Kl],
p. 218))
c(MI, M2)c(All M2, hi3) =c(MI, M2Af3)c(M2, M3).
This then says that
(10) SL23M- U(M)EAutf
defines a projective representation of SL2 on f.
Remark 5.7. A projective representation in the above sense g 7r (g) of
a group G into the space 7.1 induces a usual representation z in the projective
space P (71) associated to R. This is defined by
v,. - it (g) (v-) = (7r (g) v) _ for v. E 1P (7-l).
122 5. Quantization
This procedure accommodates well to quantum theory, since it is not the ele-
ment v of the Hilbert space that. has physical meaning, but the 1-dimensional
subspace spanned by any such v 0 0.
a
ford(a)= 0 a01 I, a#0,
7rw (n (v)) J (x) = J (x)e2amiVX2
forn(v)= I 0 1 I, vER,
for w =
7rsw(M, h) = 7rs(h)7rw(M)
F= I. G=I 1 0 I. H=(00 -1
C0 10
through the differential operators (7) and (11). which operate on a dense
subspace of L2(R) and after multiplication by (-i) solve the quantizat.ion
task from the beginning of Section 5.1.
124 5. Quantization
From ('7) in Section 5.2 as well as (11) in Section 5.3. after the normal-
ization 47rm = 1, the map a :
p2 '---+ ix2.
9P'- \I xd +1/2
is a representation of p = .7 <2 which acts by skew hermitian operators on a
dense subspace of 9{ = L2(]R), and after multiplication by (-i) can be made
hermitian. This can be shown by direct calculation, without returning to
the formulas for the Schrodinger-Weil representation.
EXERCISE 5.10. Verify the above construction. and verify the statements
in the following construction.
A(q) = x,
A(p) _ -i aj,
(12)
A(q2) = x2,
A(p2) = -
A(qp) = -i(x/ +1/2).
Setting f = A f , we see that C77 satisfies the quantization conditions (* )
and (**) given at the beginning, and so
{f,g} _ -i[f,g] and 1=1.
126 5. Quantization
From these we will construct a contradiction which says that A assigns to the
same Poisson bracket differing values. This proceeds by a few calculations
and will be given in several steps, beginning with:
ii) We have
(16) A(qp) = (1/2)(QP+PQ).
In fact, from {q, p} = 1 it follows with (*) that
(17) [Q, P] = QP - PQ = i
and from {q2, p2} = 4qp
4A(qp) = -i[Q2, P2] = -i(Q2P2 - P2Q2);
with (17), this gives
4A(qp) = -i(QPQP + iQP - P2Q2)
and by the further repetitive application of (17) then
4A(qp) = -i(2i(QP + PQ)).
5.4. The Groeneuold-van Hove theorem 127
iii) We have
(18) A(q3) = Q3.
Setting A(q3) =: X. it immediately follows from {q3, q} = 0 that
[X. Q] = 0,
and, from {q3, p} = 3q2 with (*) and (13).
[X. P] = 3iQ2.
Trivially. in an associative algebra, we have
[Q3, Q] = 0.
and because of (17)
v) We have
(20) A(g2p) = (1/2)(Q2P+PQ2).
From {q3, p2} = 6q2p it follows from (*), (18) and (17) that
6iA(q2p) _ [Q3 , P2] = Q3P2 - P2Q3 = Q2PQP + iQ2P - P2Q3
... = 3i(Q2P + PQ2).
128 5. Quantization
which gives the vector field Xf, after Theorem B.4. as a derivation on F (M).
and therefore as a linear differential operator. This extends to
f'f= -iXf
and satisfies, because X{ f.y) _ -[X f, X9] (see Corollary 3.23), the condition
(*) with c = -i. Since the image of the constant functions in Ham(M) is
zero, this procedure must be altered if we wish (**) to be satisfied. Therefore
Kirillov takes, with the 1-form a on M.
(+) f:=-iXf+f +a(Xf).
In this way, (*) is satisfied so long as for a we have da = w.
EXERCISE 5.14. Using the relation 1) from Section 3.1, verify that
da (XI, X2) = Lx, (a (X2)) - Lxs(a (XI)) - a ([XI. X2]).
In the special case of M = T'Q one can take -a = t9 = E pidgi. and
then (+) has the form
n(Ofa_afa1 f_ n of
f = -i 99l apj J + pf gpj
j=1 ap, a9j j=1
and so in particular
a a
Pi = -igaj' qj = iapj +qj
ii) If w is not exact, one can use the above construction in a generalized
form. In this case, by using the fact that w is closed and thus locally exact,
a cocycle h (see Section A.2) is constructed which has an associated vector
bundle E of rank 1. thus a line bundle. Then the construction is generalized
by assigning sections f of this bundle to the primary quantities f as in (+).
This then goes through (see Theorem 1 of KIRILLOV ([Ki], p. 245)), in the
case that the appropriate normalization of the integral of w
Ic
In particular for connected M, H' (M, C*) is trivial, and therefore this quan-
tization is unique.
In the general picture constructed so far, nothing has been said about the
Hilbert space R. nor has it been required that the operators f should operate
as self-adjoint operators, or that the choice of f is required to be restricted
to p. The operators which appear in (+) are (differential) operators which
operate on F (M) or on the space r (E) of sections of the line bundle E.
As already mentioned in the discussion of thequantization concept, it is
desirable that the space on which the operators f corresponding to f operate
be as small as possible (so that the operation is irreducible or at least of finite
multiplicity). In the explicit discussion of the examples M = T`Q = R2"
in Sections 5.1-5.3, there appears, somewhat informally, the space N =
L2(R"), which then is the desired space; namely, for n = I we get the
quantization of g1 with the help of the Schrodinger-Weil representation agy
of the Jacobi group GJ(R). In the next most general case M = T'Q we see
that f = L2(Q, du), with an appropriate measure dµ, is the proper space.
Now for the most general situation we will greatly simplify the discussion,
but still hope to make it clear that the choice of p makes it possible to
manage with this small Hilbert space as the domain for the operators f .
When M is not the cotangent space to a manifold, one would expect a
Hilbert space of functions in n = (1/2) dim M variables. The local separa-
tion of variables in q and p via the form
w_ dq,Adpi
is perhaps not globally possible. Halving the dimension is however possible
with the help of the local concepts. This is given by defining on M a Lagrange
distribution L; that is, by defining at every m E M, a Lagrangian subspace
L,,, in TmM (on which u4n vanishes), so that these spaces vary from point
to point in a differentiable way. (This can, like the concept of differentiable
vector spaces, be made more precise). Analytically this leads to the choice
of a maximal commutative subalgebra Fo (U) C Y (U), relative to { , }, for
all neighborhoods U C M. Then we have
Fo(U)={fEF(U)IXf=0forallXEL},
and ['0(E, U) denotes the space of sections of r (E) for which the functions
f E Fo(U) are assigned operators f, in accordance with the rule in ii), that
operate as multiplication operators. This leads to a subspace [o(E) of the
space of sections of t (E), which can also be characterized as the space of
sections which are annihilated by covariant differentiation (see Section A.4)
along arbitrary X E L. The primary quantities f E p are excellent, because
5.5. Towards the general case 133
they satisfy
{ f,.F0(U)} C .F0(U) for all U.
This condition implies that the operators f associated to f leave r0(E)
stable. In the special case of M = T*R" this translates to the result that
the f are primary, that is, sums of arbitrary functions of qI,... , q" and
linear functions of Pi , ... , p". 'H is then the completion of I'c(E) relative to
a fitting scalar product. so that the operators are selfadjoint.
Remark 5.16. This last briefly mentioned theme is introduced in KIR-
ILLOV ([Ki], p. 241-248) with somewhat more, but still not full, detail, and
shows that at least the topics introduced in the previous chapters and in the
appendices can be collected into a general theory. The general theory goes
yet further. but requires yet more application of functional analysis.
I hope that the interested reader is now sufficiently prepared to study
the original sources: ABRAHAM-MARSDEN [AM], GUILLEMIN-STERNBERG
[GS], KIRILLOV [Ki], WALLACH [Wa] and WOODHOUSE [Wo]. In par-
ticular, we refer the reader one last time to WALLACH [Wa], which has
an appendix by R. HERMANN that is a readable introduction to quantum
mechanics with many historical and critical remarks.
je coji? Yo no se
si t.e coji, plums suavisima.
o si coji to sombra.
J.R. JIMENEL
Appendix A
Differentiable
Manifolds and Vector
Bundles
135
136 A. Differentiable Manifolds and Vector Bundles
are differentiable.
(where the symbol - indicates that this entry should be omitted). Clearly
the transformation functions are holomorphic; for instance, V = p(l) and
138 A. Differentiable Manifolds and Vector Bundles
it follows that
i
'P O
1
I cp(UinUU+t) (x) = r 1 ,2I , ... , X P - 1 l
xP x P xP
is then holomorphic, since xP = zp+I/zI 0 0 in UI fl Up+I.
i) F is continuous, and
ii) F is given locally by differentiable maps.
This means that there exist atlases o on M and a on N which fix the
underlying differential structures of the manifolds, so that, for charts (gyp, U)
from o and (u(', V) from f3, on w := U fl F- I (V) the composition
V(W) -, W Fi V -O(V)
is differentiable.
A.1. Differentiable manifolds and their tangent spaces 139
Remark A.6.
(1) The condition ii) is independent of the choice of atlases for M and
N.
(2) The phrase F is given by differentiable maps should have the mean-
ing that o F o ;p-I gives a q-tuple of differentiable functions in p
variables in the local coordinates.
(3) The composition of differentiable maps is again a differentiable
map.
Tangent spaces. There are many ways in which one may assign the tangent
space to a point in of a differentiable manifold M. The central point is the
demonstration that it is a vector space which has the same dimension as M.
The following definition formalizes the visual image that the tangent space
in m E M is the set of the tangent vectors to all curves on M which pass
through the given point.
DEFINITION A.9. Let m be a point in M. Then the tangent space of M
at m is
T.. M := CuRM/,,,,
140 A. Differentiable Manifolds and Vector Bundles
where Cu,,,M is the class of all pairs (J, y), where J is an open interval of
R containing 0 and y : J - e M is a differentiable map with y(0) = m, with
an equivalence relation defined on Cu,,,M by
(J, y) - (J', -/)
precisely when
d( , o'>')
With the help of the chain rule, it can be shown that this definition is
independent of the choice of the chart.
Remark A. 10. When M C R9 is a submanifold, this definition simplifies
as follows: v E R° is a tangent vector to M at m E M (thus E TmM)
precisely when there is, for a given e > 0, a map y e) - M with
y(0) = m and ''y(0) = v.
This remark prepares the general statement that TmM, in a natural way,
has the structure of a vector space of dimension p.
THEOREM A.11. For each chart (cp, U) with m E U there exists a bijec-
tion
h: TmM-+IPp
given by
Xm
(d(o)
(0))
i-l+ ..,p
Now, given a second chart (gyp', U'), with m E U' and v'(m) = y, and
transformation functions y = y(x) = cp' o cp-l I+p(UnU') (x), then we have for
the map h' associated to gyp', on account of the chain rule,
Balm
13 = \ lm19
axl OXplm
A. I. Differentiable manifolds and their tangent spaces 131
\ 9 1., ( = bii-
An am E 7`,,,M with
am = > ai (dxi)m, ai E R (i = 1, ... , p)
would in the coordinates y of another chart cp` and the correspondingly
constructed basis (dy)m be written as
am = E bi(dyi)m.
With the notation
Vr-1(y)
x = x(y) = cp o
A.I. Differentiable manifolds and their tangent spaces 143
for the transformation functions between these two charts, we can evaluate
the coefficients:
P
c3xj
b, = E i(y)aj
j=1
Remark A.15. Every f E F(m), and thus every differentiable function
which can be defined on a neighborhood of m, gives rise to a cotangent
vector (l)m, namely the linear form defined by
j=1
Maps of tangent and cotangent spaces. Let F : M N be a morphism
of differentiable manifolds, m E M and F(m) = n E N. Then in the
following way we get a map
(F.)m : TmM ,
of the tangent spaces. Given Xm E TmM represented by the curve (J, y) in
M and y(0) = m; then (J, F o y) is a curve in N with F(-y(O)) = n and its
tangent vector can be taken as the image of Xm. Thus
(F.)m(Xm) = (J, F o 1'),. =: Yn E TN,
and this is well defined. Dual to this stands the map
Fm : 7T N -. TTM
of the cotangent spaces given by the following procedure. For 8n E T;, N
we take for the image F;nj3 in T,,,M the form which for all Xm E FmM is
defined by
FmFn(Xm) =
Thus, in other words,
(Xm, FmF fl) _ ((F.)m)(m, A,).
144 A. Differentiable Manifolds and Vector Bundles
i) The projection map factors through h; that is, the following dia-
gram is commutative:
U
A.2. Vector bundles and their sections 145
the group of all invertible n x n-matrices with coefficients in the space .F(U)
of differentiable functions on U. If it = is an open covering of M.
then denote by
Z' (!t. GL,, (-F))
the set of all 1-cocycles relative to it, that is to say, the families (i'1j)i.jEl
with
li',j E GL,(.F(Ui n Uj))
and
1Vij7Jjk = L''ik over Ui n Uj n Uk for all i, j, k E I.
If 21 is a differentiable atlas of a vector bundle over Al, then the family of
the transformation functions of 21 generate such a 1-cocycle. In the reverse
direction, from every 1-cocycle from Zl (ft. GLn (.F)) a differentiable vector
bundle of rank n can be constructed.
THEOREM A.23. Let Al be a differentiable manifold, U = (UI),EI an
open covering of Al and (irij) a family from Z1(I1.GLn(.F)). Then there are
a differentiable vector bundle 7r : E - M of rank n and a differentiable atlas
K")iEl
of E whose transformation functions are the given $Yij.
Of the proof, we will only say enough to show that the bundle E - Al
is given by the space
E':=UU,xK' x{i}CAfxKnxI
iEI
by introducing an equivalence relation
(m. V, i) - (m'. v', i')
precisely when
m=m' and v=yii.(m)v'.
Then, with the help of a few facts from topology. one can show that E arises
as E'/
As an application we will now develop the concepts of the tangent bundle
TM and the cotangent bundle T' M. To this end, let M again be covered by
It = (U1)iE j and, as we did earlier, denote by Bp(i) : Ui -+ K" the coordinate
map on the ith chart. Then, for the tangent bundle TM, we can take for
the transformation functions t4'ij those matrices which are the Jacobians of
the transformations on the charts Bp(i) o thus
i'ij(m) = (cp(')(m))
148 A. Differentiable Manifolds and Vector Bundles
If ;pW has the coordinates y and 1p(i) the coordinates x, this says that from
h;;=hiohjl:(U,nU;)xKP -. (U;nUj)xKP.
(m, a) --+ (m,ap;i(m)a = b),
we may calculate that the vector a = (aµ) in the x-coordinates has, in the
y--coordinates, the components b = with
P "Y"
N=1
For the cotangent bundleT'M one correspondingly takes
O>> (m) =
which for the vectors a* and b' is the transformation given by
df = µ-1 - d x,.
OXI,
Maps of vector fields and 1-forms. The description of the maps of tan-
gent and cotangent spaces at the end of Section A.1 leads immediately to
the fact that vector fields and their dual objects are mapped by a differ-
entiable map F : M N in the following way. if F is injective, then to
X E V(M) is assigned a vector field F.X on F(M) C N such that at every
n = F(m) E F(M)
(F.X )n = (F.)mXm
is assigned. When F(M) is a submanifold, one can prove that this vector
field is again differentiable. And this is the case when F is an embedding,
that is, all F.m are injective and F is a homeomorphisin of F(M).
In order to pull back a 1-form 13 E 01(N) on M, the injectivity of F is
not needed. F*,3 E 01 (M) is defined at every m E M so that
(F"J3)m := FF[3n with n = F(m).
This assignment gives a differentiable section of T* M.
150 A. Differentiable Manifolds and Vector Bundles
With a little more formalism it can be seen (see, for example, ABRAHAM-
MARSDEN ([AM], p. 45)) that a differentiable map F : M N gives rise
to a differentiable map TF : TM - TN of the tangent bundles and
analogously to a differentiable map 7F: T'N -' T'M of the cotangent
bundles.
XmE®TmM®(®TmM)
every
f Vz.
With this the manifold receives yet another additional structure which is
often of great help. One may derive, from a metric fundamental tensor, the
Riemannian curvature tensor which is required for the formulation of the
theory of general relativity. The following theorem is therefore of particular
interest
THEOREM A.30. On a differentiable manifold there is but one Riemann-
ian fundamental tensor.
Using the notation I. :_ {(i1.... J J1 < i1 < ... < iq < p}, this is fre-
quently more briefly written as
a(q) a(i)dxi, A... A dxiq = a(i)dxq i)
(i)Elq (i)Elq
From the interpretation of the differential forms a(q) and a(r) as alternating
q-, respectively r-, linear forms on TmM, we get that a(q) A a(r), through
antisymmetrization of the operation of a(q) x a(r) on (TmM)q+r, defines a
(q + r)-linear map.
Remark A.31. Differential forms may be added coefficient by coefficient
and (by writing one after the other) may be associatively multiplied under
the commutation rules
dxi A dx, _ -dx, A dxi for i 36 j,
0 otherwise.
For the specification of differential forms, one can exploit the already used
ordered or reduced representation, so that an element of the skew-symmetric
representation is usually written as
P
a(q) = E 1 qb71 dx)1 A ... A dx79 q
31,...Jq=1
When a vector field X E V (M) is given, we may define yet another pair
of operations on the differential forms St(M) on M.
4) The inner multiplication i(X) decreases the degree of a differential
form a(q) of f&(M) by one. It is defined by assigning to i(X)a(q), for
X E V(M), the map
i(X)a(g)(X1,---,Xq-1) := a[9)(X,X1,...,Xq_1).
It is not hard to see (see ABRAHAM-MARSDEN ([AM], p. 115)) that
i(X)a(q) E Q9-1(M) really holds, and that i(X) satisfies the following rules:
Lxa(a) = (Fx(t)a(a))
dt t=o.
For these Lx we have the computation rules (see ABRAHAM-MARSDEN
([AM], pp. 113 ff.))
A.S. Connections
In [Ch], p. 33, CHERN introduces the general concept of a connection on a
differentiable vector bundle E over a manifold M. Here we only consider
the case of the tangent bundle TM on M (see ARNOLD [A] and ABRAHAM-
MARSDEN [AM]). In what follows we give a formulation of under what
conditions a differentiable vector field X E V (M), viewed as a differentiable
global section of TM over M, can be understood as consisting of parallel
vectors. Or - possibly easier to visualize - how a vector Xm E TmM along
a curve y : J M passing through m can be displaced parallelly. This
can be accomplished by making this image more precise. That is, between
the tangent spaces T,,,M and Tm'M of two neighboring points m and m',
which are isomorphic only through an abstract isomorphism, we look for
a connection, i.e. a concrete isomorphism 'm,m' depending differentiably
on (m, m') and such that 0m,m = id. One way to make this more precise
consists of defining a map for a given vector field X E V(M) at every point
m E M, which to every Xm E TmM and every direction Ym E TmM assigns
a derivative (VyX)m of Xm in the direction Ym. Xm does not change in
the direction fixed by Ym if this derivative (VyX)m is 0. This then leads to
the following definition (see ABRAHAM-MARSDEN ([AM], p. 145)).
DEFINITION A.35. A connection V on a differentiable manifold M is a
map
V : V(M) X V(M) --f V(M),
(X, Y) - VyX,
satisfying
a) V is R-bilinear in X, Y E V (M),
b) VfyX = fVyX, and Vy(fX) = fVyX + (Lyf)X for all f E
F(M).
VyX is called a covariant derivative of X along Y (to the connection V).
Lyf means the Lie derivative of f, as covered in the last section. In a
chart (.p, U), with coordinates x and the usual basis ej = for TmM with
m E U, let the Christoffel symbol r?k of the connection V be introduced as
v
Vefek = rikei.
i=I
A.5. Connections 159
I
160 A. Differentiable Manifolds and Vector Bundles
Thus
For the case E = TM, the equations (4) and (5) can be equated with
equation (1), and then it can be seen that Definition A.36 is carried into
Definition A.37 when for X, Y E v (m) = r (TM) one substitutes
VyX = (VX,Y),
where here I'(T`M ® TM) x V(M) - V(M) is induced by the
standard pairing
a
dx; = 6{j.
axj
A.5. Connections 161
or, locally,
d
dpi +EwJtj = 0, i = 1,...,d.
i=1
This can be understood as a system of partial differential equations. In
general, they will have no solution, but carry over to a solvable system of
ordinary differential equations, when one searches for a horizontal section
over a given curve 7 on M.
Up to this point we have considered only one chart and a fixed d-frame
si. Suppose now that another d-frame is given by
s' = As,
where A is a nonsingular d x d matrix of differentiable functions on U. If w'
relative to s' is given by
Vs' ='O's"
we derive, as the transformation law of connections,
(6) w 'A = dA + Aw
We further introduce a d x d matrix fI of 2-forms, called the curvature matrix
relative to s, according to the formula
11:=dw+wnw.
Then we can deduce, after exterior derivation of (6) with the matrix Q'
corresponding to s', that the transformation law is
S2'A = AS2.
Given a connection V on the tangent bundle TM, as in (4) and (5), with
the help of the Christoffel symbols I)k and the 1-forms written as
j=1
one may now give, in a natural way, definitions for covariant derivatives
of differential forms, tensors and, more generally, tensors constructed from
differential forms (see for example, ABRAHAM-MARSDEN [AM], p. 148)
and KAHLER [K2], p. 440)). For a differential form a E f2(Q)(M) and
h = 1,... , p, the covariant derivative in the direction his
as
dha r, A era
:= h - r
az
with
era = Q, when a = dz,. A$ + y,
where dxr does not arise in y; thus era = i(Xr)a with inner multiplication
discussed in Section A.4. It is but a short step to generate a (q + 1)-form
by the sum
v
dxh A dhO,
h=1
which then, on the basis of the symmetry of PA, agrees with the exterior
differential do, also discussed in Section A.4.
The covariant derivative of a p-fold contra and q-fold covariant tensor
t is a (p, q + 1)-tensor Vt given by
3... iy = a
(V t)i ...jqe - axh tjl...jq +
rtj..jq hi il..-l is
... + ,tjl...jgrhi
ii ..iy
E il...iy
I
tl.Y2...jgl'lhj1
- ... - L.. u...: hjy'
!
For a much more general treatment which avoids all these indices, the in-
terested reader is referred to Equations Diferentieiks a Points Singuliers
Reguliers by DELIGNE [D].
Appendix B
These coefficients are called the structure constants of g (relative to the given
basis (XI,... ,
EXAMPLE B.3.
(1) The Lie algebra g is called abelian or commutative whenever
(X,Y]=0 for all X,YE9.
Every K vector space can be considered as a commutative Lie al-
gebra when equipped with this trivial Lie bracket.
(2) Every associative K-algebra A can be taken to be a Lie algebra,
by taking for the Lie bracket
[X,Y] := XY - YX for X,Y E A.
In this manner, for the space of all p x p matrices A = Mp(K) we
have the Lie algebra called gt,(K).
(3) Every (not necessarily associative) K-algebra A allows the con-
struction of a Lie algebra Der A, given by the K-linear maps called
derivations; that is, maps satisfying
D : A -* A, with D(XY) = (DX )Y + XDY for all X,Y E A
and [DI, D2] := DiD2 - D2DI as Lie bracket. DerA is called the
algebra of derivations, or also differentiation, on A.
By an easy refinement of Theorem A. 13, it can be shown (see ABRAHAM-
MARSDEN ([AIM, p. 83)) that:
THEOREM B.4. The space V (M) of differentiable vector fields on a dif-
ferentiable manifold M is isomorphic to Der (.1 (M)) as K vector spaces.
This isomorphism is given by assigning to a vector field X on M the
derivation Lx defined by
Lx f (m) = (cf )m) for f E .T(M) and M E M.
Lx f will be called the Lie derivative of f relative to X, and has already
been introduced at the end of Section A.3 as well as in the discussion of the
B.2. Lie groups and invariant vector fields 165
Here, we will focus on the case of real Lie groups; analogous constructs
can be formed over the complex numbers.
EXAMPLE B.7.
(1) G =R" with addition as product.
(2) G = R>0 with multiplication as product; or analogously,
G=SI={z EC,jzj=1}.
166 B. Lie Groups and Lie Algebras
Every Lie group G gives rise to a Lie algebra g = Lie G, which can
be thought of as the linearization of G and whose structure is fixed by G,
here in a neighborhood of the unity. For this assignment there are several
equivalent constructions. Here we take as the starting point a concept which
also finds many other uses.
NOTATION B.B. For each go E G denote by Ay,p the function defined by
g . -. ay9 909,
the so-called left translation given by go, and by py,o the right translation
given by
9'-'Pa,9;=990
For every go, the maps A and ppu are diffeomorphisms of C to itself. They
can also be used to shift given vector fields X on G. This makes possible
the concepts of right-invariant and left-invariant vector fields on G.
DEFINITION B.9. X E V(G) is called left-invariant whenever
(a9o).X = X for all go E G.
EXAMPLE B.16.
(1) G = R", with addition as product, has p = Lie G = R', and exp:
R" ---' R'& is the identity.
(2) For G = and its subgroups, the exponential map is the
generalization of the exponential function of matrices; thus
exp : f),
00
.=o
To every A E M,,(R) there belongs the 1-parameter subgroup -YA,
given by
00
A Little Cohomology
Theory
Homology and cohomology groups are important tools for both describing
and characterizing objects in almost every area of mathematics. They are
introduced under the topics of homological algebra and/or algebraic topology.
Here we will only give a few definitions from various sources (for instance,
KIRILLOV [Ki], and GUILLEMIN-STERNBERG [GS]) and treat enough of
their elementary properties to suffice for our study of symplectic geometry.
For a systematic introduction, we recommend MACLANE'S book Homology
[ML] or GODEMENT's book Topologie algebrique et theorie des faisceaux
[Go], which has retained its value as a classical introduction to sheaves and
their cohomology.
GxM -+ M,
(g, m) '-' gm,
with
(gg')m = g(g'm),
em = m,
g(m+m') =gm+grn'
171
172 C. A Little Cohomology Theory
for all g, g' E G and m, m' E M. Then (see KIRILLOV ([Ki , p. 21)) an
n-dimensional cochain c is an (n + 1)-linear map
n+1
with
for all 9,9o.. ,gn E G.
The collection of all n-dimensional (or, more simply, n-) cochains is a group,
and will be denoted by
Cn(G, M).
Then a coboundary operator d
d : C?(G, M) Cn+1(G,
M),
c '--i dc,
is given by
n+1
dc(go,...,9n+1) _ E(-1)'c(90,...,9i,...,gn+1)
i^o
If
c = db,
then c E Cn(G, M) is called a coboundary of the cochain b E Cn-1(G, M);
and c is called a cocycle, if
do=0.
Then we get in C' the subgroup of cocycles Z' and the subgroup of cobound-
aries B. The following statement is central.
Remark C.I. We have
dod=0.
EXERCISE C.2. Prove the remark.
We thus have
C"(G, M) D Z"(G, M) D Bn(G, M),
and we can form the factor group
H'(G, M) := Z'(G, M)/B'(G, M).
This is again a group, and is called the n-th cohomology group of the group
G with coefficients in M. Taking a direct sum, we obtain
H* (G, M) := ®Hn(G, M).
n
This is a graded ring or a graded algebra, if M is not only a group, but a
ring or an algebra as well.
C.2. Cohomology of Lie algebras 173
defined by
k i
bf(F.O..... k) := E(-'Y 1f(So,...,.i.....l;k)
i=0
+ ,Sj,.. .l;k)
i<j
Thus, with this arrangement, we have for k = 0
df (4) = U,
for k = I
6f f1) = W (6) - W (to) - f ([to, 6 ]),
174 C. A Little Cohomology Theory
and for k = 2
1,f2) = fof(S1,S2) - S1f(So,S2) +
Representations of
Groups
177
178 D. Representations of Groups
dimC(7r,7r) = 1.
,\ (go) 0 (g) _ O W, g) -
185
186 Bibliography
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Index
189
190 Index
Symplectic manifolds
193
194 Symbols
Representations
Lie group 173
associated Lie algebra 174
continuous representation of a Lie group G 187
associated contragredient representation 186
Symbols 195