Cement and Concrete Research 124 (2019) 105792
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Cement and Concrete Research
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Short communication
The cement industry on the way to a low-carbon future
Martin Schneider
VDZ
1. Introduction
Cement is the most used material on a global scale and is indis-
pensable for a wide range of buildings, infrastructure and transport
systems. In the time to come cement will also in many respects play an
important role for modern societies and for their sustainable develop-
ment. Global cement production has continually and significantly in-
creased due to rising populations, continuing urbanisation and infra-
structure development. The total annual cement consumption in 2016
was 4.13 Gt [1] and it is expected to grow up to 4.68 Gt/year by 2050
[2].
Cement production is inevitably accompanied by a significant de-
mand for energy and by high CO2 emissions. This is due to the physical
and chemical processes when converting limestone-based raw materials
into Portland cement clinker, which cannot be avoided even if the
overall production process is optimised as much as possible. Today the
cement industry is the third largest industrial energy consumer [2] and
its production accounts for up to 6–7% of global anthropogenic CO2
emissions, which corresponds to 5% of anthropogenic greenhouse gas
emissions in CO2 –equivalents [2–5].
The CO2 emissions from the clinker burning process originate as
fuel-related CO2 from fossil fuel combustion in order to generate
thermal energy, and as process CO2 from the decomposition of CaCO3
into CaO and CO2 in the calcination process. Indirect CO2 emissions
result from the production of electrical energy, but also from transport
and logistics related to cement. Since clinker will continue to be in-
dispensable in the long term to satisfy the global need for cement, the
challenge to significantly reduce CO2 from global cement production
will remain. Conventional measures to improve its CO2 performance
include the further improvement of the energy efficiency of clinker
production to reduce fuel-related CO2 emissions and increasing biomass
fuel use to replace fossil fuels. The highest reduction potential certainly
lies in replacing clinker with suitable supplementary cementitious
materials (SCM). Here, the availability of these materials plays a role
and also the performance and durability requirements for the corre-
sponding concretes.
An additional reduction potential is expected not only from the ef-
ficient use of clinker in cement but also in concrete and in its applica-
tion in construction. This implies not only the need for the cooperation
of all participants along the value chain but also for corresponding
E-mail address: martin.schneider@vdz-online.de.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2019.105792
Received 9 February 2019; Received in revised form 14 June 2019; Accepted 14 June 2019
0008-8846/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
T
standards and quality measures to safeguard the overall performance of
concrete constructions under their specific use cases.
Potential breakthrough technologies include carbon capture in
combination with storage (CCS) and utilisation (CCU) as well as the
development of new cements and binding materials. Carbon capture
has been developed to a degree where it is now able to be tested at
industrial scale under practical conditions. While storage technology
has been shown to be available, e.g. in the oil and gas sectors, the lo-
gistics to link the CO2 sources with the storage sites are still lacking
[6,7]. CO2 utilisation is an increasingly interesting field. The main
challenge is still seen in providing sufficient renewable energy to con-
vert the CO2 for further utilisation. The amount of avoided CO2 depends
not only on the captured CO2, but also on the part which is eventually
released into the atmosphere again.
The development of new binding materials, which are not Portland
cement clinker-based, is making promising progress. These can play an
important role on a small scale but will not be able to significantly
contribute to CO2 reduction in cement production in the timeframe set.
As cement production is forecasted to grow, the challenge to reduce
CO2 emissions from cement production remains large. In order to meet
the Paris agreement goal to limit global warming to 2 °C and to achieve
net zero greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 2050, concrete actions are
being discussed, implemented or developed along the entire value chain
including cement production, concrete production and finally the effi-
cient use of cement-based materials in buildings and infrastructures.
The present paper intends to give an overview of the current si-
tuation and an assessment of measures and state of-the-art technologies
to significantly reduce the CO2 footprint of the cement industry.
2. Where do we stand?: CO2 emission in the cement industry
2.1. Climate policy context
Due to increased GHG emissions and corresponding higher CO2
concentrations in the atmosphere the global temperature is expected to
further increase, which will be a severe threat to the global ecosystem
in many respects. The United Nations had already in 1992 adopted its
framework convention on climate change [8] to tackle the global re-
sponse to anthropogenic climate change. In its Paris Agreement [9]
from December 2015 the United Nations set the framework to limit
M. Schneider Cement and Concrete Research 124 (2019) 105792

Fig. 1. Emission trading system (World Bank [13]).

global warming to 2 °C in the 21st century. In the COP 24 meeting in

Katowice in December 2018 the so- called rulebook was agreed upon as
an operational handbook to allow the Paris agreement to enter into
force by 2020. Based on this, UN member states are now obliged to
formulate the Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC) for the mi-
tigation of GHG emissions into the atmosphere [10,11].
Even today many countries have implemented national reduction
targets and policy measures. Already in 2009 the G8 member nations
had agreed on an 80% cut in GHG emissions for developed countries by
2050 using 1990 as a baseline [12]. To enforce CO2 reduction in par-
ticular in the energy sector and in different industries, many countries
have adapted climate policy measures including CO2 taxes and CO2
emissions trading schemes (Fig. 1).
The most prominent example is the emissions trading scheme al-
ready set up by the European Union in 2005. It works as a cap and trade
system in which companies have to surrender emission allowances
Fig. 2. Spot market price in euros for EUA 02/11/2011-01/08/2019.
which they have to buy or which they have been allocated. Industries
Source: finance data [15]
like the cement sector which are subject to a significant risk of carbon
leakage receive allowances based on a benchmark, which is based on
the average of the 10% best performing cement plants in Europe. policy framework is set by the EU ETS Directive (Directive (EU) 2018/
Carbon leakage in this context means that CO2 –intensive production is 410) [16] of the European Parliament and the European Council to
not competitive against imports into the ETS region because of high enhance cost-effective emission reductions and low-carbon investments
CO2 costs. As a consequence, carbon emissions are not reduced but are in Europe. Europe has committed itself to a cut in GHG emissions of
“leaked” to other regions outside the ETS area. The benchmark in the 40% below 1990 levels by 2030. This commitment applies to GHG
third commitment period (2013−2020) was 0.766 t CO2/t of grey ce- emissions of all anthropogenic activities. To achieve this target, in-
ment clinker and 0.987 t CO2/t of white cement clinker [14] based on dustrial GHG emissions included in the trading system have to be re-
the verified emission data of 2007 and 2008. Due to the recession in duced by 43% compared to 2005. The long-term strategy and vision of
Europe after 2009 industrial production and absolute CO2 emissions the European Commission was presented in November 2018 and seeks
had declined, resulting in a surplus of allowances. Towards the end of to establish a climate-neutral economy by 2050 and cut 80–95% of
the current trading period this picture has completely changed, GHG emissions by then (vs. 1990) [17]. Member states of the EU have
showing a growing shortage of allowances. As a consequence, CO2 implemented their respective emissions reduction plans. For example,
prices have increased to even > 20 €/t (Fig. 2). in November 2016 Germany submitted a long-term low-GHG emission
To achieve the EU climate targets the amount of total allowances on development strategy to the UN as required under the Paris Agreement
the market will further decrease at a higher annual rate after 2020. The [18]. This Climate Action Plan 2050 contains specific guiding principles

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M. Schneider Cement and Concrete Research 124 (2019) 105792

Fig. 3. Cement production and forecast by region.

Licence: www.iea.org/t&c [20,2]

for the individual sectors and intends to reduce GHG by 55–80% by

2050 compared to 1990. The intended trajectory for industries is
reaching carbon neutrality by 2050.

2.2. Role of the cement industry for global CO2 emissions

Along with further industrialisation, urbanisation and rising popu-

lations up to 8.2–9.8 billion people by 2050 according to the estima-
tions of the United Nations in a low and medium variant scenario [19],
concrete will play an important role in providing solutions in the fields
of housing, infrastructure, transport systems and projects for green
energy production. Construction technologies are moving towards more
resource efficiency, but concrete nevertheless remains the main and
irreplaceable building material. Therefore, Portland cement clinker-
Fig. 4. Low-carbon roadmap scenarios for CO2 emissions from cement pro-
based cement must be regarded as indispensable to produce concrete duction until 2050, as modified by VDZ.
and its global use is expected to grow by 12–13% above the 2014 level Data from OECD/IEA/CSI [20,2]
by 2050 [2].
Fig. 3 shows the anticipated cement production up to 2050. While
expected to increase by 4% globally by 2050. In order to meet the “2
China accounted for almost 60% of global cement production in 2017
Degree Scenario (2DS)”, CO2 emissions need to be significantly reduced
[1], Chinese cement production is set to lose 27% of the overall cement
by 24% compared to current levels by 2050, considering the increase in
production share because of adjustment of its national production ca-
cement demand. In the even more progressive “Beyond 2 Degree
pacity to fit domestic needs [2].The Chinese cement sector is already
Scenario (B2DS)”, CO2 emissions need to be further reduced by 2050 to
facing a slowdown in cement demand today and a further reduction of
follow the pathway to meet the 1.75 °C trajectory [2].
domestic sales is expected [1]. China is starting to cope with production
While statistical data for cement production is available for most
overcapacities and the Ministry of Industry and Information Tech-
countries, data on clinker production is less accessible. Forecasted
nology (MIIT) has put new cement production capacity on hold. The
global CO2 emissions from the cement sector therefore have to rely on
China Cement Association has communicated the elimination of 393 Mt
the expected cement production and the respective clinker factor [5].
of capacity by 2020 [21]. The government intervention will support
Based on the envisioned global clinker factor of 0.64 in the 2DS and the
capacity decline and it is estimated that by 2018 clinker capacity will
corresponding annual cement production of 4250 Mt [2], global CO2
have fallen to 1800 Mt per year and cement capacity to 3040 Mt per
emissions from the cement sector in 2030 are expected to amount to
year [1].Other countries are however still expected to show growing
2.21 Gt CO2. In 2050 an annual cement production of 4682 Mt [2] and
cement demands to serve their needs for housing and infrastructure.
a clinker to cement ratio of 0.60 could lead to a specific emission of
The production increase in India, other Asia-Pacific countries and
0.488 t CO2/t cement. Corresponding global CO2 emissions from the
Africa mainly accounts for the forecasted increase in global cement
cement sector are expected to be 2.34 Gt CO2 under the RTS or 1.73 Gt
production until 2050 [1].
CO2 under the 2DS, respectively.
With regard to direct CO2 emissions resulting from cement pro-
duction, different scenario assumptions have been presented by the
International Energy Agency (IEA) and the Cement Sustainability 2.3. CO2 emissions along the value chain
Initiative (CSI) [2].
The Paris agreement formulates a maximum of +2 °C and a “well Cement production is at the beginning of the cement-concrete value
below +2 °C” scenario. Correspondingly, IEA named their ETP sce- chain, which culminates in all buildings and infrastructures made of
narios “2 °C” (2DS) and “beyond 2 C” (abbreviated as B2DS). The B2DS concrete. Direct CO2 emissions from cement production almost entirely
was often related to modelling with a value of +1,75 °C. In 2018 the come from clinker production, about 2/3 of which are process emis-
formulation of the target for “well below +2 °C” gave rise to the im- sions originating from the calcination of the raw material. Indirect GHG
portant 1.5 °C IPCC special report in 2018. The Paris agreement itself emissions are basically due to the electrical energy demand for cement
does however not set a maximum +1.5 °C target (Fig. 4). manufacturing, mainly for grinding.
In the IEA Reference Technology Scenario (RTS) CO2 emissions are CO2 emissions from the clinker burning process are given in the

3
M. Schneider
global CSI database which reports a specific emission of 0.842 t CO2/t
clinker in 2016 [22], covering data from 19% of all cement plants
worldwide. CO2 emissions from cement strongly depend on the clinker
factor, which according to the IEA and CSI was 0.65 as a global average
in 2014 [2]. The database of CSI “Getting the numbers right” (GNR)
lists a higher value of 0.75 for 2016 [23], because it does not fully cover
cement production in China for which very low clinker factors are re-
ported [24]. Indirect CO2 emissions from electricity production strongly
depend on the local energy mix. The reported total electric energy
consumption for cement production ranges as a global average between
103 kWh [25] and 110 kWh/t cement [26]. When assuming a CO2
emission factor of 0.5 kg CO2/kWh [27], the corresponding emissions
vary between 51 and 55 kg CO2/t cement using data from [27].
CO2 emissions that can be attributed to concrete depend very much
on the concrete type, the local situation and here in particular the
building traditions and national building codes. Calculations of the
global warming potential of a C30/37 ready mix concrete with a typical
composition produced in Germany and a weighted average of the ce-
ment types used for this strength have shown values of 250 kg CO2-eq./
m3 for non-reinforced concrete and 312 kg CO2-eq./m3 for reinforced
concrete, with the numbers given in CO2-equivalents. The relevant
contributions to the global warming potential are shown in Fig. 5. The
assumed content of steel reinforcement (produced through the electric
arc furnace route) in concrete is assumed to be 100 kg/m3 in the cal-
culation. The results of the LCA have been published in EPDs (En-
vironmental Product Declarations) [28].
The total built environment accounts for 40% of the global CO2
emissions [29]. The global building sector reached 226 bn m2 floor area
in 2015 and was expected to reach 235 bn m2 in 2016 (data according
to [29]). The total global building sector's energy consumption was
reported to be 122 EJ in 2015 [29]. The resulting CO2 emission peaked
at 9.5 Gt CO2 in 2013 and decreased to approximately 9.2 Gt CO2 in
2015. By contrast, CO2 emissions from construction of buildings grew
from 3.1 Gt CO2 in 2010 to 3.7 Gt CO2 in 2016 [29]. Considering the
mentioned floor area in 2015, the specific CO2 emission can be calcu-
lated and given with 40.7 kg CO2/m2. The energy intensity continues to
improve significantly over time but at the same time faces an increase
in global floor area. This underlines the difficulty of the building en-
vironment to efficiently contribute to achieving the 2DS target.
The global energy consumption for building accounts for 55% of
global electricity demand produced with an average efficiency of only
43%. The increasing use of renewables will improve CO2 efficiency
more and more. This positive effect is however offset by the growing
building sector with the respective growing electricity demand.
Considering carbon intensities from power generation based on its fuel
mix, the required CO2 intensities for the building sector for meeting the
2DS target cannot be realised by the majority of countries [29].
Fig. 5. Impacts on the global warming potential of concrete.
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Cement and Concrete Research 124 (2019) 105792
Thus, the carbon footprint of the housing sector will require sig-
nificant changes in construction towards low energy buildings com-
prising various measures like improvement in heating and cooling
technology including taking more advantage of thermal masses for
energy storage and room temperature stabilization. Finally, material
efficiency must improve, not only reducing the material intensity, but
also reducing carbon emissions from the production of the building
materials.
3. Reduction of CO2 emissions from cement production
3.1. Improving thermal energy efficiency
Although fuel use for clinker burning contributes only about one
third of the total CO2 emissions from cement making, the improvement
of the thermal energy demand of clinker burning should be carefully
considered in any single case. The endothermic reactions of the raw
material, most of all the calcination of limestone, the formation of
clinker phases in the kiln and the drying of the raw materials require a
minimum of 1850–2800 MJ/t clinker [27] which depends very much
on the moisture of the raw materials and the respective drying energy
required. Since energy costs have a high impact on total cement pro-
duction costs, cement producers always strive to lower the energy de-
mand of their kilns. Therefore, the energy efficiency of the cement
clinker burning process is high compared to other industrial processes
and the overall reduction potential is limited [30]. Breakthrough
technologies which could lead to a significantly higher thermal effi-
ciency are not in sight [27]. Improvements are incremental. Potential
measures can only be taken case by case and can comprise cooler re-
placement, the addition of an extra cyclone stage or the utilisation of
mineralizers to improve raw material burnability. Today, precalciner
kilns are state of the art and most effective, and achieve the lowest
figures for thermal energy demand [31]. Although the energy efficiency
is enhanced by increased kiln capacity, the replacement of smaller ex-
isting plants by one larger plant is linked with very high investment
costs. Energy demand depends very much on the local situation and in
particular on the raw material moisture, which has an impact on the
energy for drying. Since the lifetime of kilns is approx. 50 years, most of
the existing kilns have been modernized over the years, instead of being
rebuilt. However, assuming that all kilns will continually apply newest
state-of-the-art technology it is expected to be able to reduce the global
average thermal energy demand by 10% by 2050 [2].
The utilisation of waste heat from the preheater exit gas and cooler
exhaust air for drying raw materials and e.g. slag can lower the overall
thermal energy demand of a cement plant. Waste heat recovery for
electrical energy generation will not improve thermal efficiency of
clinker production and will consequently not reduce the - direct - CO2
emissions of clinker production. Most WHR systems are installed in
Japan and China, where they offer a cost-effective option as well as a
reliable source for power generation in regions with a lack of electricity
from the net [32]. Since waste heat in cement plants typically exhibits a
low temperature level, the efficiency of converting it into electrical
energy is only between 15 and 25%. The installation requires a heat
recovery boiler and turbine system. The Rankine and Kalina cycles are
the most promising variations for cement plants. Most systems world-
wide use the Steam Rankine Cycle. If waste heat on a lower temperature
level (200–400 °C) should be utilized, organic fluids or ammonia as
cycling media instead of water and steam can be applied (Organic
Rankine Cycle or Kalina Process). Investments would be required and
the electrical energy demand could be decreased by 10–22 kWh/t
clinker with an indirect CO2 -emission decrease of 5–11 kg CO2/t
clinker. Even if their efficiency for generating electrical energy is low,
the number of WHR systems in cement plants might increase because of
increasing electricity prices due to a higher energy demand [2].
M. Schneider
Fig. 6. Waste treatment in the EU, 2012 and share of co-processing in cement kilns [39].
3.2. Switching to alternative fuels
Alternative fuels are in general less carbon-intensive compared to
conventional fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas [2]. This is due to
the lower CO2 emission factor of many alternative fuels. More im-
portant however is that many alternative fuels are made from biomass
or contain a certain fraction of biomass. The global contribution of al-
ternative fuels to the overall thermal energy use in the cement industry
was 10% according to GNR data from 2016 for the world (covering 19%
of all cement plants) [33]. The biomass fraction in these fuels was on
average 6%. In some regions the substitution of fossil fuels with alter-
native fuels is substantially higher than the global average. The sub-
stitution rate in Europe is on average 41% [34], some plants in Austria
and Germany operate at full substitution. Reducing the share of fossil
fuels in the cement industry globally to 24% by 2050 would reduce the
CO2 intensity of the global thermal energy demand from 0.088 t CO2/
GJ to 0.058 t CO2/GJ [2].
The limitations to increase substitution rates are in most cases the
availability of suitable materials exhibiting the required calorific value,
especially for their use in the main firing zone. Other parameters of
importance are the chlorine content, the trace element content and the
physical properties of the fuels. The use of alternative fuels requires
dedicated storage and feeding systems. Special care has to be given to
the quality control of the fuels, which typically have to be pretreated
before being fed to the kiln. Burners need to be adapted and in parti-
cular at high substitution rates a bypass might be needed to lower the
internal kiln cycles of chlorides. Typical alternative fuels are used tyres,
pretreated industrial or municipal wastes, used oils and solvents, plas-
tics, textiles or paper wastes. Pure biomass fuels used in the cement
industry today are sewage sludges, waste wood or rice husks [27,35].
The Global Waste Management Outlook of the United Nations
Environment Programme of 2015 presents a global waste post-2015
development agenda in which dumping, burning and landfill is either
stopped or only the last of all options and waste is to be reduced or
recycled and reused by 2030 [36]. According to a report by the World
Bank [37] annual waste generation is expected to increase by 70% from
2016 levels to 3.40 Gt in 2050. In low-income countries over 90% of
Fig. 7. Integrated use of alternative fuels for clinker production (VDZ data).
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Cement and Concrete Research 124 (2019) 105792
waste is often disposed in unregulated dumps or openly burned [37,38].
The development of waste treatment and collection will significantly
determine the availability of alternative fuels for replacing fossil fuels
in the cement industry. A study carried out by ECOFYS and CEMBUR-
EAU in 2012 [39] mapped the share of co-processed waste in cement
kilns in EU countries (Fig. 6), which was about 1.17% of all waste. The
major part of incinerated waste was dedicated to energy recovery. The
share of 29% of landfilled waste is relatively low compared to the
global average of roughly 40% as published in the latest global solid
waste report by the World Bank [38]. Another 33% of globally pro-
duced waste is openly dumped.
Beyond thermal energy generation, alternative fuels contribute to
resource recycling in the clinker burning process [40]. Typically the
ashes of the wastes become incorporated into the clinker as can be seen
from the composition of sewage sludge and RDF (shredded plastics,
papers and fibres) as an example (Fig. 7). This also underlines that in
any case, the quality of any type of waste being used in a cement kiln
may not cause the clinker quality to deteriorate, nor may it have ne-
gative impacts on the emissions from the process.
3.3. Reducing the clinker to cement ratio
Clinker factor reduction is by far the most efficient measure to re-
duce CO2 emissions from cement production since it covers both the
CO2 from the raw materials as well as from fuel combustion. The global
average in the clinker factor was 0.65 in 2014 [2]. The clinker factor in
China was reported to be 0.65 in 2018 [24] based in particular on the
use of fly ash and slag. The German average was 0.71 in 2017 [41] and
the European average clinker factor was 0.74 in 2016 [23], including
countries like Ireland and Denmark which have a clinker factor of about
0.90, and the Netherlands, which have approx. 0.46 [42]. While lower
clinker factors are desirable and technically possible, the regional
availability of suitable substituting materials can be the limiting factor.
In any case the performance of the cement in concrete must be assured,
taking into account its intended use and the respective exposure to the
environment.
In any case, besides the clinker factor, the amount of concrete
M. Schneider
Fig. 8. Global Iron and Steel production 2000–2025 (2° Scenario) [43].
IEA Publishing Licence: www.iea.org/t&c
addition plays a role in the overall clinker content and correspondingly
the CO2 efficiency of concrete.
Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) is a by-product of the
production of pig‑iron, the base material for steelmaking. Due to its
rapid cooling when leaving the blast furnace GGBFS is to > 90%
amorphous and in combination with its basicity it shows latent hy-
draulic reactivity. Cements containing GGBFS show very good proper-
ties in concrete with a positive impact on certain durability character-
istics. So-called slag cements have been used since almost the beginning
of industrial cement production in the 19th century. A forecast for the
global availability of GGBFS is difficult to find, however the IEA has
worked out a scenario [43] shown in Fig. 8.
The long-term availability of GGBFS has to be seen in the context of
further improving the energy and resource efficiency on the steel pro-
duction side, in particular the increased use of metal scrap in electric
arc furnaces. Nevertheless, since the amount of metal scrap will be
limited, there will still be substantial amounts of pig iron produced
from iron ore - also from 2020 onwards – with corresponding amounts
of GGBFS being available on a global scale [43]. However, a limited
regional availability can make it difficult for cement producers to
source GGBFS for their cement production.
Fly ash is obtained by the electrostatic or mechanical precipitation
of dust-like particles from the flue gases from furnaces fired with pul-
verised coal. Fly ash may be siliceous or calcareous in nature, de-
pending on the coal type used on combustion. The main constituents of
fly ashes are SiO2 and Al2O3 as well as CaO in the case of calcareous
ones. Mostly siliceous fly ashes, which show pozzolanic properties, are
used as cement constituents leading to better workability and positive
long-term strength of concrete as well as good durability characteristics
due to a denser concrete structure. With a few possible exceptions, fly
ash content in technically used cements is limited to 25–35 wt.-% [27].
Considering a reference clinker factor of 0.75, the increase of the share
of fly ash in cement of up to 25–35% would lead to a decrease in direct
CO2 emissions from cement production of up to 90 kg CO2/t cement
[27]. The long-term global availability of fly ash strongly depends on
the number of coal-firing power plants, which is expected to decrease
since more and more energy is being produced by renewable energy
sources. However, a study carried out by the Boston Consulting Group
(BCG) from 2018 [44] underlines that development in Asia will require
a growing amount of energy and consequently coal demand will remain
relatively stable in the following years. On the other hand, regulations
in Europe continually restrict coal firing and access to fly ash will be
more and more difficult.
Natural pozzolans are usually materials of volcanic impact or origin,
or sedimentary rocks with suitable chemical and mineralogical com-
position. They are made up by nature of amorphous or poorly crystal-
line siliceous compounds available in certain regions only and react in
the presence of water at ambient temperatures with dissolved calcium
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Cement and Concrete Research 124 (2019) 105792
hydroxide to form C-A-S-H phases. Their pozzolanic reactivity varies
and is determined by the content of reactive silicon dioxide and alu-
mina. The necessary pre-treatment involves crushing, drying and
grinding and their addition might slightly facilitate the grindability of
the cement. Like fly ashes, natural pozzolans show a good impact on
concrete workability as well as certain durability aspects. Natural
pozzolans are already today in some regions an important mineral
constituent in cement and it is technically possible to increase the
content of pozzolans in certain cement types from 6 wt.-% up to 55 wt.-
% [27]. However, their regional availability will restrict their broader
use on a global scale even if larger transport distances are taken into
account [27].
Natural calcined pozzolans are materials of volcanic origin, clays,
shales or sedimentary rocks activated by thermal treatment. However,
naturally calcined pozzolans used for cements are usually thermally
treated clays [27,45,46]. Thermal treatment releases the bound water
and decomposes the mineral structures while reactive silica and alu-
mina compounds are formed. The thermally treated clays react in the
presence of water at ambient temperatures with dissolved calcium hy-
droxide to C-A-S-H phases. The degree of thermochemical activation
needed strongly depends on the mineralogical composition, structure
and lattice defects [47,48].
The global geological availability of clays is high, but at the moment
only a few countries use calcined clays in cements. Compared to fly ash
or GGBFS it is not a by-product and requires production facilities with
respective investments. Studies have shown so far that reasonably re-
active material can be produced when thermally activating less pure
kaolinite clays [49,50]. Its share in cements is expected to grow in re-
gions with no access to alternative SCMs and long-term globally when
access to fly ash and slag becomes increasingly difficult. The ternary
blend of clinker, clay and limestone allows for higher clinker sub-
stitution than previously expected [45,51]. With a clinker factor of 50%
such cements can reach OPC strength level [52]. The durability of ce-
ments containing calcined clays has proven to be very good - even
under severe frost attack the performance of the respective concretes
was good [53]. An indicator for the quality of the calcined clay is the
amount of reactive silica, the minimum content of which should be 25
wt.-% according to the European cement standard EN 197-1.
The overall CO2 savings of cements containing calcined clays and
limestone as SCMs as compared to other composite cements depend on
the quality of the clays, therefore their remaining calcium carbonate
content, the thermal activation energy needed and to a lesser extent the
amount of electrical energy for grinding. Calcined clays have the po-
tential to substitute increasing parts of clinker in parts of the world with
less SCM alternatives such as fly ash or GGBFS, provided that suitable
clays are locally available.
Limestone is available in practically unlimited amounts and can be
ground simply. It is usually easily accessible to most cement plants and
M. Schneider
Fig. 9. Global composition of cements (GNR World data) [56].
when added to cement it improves the workability of the respective
concretes typically due to a lower water demand of the respective ce-
ment. A small portion of limestone reacts with aluminates of the ce-
ment, forming supplementary carbo-aluminates [54,55]. Substitution
levels of even up to 50% are possible but require careful consideration
of the durability aspects in the context of the concrete's exposure to the
environment.
The following graph (Fig. 9) shows the average composition of
globally produced cements. The data are sourced from the GNR-data-
base and represent 25% of global cement production [56–57].
3.4. Alternative binding materials
Although Portland cement clinker will maintain its leading role for
cement production, new binding materials are being developed which
can substitute conventional cement to some degree.
Belite clinker contains a low amount of alite but 40%–90% belite. It
is produced in a conventional cement kiln with the kiln feed being
adjusted to a low lime saturation factor with corresponding low process
CO2 emissions. Compared to CO2 emissions from OPC production,
savings can be from 6 to 8% [58], but the lower grindability requires
more electric energy. In terms of application properties, belite-rich
cements provide for low heat of hydration and correspondingly low
strength development. Belite cements have their field of application in
mass concretes where low heat of hydration is required. Belite cements
have been well introduced for such applications, particularly in China,
but they have little global market relevance, also because the overall
CO2 savings are limited and some production characteristics like high
cooling velocities result in a higher energy demand and higher invest-
ment and production costs.
Calcium sulphoaluminate (CSA) clinker or cements contain as main
phases ye'elimite (Ca4 (AlO2)6 SO3), belite and gypsum. These clinkers
show rapid setting properties and a high degree of early strength de-
velopment [47]. The addition of Bauxite as a raw material leads to high
production costs. However, the CO2 emissions from production are
significantly lower compared to Portland cement clinker. In belite cal-
cium sulfoaluminates (BCSA)-cements, ye'elimite as the main phase is
replaced by belite, with correspondingly 20 to 30% less CO2 emissions
from its production [47]. (B) CSA cements are increasingly being used
in special applications where high early strength and shrinkage com-
pensation are required [59]. At present the annual global CSA cement
production is around 2 Mio. t, the majority of which is produced in
China [27].
Alkali-activated binders are formed by activating a reactive alu-
mina-silicate using an alkaline component [47]. Alkali-activated bin-
ders (also known as geopolymers) require similar raw materials as also
used in blended cements to reduce the clinker to cement ratio, [2] such
as natural pozzolans or GGBFS. High performance “geopolymers” rely
on alkali-silicates (water glass), the global production of which is not
7
Cement and Concrete Research 124 (2019) 105792
sufficient to produce significant amounts of geopolymers [47]. In terms
of the overall CO2 emission reduction potential it is impossible to for-
mulate a realistic scenario given the range of applied materials and
alkali activators. The CO2 emission associated with the production of
the alkali activator must be included in the overall evaluation [45], as
well as the rising competition for slag and fly ash for the production of
blended cements and geopolymers. This would result in higher clinker
to cement ratios in blended cements as a consequence of the lack of
supplementary cementitious materials. A realistic contribution to global
CO2 reduction would be reached when using other minerals that are
currently not already used as SCMs. Another source of available sui-
table minerals for alkali-activated binders are calcined clays [45],
which would again require an activator, e.g. sodium silicate (water
glass). Beyond the question of availability, the high energy and CO2
emission related to the production of water glass might negatively af-
fect the overall CO2 emission balance. In order to enhance global
commercial use, further optimisation of the raw material choice and
activators needs to take place. The alkali-activated binders are already
produced and used on a commercial scale for non-structural applica-
tions in some parts of the world (for example Australia, Brazil, Canada,
Russian Federation, India and China) [2].
Two further groups of alternative binders, carbonated calcium sili-
cates and pre-hydrated calcium silicates should be mentioned but are
still at pilot-phase stage. Carbonated calcium silicates are cured in a
CO2 environment at different pressure, temperature and relative hu-
midity [2]. The raw material mix is similar to PC clinker but the re-
leased CO2 is supposed to be re-absorbed when being cured with CO2.
Similar to CSA-cements, the passivation of steel-reinforcement is not
given - either other reinforcement materials are applied in combination
with carbonated calcium silicate-cements, or their use might be limited
to non-reinforced structures. Pre-hydrated calcium silicates are pro-
duced at low temperatures and activated by inter-grinding hard filler
silica-rich materials [2]. Significant proportions of PC clinker can be
substituted by inert fillers but the production would require further
research and huge investments.
At present the market deployment of alternative binders is impeded
by high raw material and investment costs and very often their limited
applicability. Compared to the global cement demand new binders will
certainly exist in niche markets. Nevertheless, enhanced funding for
research and demonstration projects as well as facilitation in the stan-
dardisation process can support the deployment or testing of promising
materials in order to estimate their real and overall CO2 –emission and
performance potential.
3.5. Improving electrical energy efficiency
The main demand for electrical energy in cement production comes
from raw material preparation and clinker burning which require the
main part of the total energy needed. Different grinding systems have
different power uptakes, but in particular the effect of grinding on the
product quality has to be taken into account, and mill types are also
chosen with respect to the required cement quality in the prospective
markets [27]. Also, the higher its strength, the finer a cement needs to
be ground, with accordingly higher energy demand. With regard to
clinker burning, installations such as grate cooler techniques can reduce
thermal energy consumption but at the same time increase the demand
for electrical energy for upgraded equipment. The electrical energy
demand could be reduced from 104 to 110 kWh/t cement to
90–95 kWh/t cement in 2050 on average [27]. However, measures for
emission reduction (nitrogen oxides and sulphur dioxides) have shown
to increase the overall electrical energy demand. In particular new
technologies for carbon capturing will require substantial power con-
sumption. While measures will be taken to further optimize the energy
demand for cement manufacturing, it is clear that the respective po-
tential is limited. It will therefore be important that the cement industry
has sufficient access to renewable electrical energy to lower its indirect
M. Schneider
CO2 emissions.
4. Measures to increase clinker efficiency
4.1. Clinker intensity and CO2 efficiency
Since Portland cement clinker will remain the most important
constituent of cement for the foreseeable future, it is of great im-
portance how the clinker can be used more efficiently i.e. how the
clinker intensity in cement and concrete can be further reduced.
The clinker intensity always has to be seen in the context of the
performance of mortar or concrete. In the simplest case this is the
compressive strength. This might be the only requirement for many
interior components, whereas for exterior concretes additional dedi-
cated durability aspects play a bigger role. Also of importance is the
required robustness or even the deformation properties of concrete
because the conditions where in situ concrete is to be placed at the
building site require a higher robustness compared to e.g. pre-fabri-
cated concretes. This of course has an important effect on the clinker
intensity of the concrete and the respective CO2 performance.
The differences in clinker factor in various countries are due to the
regional building traditions but also the availability of suitable sub-
stituting materials. This is reflected by the specific CO2 emissions from
cement production which exhibit a variation from 576 to 780 kg CO2/t
cement for the 10% and 90% percentile of the distribution of ce-
mentitious production, while the CO2 emissions factor of clinker shows
only small variations from approx. 792 to 890 kg CO2/t clinker in 2016
in the 10% and 90% percentile respectively of the distribution of clinker
production (values based on GNR world data for 2016 [60]).
Cement standards around the world reflect the regional building
traditions but also adapt in many cases to the US ASTM system or to the
European cement standard EN 197 [61]. Taking EN 197-1 as an ex-
ample it can be seen that from its first publication in 2000, in particular
GGBFS cements were the traditional “low clinker cements”. Their ap-
plication however was based on their dedicated durability character-
istics or low heat of hydration. Today an additional focus is on the CO2
performance of the cements, which has also led to new cement with
lower clinker content being standardized. In Europe the next revision of
EN 197-1 has been prepared and will in particular provide for the new
CEM II/C, which have besides clinker two of the following additional
main constituents: slag, fly ash/pozzolans or limestone. Clinker content
Fig. 10. Cement application in the EU: Examples for XC1 [69].
8
Cement and Concrete Research 124 (2019) 105792
may be as low as 50 wt.-%, while the limestone content is limited to 20
wt.-%. In addition, CEM VI cements combine clinker and slag with ei-
ther limestone or fly ash, the minimum clinker content being 35 wt.-%.
It is planned to even further enlarge the CEM II/C cements in the
standard by allowing a combination of clinker and any of the other
main constituents as described in the standard, based on a technical
dossier which will be provided by VDZ [62].
4.2. Application of new cements and potential CO2 savings
Clinker efficiency in concrete has for many years been part of many
research activities (e.g. [63–68]). The focus was less on the strength
development of these concretes but on durability parameters and robust
fresh concrete properties (workability, sedimentation stability). Taking
again Europe as an example, the applicability of cements in concrete is
regulated there at national level: each member state introduces its own
rules of application for the non-harmonised concrete standard EN 206.
In particular with regard to durability, different rules for the concrete
composition, e.g. the minimum cement content and the water/cement
ratio, depending on the environmental conditions (= exposure classes)
are set out in these application standards throughout Europe. An ex-
ample of concrete under exposure class XC1, as is typically the case for
interior application, is given in Fig. 10 [69].
The application rules for the cements and the minimum cement
content however are not necessarily linked to the actual types of cement
used, its actual quantities or the clinker content in the concrete. For
example, Finland and Denmark have a low (160 kg/m3) or no minimum
cement content for the exposure class XC1 (interior components).
Denmark has a minimum cement content of 150 kg/m3 in all other
exposure classes. However, the cement content used in ready-mixed
concrete in practice acc. to ERMCO statistics in 2016 in Denmark was
only 20 kg/m3 lower than the European average (~260 kg/m3 vs
282 kg/m3). In addition to the minimum cement content, in Denmark
under severe and very severe conditions (e.g. XF3/XF4) a minimum
fines content ≥375 kg/m3 is required.
By contrast, in the Netherlands, the mean quantities of cement used
in ready-mixed concrete are higher than in Denmark (~313 kg/m3 vs
260 kg/m3) [70]. However, mainly blast furnace cements have been
used in the Netherlands for many years [42] and therefore the average
clinker content in concrete - and correspondingly its clinker content - is
significantly lower (~150 kg/m3) than in Finland (~280 kg/m3) or
M. Schneider
Fig. 11. Relation between compressive strength and carbonation resistance
(“limit value” of 5 mm carbonation after 140 d main storage taken from [72] -
data from [68]).
Denmark (~215 kg/m3) [42]. It is clear that this is only possible be-
cause sufficient blast furnace slag is available locally in respective
quantities and qualities. For the final assessment of the efficiency of the
use of clinker and thus the CO2 efficiency, however, consideration per
ton of cement or cubic meter of concrete alone is not sufficient. The
achieved technical performance, for example, the compressive strength
or the durability, must be included. This is considered in Section 4.3.
The average CO2 intensity of concrete therefore depends to a lesser
extent on the nationally prescribed minimum cement content than on
the type of cement used and its clinker factor or the proportion of
(Portland) Cement if a combination of (Portland) Cement and addition
is used. More important is that certain concrete technological principles
cannot be overridden under practical conditions. For example, an ap-
propriate amount of fines (paste content) is needed (see also section
4.5). This raises the question, with which measures the clinker factor
can be further reduced or the efficient use of clinker in cement or
concrete can be increased without significantly adversely affecting the
technical performance characteristics of concrete required depending
on the application. For interior components, fresh concrete properties
that are acceptable for building site conditions as well as the strength
and deformation properties of the concrete are relevant. However, to
restrict the use of cements only to concrete for interior components
requires the following aspects to be taken into account: today typical
building sites take advantage of a one-size-fits-all concrete. The in-
troduction of cements for interior components will lead to a higher
diversification and even complexity than today. Also, depending on the
exposure conditions at the site or the local climate conditions, even
interior components may temporarily be external components during
Fig. 12. Relation between water/cement ratio, compressive strength and
scaling in the cube test method after 100 freeze thaw cycles according to CEN/
TS 12390-9 (XF1-criterion: 10% mass loss) (data collected by VDZ).
9
Cement and Concrete Research 124 (2019) 105792
the construction phase when exposed to carbonation and frost. For the
usual exterior components in building construction this involves car-
bonation resistance as well as freeze-thaw resistance with moderate
water saturation (exposure classes XC3/XC4 and XF1).
CEM II/C-M and CEM VI cements offer the opportunity to further
reduce the clinker factor. Investigations by VDZ and others indicate that
at least sufficient carbonation resistance and freeze-thaw resistance
under moderate water saturation can be achieved when the water-ce-
ment ratio is sufficiently low or the compressive strength is sufficiently
high (Fig. 11 and Fig. 12). In Germany for example, approx. 65% of the
concretes are manufactured in strength classes that indicate their use in
interior components (XC1, dry) or “normal” exterior components (XC4,
XF1) [71].
To allow for more cements with lower clinker factors such as the
CEM II/C and CEM VI cements to be used in concrete it may be ne-
cessary to accept a higher differentiation of the application depending
on the available raw materials: Cements and concretes to be used in
most of the usual building constructions on the one hand, and cements
and concretes used under special durability conditions on the other.
This approach would be “new territory” in so far as cements in many
countries for the time being may be applied in all exposure classes. It
requires the support of all those involved in the whole value chain.
4.3. KPI definition for cement benchmarking
An indicator for the development of the CO2 intensity of the cement
industry is the clinker factor. This parameter does not allow a direct
link between the ecological performance and the technical performance
of cement and concrete. Therefore, in various publications perfor-
mance-related parameters are also found, such as the binder or clinker
intensity in kg/(m3 x MPa) [73,74] or the CO2 intensity in (CO2/m3 x
MPa) [74,75]. The latter describes how much CO2 is allocated to a cubic
meter of concrete of a defined strength. With increasing concrete
compressive strength, specifically less CO2 is required, as the clinker is
used more efficiently. Particularly in the area of conventional concrete
compressive strengths (e.g. C20/25 - C30/37), the range of CO2 in-
tensities which these concretes exhibit is considerable.
Fig. 13 shows the mean CO2 intensity of concretes of different
strength classes with the example of Germany against the background
of a data collection by VDZ. If the scenario outlined in chapter 4.2 for
the use of CEM II/C-M cements were at least implemented for concretes
of the exposure classes XC1-XC4 and XF1, the CO2 intensity of these
concretes would be reduced by approx. 25%.
Fig. 13. CO2 intensity in relation to concrete compressive strength (data col-
lection and scenarios by VDZ).
M. Schneider
Parameter
Cement
Clinker Intensity kg/(m³ MPa)
Cement content kg/m³
w/c - 0.65
fc,cube MPa
GWP CO2 –eq/m³
t to β = 0.5 a 53
(= “service life”)
CO2 efficiency acc. to [76]
GWP: Global warming potential
β: Reliability index – β = 0.5 corresponds with a probability of 30 % to reach a defined limit state; here “depas-
sivation of the reinforcement” by carbonation
Fig. 14. CO2 performance and service life durability parameters.
4.4. CO2 intensity vs. service life
The challenge for the concrete sector in the future will be to achieve
the lowest possible CO2 intensity over the entire service life or duration
of use. Even if it is known from life cycle assessments for buildings that
the concrete may only have a manageable share compared to other
factors like energy demand over the complete life time, further poten-
tial will be exploited. In order to evaluate concrete with regard to its
service life, compressive strength and service life could be related to
CO2 intensity (see [76]). The result of a VDZ study based on [76] is
shown in Fig. 14 as an example for the exposure class XC3. The time to
reach the limit state “de-passivation of the reinforcement” was calcu-
lated according to the principles of the fib Model Code Service Life
Design. It should be noted that these approaches are not completely
uncontroversial among experts with regard to the transferability re-
garding practical experience. At this point, it is more about the prin-
ciple of taking account of technical performance and CO2 performance
at the same time.
Three concretes are highlighted in this illustration: Concrete 1 with
Portland cement was produced with w/c = 0.65 and achieves a calcu-
lated service life of approx. 50 years. Concrete 2 with CEM III/A
achieves a calculated service life of approx. 130 years with w/c = 0.50,
which rarely has to be proven in building construction and where a
relatively large amount of GGBFS (50 wt.-%) is used for the intended
purpose. Concrete 3 with CEM II/C (30 wt.-% GGBFS, 20 wt.-% lime-
stone) in otherwise the same composition as concrete 2 reaches a cal-
culated service life of approx. 50 years. If a service life of 50 years is to
be proven, concrete 3 is therefore the most sustainable solution con-
sidering the technical and ecological performance. The clinker intensity
Cement and Concrete Research 124 (2019) 105792
Concrete
1 2 3
CEM I CEM III/A CEM II/C
7.2 2.8 2.7
280 320 320
0.50 0.50
38.9 62.1 59.9
266 183 162
133 57
and as a consequence the global warming potential (GWP) is low. The
strength and the calculated service life are sufficient for the intended
use, especially taking into account that within the calculation only the
time to depassivation of the reinforcement is considered and there is a
certain durability reserve within the propagation (= corrosion) phase.
4.5. The use and application of concrete on site
Under defined laboratory conditions, it is possible to produce con-
cretes with very low cement content, even as low as 100 kg/m3 [74].
For this purpose, optimised grading curves, reduced water cement va-
lues (for example, up to w/c = 0.30, [67,77,78]), significant amounts
of concrete admixtures (for example, PCE contents of > 4 wt.-% of the
cement, [74]) and a very precise control of all constituents and the
mixing regime are required.
However, the application of such concretes and the implementation
of the associated technological measures bear significant quality risks
under the current conditions of manufacture and processing of in-situ
concrete. Practical variations in temperature, moisture of the aggregate
and control of the water dosage can have a considerable influence on
fresh and hardened concrete properties. In addition, fluctuations in the
properties of the concrete constituents due to normal large-scale pro-
duction are inevitable, so they must be taken into consideration in the
concrete design to ensure predictable fresh concrete properties over
long periods.
In [77], variations in water content ( ± 10 l/m3) in concretes using
cement with a clinker content of 20 wt.-%, a slag content of 30 wt.-%, a
limestone content of 50 wt.-% and low water cement value (w/
c = 0.35) caused a decrease of 28 days' compressive strength by approx.
10
M. Schneider
30% and an increase in the carbonation depth after 56 days under 2%
CO2 exposure by approx. 20%. For a concrete with a clinker content of
approx. 50 wt.-% of the CEM III/A cement (w/c = 0.50), the same
variation in composition resulted in a 5% decrease in compressive
strength and a 5% increase in carbonation depth.
This influence can be reduced to a certain extent by sufficient
amounts of paste in the concrete. A joint research project between VDZ
and the Chair of Building Materials Technology in the Institute for
Structural Civil Engineering at Ruhr University Bochum, Germany, was
intended to identify the most important influencing parameters that are
responsible for undesirable changes in the fresh concrete properties
[79]. In the research project, the term “robust” was applied to those
concrete compositions in which the fresh concrete properties did not
change unexpectedly and significantly, either as a consequence of the
usual influencing factors found in concrete production or as a con-
sequence of fluctuations in the constituents that normally occur in
practice due to the production process. The “paste content” included
cement, admixtures, the flour-fines content of the aggregate (particle
size 0 to 0.125 mm) and water. The following variation parameters
were considered:
• Fluctuations of the properties of the cements used
• Fluctuations of the properties of the superplasticizers used
• Fluctuations in the particle size composition of the aggregate (0 to
2 mm)
• Tolerances when adding the concrete constituents
In [79] pastes were produced from laboratory cements with w/
c = 0.35 and their shear resistances were assessed. It emerged that the
properties of the pastes investigated changed only slightly when the
fineness of the cement clinker or the sulfate content of the cement were
altered. However, a change in the solubility of the sulfate agents re-
sulted in more rapid stiffening.
In a “robust” concrete the dependencies observed for hardened ce-
ment paste should also be applicable to the fresh concrete properties
and the concretes should therefore react “as expected”. This was
checked on concretes with different paste contents. When the above-
mentioned properties were altered in the laboratory, a concrete with a
paste content of approx. 265 l/m3 sometimes exhibited unplanned re-
plasticizing and great differences in the quantity of water secreted in a
bucket test [79].
On the other hand, the flow table spread of a concrete with a paste
content of approx. 300 l/m3 always behaved in line with expectations
during changes in the cement properties: a lower flow table spread was
only observed when using the cements with higher solubility of the
sulphate agent, while the flow table spreads of concretes containing the
other cements exhibited very similar behaviour. The quantity of water
secreted exhibited smaller fluctuations than with the concrete compo-
sition containing less paste. The concrete with the paste content of
300 l/m3 was therefore “more robust” than the concrete with a paste
content of only 265 l/m3 [79].
If the influence of temperature is additionally considered, the im-
portance of the paste content becomes even clearer. In [80] concrete
with a paste content of 300 l/m3 showed both normal stiffening and
significant secondary liquefaction as a function of the temperature. A
concrete with a paste content of approx. 330 l/m3 showed in all cases
normal stiffening with the expected dependency on the temperature:
stronger stiffening with increasing temperature.
The laboratory concretes in [74] showed paste contents (taking into
account quartz flours used in these investigations) of approx. 200 and
260 l/m3. Therefore, whether such concretes would prove themselves in
practice would still need to be checked. A key objective of further re-
search is therefore to develop appropriate measures for quality assur-
ance which allow a significant reduction in the clinker content in
concrete but ensure the appropriate technical performance in the case
of in-situ concrete. Since prefabrication might allow for better
11
Cement and Concrete Research 124 (2019) 105792
implementation of such quality measures, the industrial production and
a respective degree of prefabrication could assist in lowering the overall
clinker content in today's concrete.
4.6. Recycling and recarbonation of concrete
The recycling of concrete is not only an important contribution to
sustainable construction but can also play an important role in the
overall CO2 balance of the construction chain. Carbonation of concrete
is well known and taken into account when designing concrete struc-
tures. In particular after crushing concrete, the fines, which consists
basically of calcium silicate hydrates, can significantly take up CO2
from the atmosphere through recarbonation. Also, fines from recycled
concrete can under certain circumstances be used as a primary raw
material for clinker production. The fines consist of calcium and silica
compounds and can therefore substitute natural raw materials. The
degree to which they can reduce energy consumption and CO2 emis-
sions of the clinker burning process depends on how much CO2 the fines
has taken up before being used in the kiln feed.
The basic method of recycling concrete is crushing the debris to
produce a granular product of a given particle size [81]. The regional
standards define the permitted degree of recycled aggregates in con-
crete and structures as well as the minimum grain size of the utilized
aggregates. These parameters depend on the concrete's exposure and its
strength class. In Europe 50% or more of material from demolition is
reused in new constructions; the major part is used for road construc-
tion. The environmental benefit of using recycled aggregates in con-
crete lies in the improved material efficiency, but CO2 savings are low,
as slightly more cement is necessary to produce concrete with recycled
aggregates of equal strength than for concrete from natural aggregates
[81].
From the point of concrete technology the re-use of crushed con-
crete fines below 2 mm grain size is a challenge because of its high
variations in water demand and sulphate content. Crushed concrete
fines are therefore usually exclusively used in road constructions or
even deposited [81]. However, crushed concrete fines can be used for
Portland cement-clinker production [82]. The chemical composition of
crushed concrete fines is similar to clinker but slightly shifted towards
the SiO2-richer side in the CaO-SiO2-Al2O3/Fe2O3 ternary system,
however still containing significant amounts of Calcium. In order to
maintain the same raw meal quality for the clinker burning, up to 3% of
the original material mix can be replaced by crushed concrete fines.
Under these conditions and according to simulations and kiln trials, this
substitution rate would lead to around 0.6% CO2 emission mitigation
through primary fuel savings, since less energy is needed to decompose
less limestone. The CO2 emission from crushed concrete fines are fur-
ther approximately 1% lower than the process emission from the re-
spective amount of the standard raw material.
The CO2 penalty for transportation of the fines to the cement plant
was factored in, the energy demand for preparation of the crushed
concrete fines, however, was not taken into account [83]. The sub-
stitution did not negatively affect the kiln process routine and clinker
quality. Crushed fines can be used on the one hand as a component of
the raw meal, but also as a main component in cement. According to
recent studies, cements with up to 30% crushed fines can be used at
least in interior concrete concretes [84].
The reliability of the quality of crushed concrete fines, the efforts for
processing and the realistic distance scenarios and resulting transpor-
tation emissions are to be assessed and included in order to evaluate the
overall CO2 –mitigation potential. However, the main challenge in in-
creasing the utilisation of recycled concrete fines are twofold: first of
all, the cement plant must have access to raw materials with sufficiently
high CaO content to compensate for the low CaO concentration in the
crushed fines. Also, the logistics are often difficult since the fines come
from changing sources and show strong variations in their chemical
composition.
M. Schneider
Fig. 15. Carbon capturing with Post-Combustion [94].
Recarbonation of concrete involves the chemical reaction of har-
dened cement paste or mortar with atmospheric CO2 leading to a CO2
–uptake as a result of reversible calcination reactions [85]. In contact
with water the gaseous CO2 is dissolved in aqueous solutions to form
HCO3 and thus the carbonate ion CO32– which reacts in the pore solu-
tions with Ca2+-ions to CaCO3. The recarbonated CO2 is permanently
bound, CO2 is only released back into the atmosphere when the con-
crete is heated to temperatures higher than the calcination tempera-
tures (> 850 °C) [85].
In principal, concrete can take up as much CO2 as has been emitted
through the calcination of limestone which was used as the raw ma-
terial for the cement in that respective concrete. The recarbonation of
concrete and the quantification of the global CO2 uptake were sys-
tematically evaluated in 2004 based on existing regional studies and
experiences [86]. The focus was on carbonation during service life and
after service life when concrete is demolished and the rate of CO2 up-
take increases due to the higher specific surfaces, in particular of the
crushed concrete fines. The study took into account the national or
regional deconstruction as well as the recycling rates of the utilized
concrete as exactly as possible. As a result, the overall global CO2 up-
take of concrete during service life is equivalent to roughly 10% of the
CO2 emitted from cement production. Another 10 to 15% can be taken
up during after-service life, strongly depending on the demolition and
recycling rates or the processing of the concrete debris. Overall, a good
estimate is that 15 to 25% of the initial CO2 emission from cement
production will be taken up by concrete during its entire life cycle.
A more recent study [87] took data from cement materials during
cement service life, demolition and the secondary use of concrete waste
to estimate regional and global CO2 uptake between 1930 and 2013.
The authors found that 43% of process emissions from cement manu-
facturing is taken up by concrete in its full life cycle. Taking the ratio
between process and fuel-based emissions into account, this figure
corresponds to 27% of the total emissions from cement manufacturing.
Further methods and calculation models for CO2 uptake were de-
veloped with the aim to better estimate net emissions of climate gases
and to improve calculation methods within the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and especially the “2006 IPCC
Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories” [85]. Different
Fig. 16. Carbon capturing with Oxyfuel technology [94].
12
Cement and Concrete Research 124 (2019) 105792
models were developed, representing different tiers i.e. different ac-
curacies of their prediction. Although the different approaches have to
be adapted to the specific local context, the overall calculated CO2
uptake in this study is also similar to the ones mentioned. The ad-
vantage of yielding higher accuracy in the calculated CO2 uptake has to
be seen against the higher complexity of the models.
Active carbonation is known, whereby a complete carbonation of
the concrete within a short time can be achieved at considerable
technical effort [86,88,89,90,91], for example with high CO2 pressure
or autoclave treatment. CO2 can also be used as an accelerating ad-
mixture in concrete. The overall CO2 savings as compared to re-
carbonation of concrete during and after service life are very small.
5. Carbon capture
Carbon capture is seen as an innovative breakthrough technology
which still has to find its way into industrial-scale application. Although
very energy-intensive and still very expensive today, carbon capture is
seen as the only possibility to significantly reduce CO2 emissions from
cement manufacture in order to reach the mitigation targets in 2050:
depending on the scenario chosen, between 552 and 707 Mt CO2/a
need to be globally captured in the cement industry and permanently
stored. Geological storage of CO2 has been a known technology for a
long time, in particular in the oil and gas industry [92], and CO2 can
also be utilized as carbon feedstock or for fuel production, for which in
both cases respective amounts of energy from renewable sources are
needed [93].
Capturing CO2 aims to generate a concentrated stream of CO2 at an
adequately high pressure that can be further transported to a storage or
processing site. Due to its process characteristics only post-combustion
and oxyfuel technology can be applied to cement kilns to capture both
the process and the fuel CO2 (Fig. 15, Fig. 16).
Post-combustion separates CO2 from the waste gas by which capture
rates of 95% can be achieved, the CO2 purity can be as high as 99% to
allow immediate further compressing and transport. The implementa-
tion in cement plants is feasible, provided sufficient space for the CO2
absorber, the stripper, heat exchanger and other process devices is
available next to the cement kiln. Also, sufficient heat must be available
M. Schneider
to operate the capture unit. Common solvents are amine-based.
Advanced versions are being tested and more efficient solvents are
under development to reduce the energy demand for absorbing and
desorbing the CO2 in the absorber and stripper respectively [95]. The
solvents are regenerated and reused, and mainly O2, SO2 and NO2 affect
the degree of solvent degradation. Their concentrations in the waste gas
of the kiln also determine the energy demand needed for regeneration
[27]. Waste heat available at the cement plant can be used to operate
the whole capture unit, however since 3 MJ/t of CO2 avoided are
needed, a substantial amount of additional energy needs to be provided
at the site for full-scale capturing [2,27,96].
Post-combustion separation of CO2 can also be achieved using
membranes which can reach up to 80% capture yield [27,97]. Mem-
branes do not require regeneration and do not generate waste streams.
Membranes have only been tested on a very small research scale. In-
dustrial trials need to be carried out to prove their stability in cement
kiln flue gases, its gas selectivity under the conditions in a cement plant
and its stability under high temperatures and in the presence of gas
constituents such as SO2.
Calcium looping (CaL) is another way to capture CO2 and to re-
generate the sorbent. The CO2 from the flue gas is brought into contact
with reactive CaO to form calcium carbonate in a carbonator at
600–700 °C in an exothermal reaction. The calcium carbonate is sepa-
rated further on into CaO and CO2 at temperatures exceeding 900 °C in
a calciner to regenerate CaO as the sorbent. The CaO can be used again
in the carbonator and cycles between the carbonator and calciner
(looping). The CO2-rich stream can then be further processed for sub-
sequent transport. CaL is still in an early stage of development, however
current research projects show the potential of the technology and will
deliver results from field tests in the cement industry including more
concrete cost figures [98].
In oxyfuel technology the nitrogen is separated from the combustion
air before it enters the kiln, thus operating the kiln with pure oxygen as
the oxydizer. Exit gas from the kiln is therefore high in CO2 con-
centration, ideally consisting only of CO2 and water vapour. The pre-
treatment of the air to remove nitrogen takes place in an air separation
plant [99]. In order to maintain the right flame temperature and to
allow for a good radiation pattern of the combustion gases to effectively
heat the kiln feed, a part of the CO2 enriched flue gas is recirculated
[99] whereas the recirculation rate determines the gas flow through the
kiln system and the oxygen concentration in the oxidizer. A part of the
CO2-enriched kiln gas is taken out of the recycling loop, purified, fur-
ther processed in a compression unit and prepared for transportation.
Depending on the level of integration, as partial oxyfuel at the
precalciner and preheater stage only or as full oxyfuel technology along
the whole clinker production, a capturing rate of 60–99% is estimated
to be possible [27,99]. The implementation requires the modification of
the current design of a cement plant and - most importantly - that a
sufficient oxygen supply to the site is ensured. A retrofitability study
from 2018 [100] assessed the complexity and efforts that are necessary
to adjust an existing cement plant. The study estimates a 6-month
stoppage to carry out the adjustments but describes the impact on
clinker production as manageable. New equipment like the air se-
paration unit, the oxyfuel clinker cooler, the exhaust gas recirculation
system and the purification unit need to be installed, and measures to
minimize air ingress need to be taken.
Although oxyfuel technology requires a partial retrofit of the kiln
system and also a more sophisticated kiln control, the overall energy
efficiency of this technology is higher than for post-combustion tech-
nologies. At the moment, the lack of experience of a large-scale in-
tegration of capturing technologies in cement plants is making it diffi-
cult to estimate associated costs, but further market deployment can
facilitate the technical optimisation and reduce costs and energy de-
mand. It is expected that avoidance costs of 40 €/t CO2 can be reached,
taking into account the technical and scientific progress that will be
made during the industrial trials. Based on the research results available
13
Cement and Concrete Research 124 (2019) 105792
today, the European Cement Research Academy (ECRA) is preparing for
the first industrial trials to test oxyfuel technology to initiate the de-
monstration phase in the next years [101–104].
Further options for capturing CO2, for example via algae farms, are
being investigated. While at some sites this might be an option, it is in
general difficult to implement, in particular with regard to the required
surface area needed to provide enough microorganism cultures to
capture a significant share of CO2 from cement production [27].
The captured CO2 can be transported via pipelines or vessels. The
costs depend on the transport distance, and other factors such as
loading and unloading costs, as well as the type of pipeline (offshore or
onshore) are further relevant cost-determining factors [105].
The storage of CO2 is accomplished by the injection into geological
formations beneath the earth surface [105]. Porous rocks with tight cap
rocks are adequate and suitable to hold the gas as well as rock forma-
tions previously used for holding gas or oil. Costs, mineral feedstock
and energy demands involved are estimated to be high.
Cost figures for transport and storage can be found in [106]. Al-
though being from 2011, the numbers are still valid. Typical figures
range from 1 to 15 €/t of CO2 for transport and 1–20 €/t of CO2 for
storage.
The technical, economic and political framework necessary to fa-
cilitate storage has been analysed for the biggest industrial areas in
Europe, the Ruhr valley, Rotterdam and the southern Netherland region
[7]. The study emphasises the need for both industrial and climate
policies to be aligned and the importance of CO2 transport networks to
enable industrial decarbonisation. CO2 networks could link industrial
areas with the CO2 storage sites, such as in the North Sea. The im-
plementation of a regional development organisation, the Market
Maker, is proposed which links CO2 sources and CO2 users and stores.
The European Funding system is seen as a major source for supporting
the development for CO2 storage, the deployment of strategic CO2 in-
frastructure and hubs, and partially for capturing. Thus, certain regions
would be transformed into CO2 transport hubs and could access EU
funds to support the development of basic infrastructure. A large-scale
European infrastructure has been suggested, underlining the role of the
EU member states to take the lead in CCS infrastructure development
[107]. A concrete example for underground CO2 storage is the Sleipner
natural gas field beneath the North Sea [108].
The key messages of the global CCS report from 2018 [92] are that
CCS storage capacity is abundant and that CCS will become more cost-
efficient as more facilities commercialise. It is further underlined that
CCS technology has already been working safely for over 45 years. As
for now there are 18 large-scale facilities commercially capturing ap-
proximately 40 Mt CO2/year and over 230 Mt CO2 have been injected
underground. CCS can be seen as complementary to renewable energy
towards a decarbonised future. Political engagement, a clear direction
and policy confidence are however indispensable for the removal of
CCS barriers and developing storage resources is seen as a prerequisite
for a wide-scale CCS deployment [109].
As a second option, CO2 is used as feedstock for the production of
chemicals and fuels, usually through hydrogenation. In the case of
chemicals it is important to relate the potential to the market size of
these products which is in most cases far too small to utilise significant
amounts of CO2 emitted by the cement sector. However, it is an option
to save fossil resources and use CO2 as an alternative feedstock. The
overall feasibility of CCU needs to be proven by large-industrial-scale
implementations. A life cycle approach must also take into account the
release of CO2 from many of the use cases, i.e. the combustion and
decomposition of these chemicals need to be factored in when evalu-
ating the overall long term CO2 -mitigation potential. In addition, the
right reference scenario has to be chosen, in particular when huge
amounts of hydrogen are needed to convert the CO2 into chemicals or
fuels [110].
M. Schneider
6. Roadmaps: pathways to a low-carbon future
6.1. The global roadmap
The global challenge of CO2 mitigation as well as the need to define
targets and respectively follow-up on their degree of implementation
required the elaboration of a Low-Carbon-Technology Roadmap for the
cement industry, which was first presented in 2009 by the IEA and the
CSI. It is based on a comprehensive set of so-called Technology Papers
for the cement industry, which were created by the European Cement
Research Academy. The Technology Papers and subsequently the IEA/
CSI Technology Roadmap were reworked and amended in 2017 and
2018 [2,27]. The global roadmap has been adopted in the meantime in
national roadmaps for Europe, Egypt, India and partially in Latin
America.
The IEA roadmap outlines a detailed action plan until 2050 to
achieve CO2 emission mitigation related to the expected cement pro-
duction growth using the four (already presented) levers: improving
energy efficiency, switching to alternative fuels, reducing the clinker to
cement ratio and implementing emerging and innovative technologies
[2,27].
The scenarios used in the roadmap are firstly the Reference
Technology Scenario RTS, which considers trends and nationally de-
termined commitments under the Paris Agreement, and the 2DS, which
calculates with a reduction of annual CO2 emissions from the energy
sector by 60% from current levels by 2050 [2]. This target requires a
decline in CO2 emissions from fuel combustion and industrial processes
after 2050 and carbon neutrality in the energy system by 2100. The
pathway is set to reach a 50%-chance to limit the global temperature
increase to 2 °C by 2100. The scenarios are based on a set of techno-
economic assumptions [27,2,111,112]. The scope is focused on energy
savings and carbon mitigation strategies but the potential of the whole
construction value chain is also recognised. This includes measures for
the optimisation of concrete used in constructions through lean designs
and reducing waste of construction materials, maximising the design
life of buildings and infrastructure, reducing operational energy over a
building lifetime, reusing and recycling, and optimising recarbonation.
As a key assumption of the roadmap, global cement production is
growing from 4.17 Gt/year in the base year 2014 to 4.68 Gt/year (RTS,
2DS) by 2050. To meet CO2 mitigation targets, the global direct CO2
emissions from the cement industry would need to decrease from cur-
rent levels (2.2 Gt CO2/year) by 24% by 2050. The even more ambi-
tious B2DS intends to meet a 1.75 °C trajectory, requiring a 45% in-
crease in the cumulative carbon emission reduction effort by 2050
compared to the 2DS. The share of captured and permanently stored
CO2 in the overall direct CO2 emissions from cement production would
need to rise from 25% in the 2DS to 63% in the BSD scenario. The
following graph (Fig. 17) shows the calculated and estimated
Fig. 17. Low-carbon roadmap cumulative CO2 emissions reductions in the 2DS compared to the RTS from 2020 to 2050, as modified by VDZ, data from OECD/IEA/
CSI [2].
14
Cement and Concrete Research 124 (2019) 105792
contribution of the four emission levers to the 2DS compared to RTS for
the cumulative CO2 emission reductions from 2020 to 2050 [2].
Thermal energy efficiency accounts for approximately 3% of the
cumulative CO2 emissions savings by 2050, applying best practices in
the kiln technology as mentioned in previous chapters. The calculations
take into account regional policies, such as the 1% annual reduction in
the specific thermal energy demand of clinker intended by the Chinese
government. The electrical energy intensity differs regionally due to
fineness requirements, raw materials and the level of energy intensity.
Switching to alternative fuels accounts for 12% of the cumulative
CO2 emissions savings by 2050. This assumption is critically dependent
on waste management legislations and thus on waste availability. The
collection, pre-processing and use of alternative fuels should comply
with standards to ensure safety, emission control and a stable compo-
sition of suitable fuels.
Reducing the clinker to cement ratio accounts for 37% of the cu-
mulative CO2 emission savings by using SCMs and reduces the global
clinker to cement ratio to 0.6 by 2050 in the 2DS. This would be only
feasible when significantly increasing the share of limestone and cal-
cined clays as SCMs in cement. China remains the region which reports
the lowest clinker to cement ratio of 0.57. Since China will account for
45% of global cement production by 2030, its efficiency in the use of
clinker strongly determines the global clinker factor. A global reduction
of the clinker to cement ratio is intended, however challenges are
mainly due to the availability of suitable SCMs.
In the presented scenario, innovative technology will account for
48% of the cumulative CO2 emissions, most importantly to be achieved
by carbon capture, storage and utilisation and to a smaller extent by
waste heat recovery (WHR) or renewable power generation. In the case
of carbon capture the main barrier is seen as the lack of incentives
through legal policies and the estimated high costs compared to the
specific cost of cement production. The requirement for large-scale
demonstrations has been already outlined previously. Challenges for
the implementation and success of the technologies are in the case of
WHR the economic viability and in the case of renewable energy the
availability of local renewable sources.
Policy frameworks and co-operation between private and public
stakeholders are seen as essential and can be applied by multiple levels
of action for each of the four levers of emission reduction. Initially,
support is required by dedicated funding schemes and research pro-
grams. Public-private partnerships can mitigate the significant invest-
ment risk. To avoid carbon leakage as the principle threat for the im-
plementation of abatement technologies with high CO2 avoidance cost,
it might be necessary to establish stable international carbon pricing
mechanisms coupled with measures to promote and to ensure local
lower-carbon cement production and stay competitive against higher-
carbon cement imports with higher CO2 emissions [2].
Finally, it should be mentioned that the deployment of low-carbon
M. Schneider
solutions in the construction sector must be enhanced equally by in-
cluding them in public procurement policies. Low carbon solutions will
result in higher costs along the value chain and must be supported and
incentivised accordingly. Early movers must be supported since they
run the risk of losing competitiveness due to the significantly higher
production costs they have to bear.
6.2. Regional implementations
The global cement technology roadmaps of 2009 and 2018 were
translated into several national roadmaps, such as a European cement
industry Low-Carbon Economy Roadmap and an Indian roadmap in
2013, as well as an Egyptian Roadmap in 2016. The Latin American
Federation for Cement announced its roadmap in 2018.
Europe [113,114]
CEMBUREAU, the European Cement Association, underlines in its
low-carbon economy roadmap resource efficiency, energy efficiency,
ССS/U, product efficiency and mitigation potential in product appli-
cation and use. This is broken down into multiple paths to emission
reduction, mitigating the CO2 emission from 177 Mt CO2 year in 1990
to 34 Mt CO2/year in 2050. The major part is provided by carbon
capture as a breakthrough technology contributing 79 Mt of annual CO2
savings, i.e. almost 60% of the reduction outlined.
The fuel mix is scheduled to be 60% alternative fuels, 40% of which
would be biomass. The clinker factor will be 0.70 in 2050, and new
binding material with CO2 emissions < 50% of the average of all ce-
ments will make up 5% of all cementitious product use.
Not factored into the reduction of the direct emissions, but as im-
portant in its contribution to global CO2 savings from the cement and
concrete value chain, is the growing importance of low-carbon concrete
and further downstream measures like the recycling of concrete, and
the more efficient use of concrete in buildings and infrastructures.
The measures suggested in the CEMBUREAU roadmap from 2013
were assessed again in 2018, underlining that the European cement
industry is on track, that it is targeting carbon neutrality in the con-
struction sector in the long term and a dedicated focus has to be given
to the upcoming new technologies, in particular carbon capture.
China [115]
China is by far the largest producer of cement in the world. The
Chinese government implements policies for certain timeframes, such
as four-year plans (FYP) to reduce CO2 emissions. The FYP of
2006–2010 included the shutdown of outdated facilities, the im-
plementation of WHR, encouraging the production of blended cements
and implementing other energy efficiency measures. The government
provides financial support to cement companies when certain targets
are achieved.
According to a study from 2015 evaluating the CO2 emissions from
China's total 1574 cement enterprises in 2013, the average was well
below the global average and reported to be 806 kg CO2/t clinker [116]
(compared to the global weighted average of 841 kg CO2/t clinker in
2013 according to [116] and GNR database). The performance values
are described to be a result of the industry transformations and the
strategy of shutting down obsolete plants and their replacement by new
plants with preheater/precalciner kilns. This development was pushed
through strict standards and regulations that were issued in order to
reduce emissions and energy consumption from the cement industry in
China [116]. The Chinese cement industry landscape is further char-
acterised by large and medium facilities that account for 92.4% of total
emissions and for the major part of total production. Thus, they might
operate more energy efficiently due to economy-of-scale effects [116].
The process emissions among facilities were relatively equal, and
most improvement potential is seen in adjusting the varying energy
emission intensities among the enterprises. As one way to equalize
emissions, the report proposes an entry threshold for future new
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Cement and Concrete Research 124 (2019) 105792
enterprises and benchmarking for existing plants.
With regard to future technologies of carbon capturing and storage,
the match of CO2 emission sources and geological storage sites is seen
as a requirement for the feasibility of CCS projects [116].
A national Roadmap up to 2030 was released in 2018 [24]. Re-
ductions prior to 2030 will mainly involve technological innovation,
the elimination of excess capacity and the reduction of the clinker to
cement ratio. From 2030 until 2050 further reductions will be achieved
by the use of alternative raw materials and fuels. In different scenarios
the achievable reduction of cement-related CO2 emission factors was
calculated between 59 and 69% by 2030 compared to 2005 levels.
Emission factors are calculated in kg CO2/t clinker for raw materials,
energy demand and fuels. This roadmap envisions a natural CO2 de-
crease from 2030 onwards due to a stabilization and decrease of cement
output.
China further plans to introduce a national GHG carbon trading
program (ETS) in several phases starting with a one-year trading si-
mulation as from 2019. The system is scheduled to become fully op-
erational for the electricity generation from 2020 and gradually rolled
out to other sectors until 2025 [117]. Carbon trading is seen as an in-
novation promoter provoking resource efficiency and transformations
[24].
India [118]
India is the second largest cement producer in the world and pro-
duced 303 Mt in 2018 [1]. The roadmap estimates a significant increase
in production reaching 780–1360 Mt of cement in 2050. The relatively
low specific energy consumption for cement production in Indian sta-
tistics is related to dry raw material sources. Key levers to reduce CO2
emissions are increased rates of SCM materials to reduce the clinker to
cement ratio, the increased use of alternative fuels, the widespread
implementation of WHR and the development of new technologies. As a
baseline scenario, the roadmap uses the 6 °C scenario (6DS), and in
contrast, the 2DS. The following Fig. 18 illustrates the potential of the
four levers to mitigate CO2 emissions, assuming a low-demand-driven
production volume.
The share of thermal energy sourced from alternative fuels only
accounts for 0.6% in India. In the 2DS the share would rise to 25% by
2050, improving the waste management system and the availability of
suitable sources (Fig. 18).
The efficient use of clinker will rely on GGBFS, the volumes of
which are expected to increase, whereas the availability of fly ash will
be reduced. The clinker to cement ratio is expected to decrease from
0.74 to 0.58 in the 2DS. The roadmap outlines the necessity to facilitate
the development of CCS and biofuels production, e.g. through pro-
moting pilot technology applications and commercializing algae growth
at Indian cement plants and developing knowledge of potential geolo-
gical CO2 storage sites in India.
Latin America [119]
The Interamerican Cement Federation FICEM represents 74 cement
producing companies with 227 plants in 24 countries in South and
Central America and supports the development of a sustainable in-
dustry. In 2011 FICEM joined the CSI-initiative and the GNR-project to
support a more comprehensive regional inventory of the CO2 emissions
from the cement industry. In 2012 FICEM communicated the plan to
promote good practices and generate an action plan for CO2 mitigation.
A Roadmap was implemented in 2018 and is based on the IEA/CSI
cement technology roadmap approach from 2009, but taking into ac-
count regional characteristics in particular the lack of unified criteria
for CO2 abatement measures across Latin America.
Egypt [120]
Egypt and its cement production is facing a high installed clinker
production capacity and operating at about only 70% of capacity.
According to the global cement report, Egypt produced around 63.7 Mt
M. Schneider
Fig. 18. CO2 emission reduction potential for Indian cement production up to 2050 [118].
IEA Publishing. Licence: www.iea.org/t&c
of cement in 2018 [1]. A characteristic for production is the high
number of kilns with Best Available Techniques, but on the other hand
there is a high clinker factor of 0.89, high amounts of discarded by-pass
and cement kiln dust, and a low share of alternative fuels which ac-
count for only 5% of thermal energy use.
The lack of available good-quality clinker substitutes and also the
construction codes limit the use of cement mainly to ordinary Portland
cement. Except for limestone, the availability of SCMs is very limited
even though the Roadmap assumes that SCMs will become available as
for all cement companies worldwide. To overcome the barrier of con-
structions practices, it will be seen as a necessity for ministries and
research centres as well as contractors and the Technical Inspection
Agency to consult on measures to both improve the quality of con-
struction and reduce the content of clinker. Applications and require-
ments can be further assured by certification schemes for ready-mix
concretes. The average clinker content in cement should be reduced to
approximately 0.75.
Energy efficiency is the second described lever and measures may
include setting energy efficiency benchmarks as a reference, obliging
companies with higher energy consumption to periodically execute
audits, and issuing operating permits with requirements to implement
energy management systems. The implementation of WHR is evaluated
as a subsequent step to reduce electrical energy demands since it re-
quires high investments and should not impede the implementation of
other measures of higher priority.
Waste management and regulations are described and seen as the
main path to increase the share of alternative fuels. Currently the waste
generation and discarding is uncontrolled and mostly not recycled.
With regard to discarded by-pass dust and other cement kiln dust,
the high chlorine content in Egyptian limestone impedes the recycling
of the dusts to prevent clogging of the kiln. One option is seen in
washing out unwanted salts and in recycling the slurry. This however is
highly water-intensive. Extensive R&D should improve the develop-
ment of new treatment technologies.
Further overarching measures comprise balancing the overcapacity,
including waste heat recovery and introducing financial incentives.
Following the roadmap path the cement industry in Egypt would
reduce annual CO2 emissions by 10–11.5 MtCO2 per year by 2030.
7. Outlook
Cement will be indispensable for a long time as a construction
16
Cement and Concrete Research 124 (2019) 105792
material for a wide range of buildings, infrastructure and transport
systems. The cement sector will therefore have to lower its CO2 emis-
sions while at the same time the global cement demand is expected to
continue to increase. Although the growth rates are smaller than in the
past, the additional cement to be produced will put an extra burden on
the cement sector to lower its emissions. As a major global emitter of
CO2 the cement sector is expected to make a significant contribution to
lower global GHG emissions in order to limit the global temperature
increase to 2 °C by 2100 (2DS). The CO2 reduction that the cement
sector is expected to achieve is based on parallel paths. All of them
contribute to the overall mitigation, but each to a different degree and
with different timelines.
The conventional measures can be implemented according to the
various roadmaps, the main lever being the reduction of the clinker
factor. The availability of adequate SCMs is essential and might limit
clinker factor reduction in some regions. Calcined clays can play an
important role in the time to come. In combination with limestone, high
quality cements with good performance and durability characteristics
in concrete can be produced. New binding materials can play a role in
the long term future, but the application will be mostly in niche mar-
kets. The recarbonation of concrete has an effect on the overall CO2
balance of the cement sector but is currently not taken into account in
the respective reporting schemes. Some new binding materials are ac-
tively recarbonated, they harden through the formation of carbonated
calcium silicates and are low in CO2-intensity provided they have access
to a sufficient amount of CO2. Carbon capture is still in its early stages
but will be needed to substantially lower global CO2 emissions from the
cement sector. CO2 transport and storage infrastructure has to be built
up. This requires huge investments, but the technology exists and has
been proven. Industrial and climate policies need to be aligned in order
to make carbon capture possible, in particular to support the early
movers who definitely will otherwise not be able to be competitive due
to the high CO2 avoidance costs. Building up the CO2 infrastructure
needs acceptance from the public and measures have to be taken by all
stakeholders to improve the societal acceptance of CO2 transport and
storage.
Finally, a low-carbon economy and value chain must be supported.
A lower clinker content in cement can only contribute to global CO2
savings once these cements find their way onto the market. Appropriate
indicators must be developed and implemented to support the appli-
cation of low-carbon concretes, always ensuring that a sufficient high
quality level is maintained for safe buildings.
M. Schneider Cement and Concrete Research 124 (2019) 105792

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