See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/270956581

Non-Linear Modelling of PM Brake Lining Wear Behaviour

Article  in  Materials Testing · January 2012

DOI: 10.3139/120.110295

CITATIONS READS

2 149

2 authors:

Ilyas Istif Erdem Uzunsoy

Yildiz Technical University Bursa Teknik Üniversitesi
14 PUBLICATIONS   13 CITATIONS    17 PUBLICATIONS   36 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Off-road vehicle dynamics View project

Vehicle Mass Estimation View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Erdem Uzunsoy on 17 January 2015.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 MP 110295
MODELLING AND SIMULATION 1

Non-Linear Modelling of PM
Brake Lining Wear Behaviour
Ilyas Istif, Ovun Isin, Erdem
Uzunsoy and Deniz Uzunsoy,
Istanbul, Turkey
The brake friction materials in automotive brake systems play an impor-
tant role in the overall braking performance of a vehicle. Wear test
results have previously been presented for a 1040 steel disc interacting
with PM copper based brake lining material without and with MoS2
additive at constant applied load and sliding velocity. In this paper, a
non-linear model has been developed and compared with previously
developed linear model and experimental results. A feed-forward net-
work with one hidden layer was used to find optimum results. Linear
and non-linear approaches have been applied to simulate the wear
behaviour of the brake lining material. Comparative results showed that
the nonlinear model provides results closer to the experimental study.
Therefore, non-linear process modelling can be used as an effective tool
for the prediction of brake lining material properties instead of time-
consuming experimental processes.

The brake system represents a fundamen-
tal system which decelerates the speed of a
moving vehicle, stops when necessary and
supports the handling behaviour with ac-
tive control systems [1]. Nowadays, the
braking performance of a vehicle, depend-
ing on the brake lining friction against a
cast iron disc, is influenced by several fac-
tors such as safety, advanced braking com-
fort (noise, vibration, pedal feel, smoke de-
velopment) and long service life [2, 3].
The demands for friction system and
brake pad behaviour under operating condi-
tions are complex. It is expected that the
friction coefficient should be relatively high.
On the other hand, stable friction force, reli-
able strength and good wear resistance are
also needed, irrespective of temperature,
humidity, degree of wear and corrosion [4].
Materials selection criteria for brake lin-
ings play an important role in fulfilling the
performance requirements [5]. Sintered
friction materials have been extensively
used in industry among the automotive
friction materials [6, 7]. PM materials rein-
forced with ceramic particles such as
Al2O3, Cr2O3, SiC and MoS2 have been de-
veloped as multiphase composites for auto-
motive brake system and meet success-
fully friction materials’ general perfor-
mance requirements over the single
material [8, 9].
The wear resistance is the most impor-
tant parameter among the performance
criteria. During the working cycle, the
most important mechanism is the sliding
wear of a PM brake lining, due to the rela-
tive motion in automotive brake discs.
Wear is a complex phenomenon which in-
cludes a combination of abrasion, adhe-
sion, delamination and thermal decompo-
sition [10]. Several parameters such as
applied loads, braking times and material
characteristics play a critical role to ana-
lyse dominant wear mechanism of brake
lining materials [11].
Intelligent modelling techniques are
highly effective in understanding the non-
linear relationships of wear mechanism by
extracting information from the available
experimental data. It has also been ob-
served that first analysing the problem
computationally narrows the search space
and subsequently carrying out experimen-
tats for exact determination of the proper-
ties could efficiently reduce the temporal
cost related to experimentation [12].
The use of Artificial Neural Networks
(ANNs) represents a promising research
tool in capturing nonlinear dynamics of
wear behaviour of the brake lining materi-
als [13]. In recent years, the implementa-
tion of ANNs in the prediction of many en-
gineering properties including tribological
properties of composite materials has
gained significant importance [14, 15].
In the present research, sigmoid net-
work with one hidden layer was used to
model wear behaviour of PM brake lining
composites. The model was based on the
wear tests results of the brake lining com-
posites without and with MoS2 additive at
constant wear load and distance. The re-
sults obtained from the nonlinear ARX
model were compared with both the experi-
mental and linear model results to choose
the most effective and reliable tool.
Identification Procedures
Materials and Composite Preparation.
The chemical composition of the brake lin-
ing material chosen for this study was Cu-
16.5Fe-8.5Sn-8Pb-1C. The brake lining ma-
terial was reinforced with MoS2 by increas-
ing the additive amount by 1 wt.- % MoS2.
The composites were prepared using pow-
der metallurgy route. The details of prepa-
ration procedures of composites can be
found in the previous publications [16].
Wear Tests. The sliding wear behaviour
of the composite brake linings was investi-
gated by using a pin on disk wear testing
machine in air (25° C). Pins with a diame-
ter of 5 mm and length of 10 mm were used
and the counter surface was chosen as SAE

54 (2012) 1 © Carl Hanser Verlag, München Materials Testing

2 MODELLING AND SIMULATION
Figure 1. Block diagram of the nonlinear ARX model
1040 steel plate with a Vickers-hardness of
180 HV. The load was applied to the speci-
men and the arm of the machine was bal-
anced by a counter weight. During the test,
the tangential frictional force was meas-
ured with a load cell and recorded. The
specimens were weighted before each ex-
periment on a sensitive balance with sensi-
tivity of 1 × 10-4 g. The wear tests were per-
formed using a normal load of 9.81 N
(1 kgf) at a sliding speed of 4.10-2 ms-1 and
the total sliding distance was 1000 m.
After each period of the test, the test ma-
chine was stopped, the samples were
cleaned with ethanol and weighted again to
calculate the weight loss. For each test con-
dition, at least three samples were tested to
obtain the average. The wear rate was cal-
culated using the following expression in
equation (1):
∆m
K= (1)
l.ρ.F
with ∆m: Loss of mass, l: Sliding distance,
F: Normal load and ρ: Density of the pow-
der particles.
Nonlinear ARX Model Structure. Sys-
tem identification is about building models
of dynamical systems and processes. It is
important possible prior experience about
the process is matching the information ob-
tained in the observed input-output data to
construct a process description that is ca-
a)
Figure 3. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of the PM brake lining material,
a) Without MoS2 additive, b) With 5 wt.-% MoS2 additive
pable of capturing and reproducing the ba-
sic behaviours of the process [17]. In the
present investigation, experimental data
was processed using a nonlinear ARX
structure for the modelling. A nonlinear
ARX model extends the linear ARX struc-
ture. A linear SISO ARX model structure is
given by:
b1u(t) + b2u(t - 1) + ... +
bnbu(t - nb + 1) + e(t) (2)
where the input delay nk is zero to simplify
the notation.
This structure implies that the current
output y(t) is predicted as a weighted sum
of past output values, current and past in-
put values. If Equation (2) is rearranged,
the new expression can be provided as:
yp(t) = [-a1, -a2, ... , -ana, b1, b2, ... , b1na] ·
[y(t - 1), y(t - 2), ... , y(t - na),
u(t - 1), ... , u(t - nb - 1)]T (3)
Where y(t - 1), y(t - 2), ... , y(t - na), u(t),
u(t - 1), ... , u(t - nb - 1) are delayed input
and output variables. The linear ARX
model predicts the current output yp as a
weighted sum of its delayed input and out-
put values, which are called as regressors.
The nonlinear ARX model, on the other
hand, has a more flexible nonlinear map-
ping function:
b)
Figure 2. Nonlinear ARX model structure of the
wear process
yp(t) = f(y(t - 1), y(t - 2), y(t - 3), ... , u(t),
u(t - 1), u(t - 2), ...) (4)
where f is a nonlinear function.
The previously mentioned regressors are
the natural input variables of this function.
However, nonlinear ARX regressors can
be both delayed input-output variables and
more complex, nonlinear expressions of
delayed input and output variables. The
block diagram of nonlinear ARX model is
shown in Figure 1.
The nonlinear ARX model computes the
output y in two stages. The first stage is
the computation of regressors from the
current and past input values and past
output data. By default, all regressors are
inputs to both the linear and the nonlinear
function blocks of the nonlinearity estima-
tor. The nonlinearity estimator block
maps the regressors to the model output
using a combination of nonlinear and lin-
ear functions. The nonlinearity estimator
block can include linear and nonlinear
blocks in parallel [18].
Identification of the nonlinear process
models was carried out by using the well-
known Matlab software. A sigmoid net-
work with one hidden layer was used to
model the wear behaviour of the PM brake
lining composites. The modelling of the
wear behaviour by using training and vali-
dating data sets was based on a feed-for-
ward network with sigmoid function and
the Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm was
used as optimizing network weights. For
the identification, the frictional force and
wear rate were chosen as the input and out-
put variables, respectively. The process pa-
rameters of the wear tests were fed as in-
put to the input layer of the network. The
used network architecture is illustrated in
Figure 2.
54 (2012) 1
 MODELLING AND SIMULATION 3

Results and Discussion

Microstructure of Brake Linings. Figure 3

shows the microstructure of the composite
brake linings reinforced with different
weight percent of the MoS2 particles. It can
be clearly seen in the micrographs that the
MoS2 particles are distributed homoge-
nously in the matrix as the reinforcement
amount increases. The addition of molyb-
denum disulphide particles into brake lin-
ing leads to a structure with an intercon-
nected network of copper based particles
surrounded by additive material. Additive
particles situated in the regions among the
copper based particles. The details of the
Figure 4. Comparison plot of measured and predicted wear rate of the PM brake lining without MoS2
microstructural development of PM brake additive using linear and nonlinear ARX model
lining material can be found in the work
published by one of the author in another
article [16].
Modelling Results. The wear rate and
frictional force data obtained from the ex-
perimental study was pre-processed for the
identification procedure covering the train-
ing and validation, respectively. Following
the procedure, linear and non-linear mod-
els were obtained and simulated. The simu-
lation results and experimental data of
wear rate are illustrated in single graphs
for the brake lining material without and
with MoS2 additive. The linear prediction
results presented in this paper provided
from the previous work published by the
same authors [19].
The percentage of fit provides informa-
tion about the mean square error between Figure 5. Comparison plot of measured and predicted wear rate of PM brake lining with 5 wt.-% MoS2
the measured data and the simulated out- additive using linear and nonlinear ARX model
put of the model. 100 % corresponds to a
perfect fit (no error) while, 0 % to a model
that is not capable of explaining any of the
MoS2 Addition Best Fits Loss
variation of the output and only the mean Model
(wt. %) (%) Function
level [20]. Fit of the nonlinear model was
compared with linear modelling results. For 0 80 1.41334e-023
Linear Model
comparison, plots of the wear rate predicted 5 87.08 1.02034e-024
by linear and nonlinear model as well as the 6 neurons 0 91.11 5.45500e-026
experimental results for the PM brake lin- Nonlinear ARX Model
4 neurons 5 92.46 4.19840e-025
ing without and with 5 wt. % MoS2 additives
were shown in the Figures 4 and 5, respec- Table 1. Best fit values (%) and loss functions for linear and nonlinear ANN modelling of the PM brake
tively. The measured friction forces were linining without and with 5 wt.-% MoS2 additive
used as inputs for both modeling and ex-
perimental studies. It is clearly seen from
the Figures 4 and 5 that non-linear model-
ling used for the prediction of wear rate can be concluded that the wear rate can be Conclusions
results in a good performance. The mean predicted for non-linear model with an ac-
relative error for nonlinear modelling was curancy between 91.11 and 92.46 %. The In this study, a nonlinear ARX model was
only about 7.5 %. previous modelling study resulted in the applied to predict the wear behaviour of
Table 1 also summarizes the best fit val- prediction of wear rate with an accuracy PM brake lining material without and with
ues and loss functions for linear and non- between 80 and 87.08 % for the same mate- MoS2 additive. The model is based on ex-
linear modelling in PM brake lining mate- rial. Thus, it becomes evident again that perimental results related to wear tests of
rial without and with 5 wt. % MoS2 additive. the nonlinear ARX model provided more brake lining material without and with ad-
According to the data given in Table 1, it realistic results. ditive at constant wear loads and distances.

54 (2012) 1
4 MODELLING AND SIMULATION

The nonlinear modelling results were com- 2. The results obtained by application of References
pared with the experimental and linear the nonlinear ARX model are in close
modelling results. The following conclu- agreement with the experimental re-  1 R. Limpert: Brake Design and Safety, SAE
International (1992)
sions can be drawn: sults. The maximum error obtained
 2 K. W. Hee, P. Filip: Performance of ceramic en-
1. The nonlinear ARX model has the capa- from the model is less than 8 %. hanced phenolic matrix brake lining materials
bility to predict the wear rate of the 3. The nonlinear ARX modelling provides for automotive brake linings, Wear 259
brake lining material during the respec- a useful analytical tool that can be used (2005), pp. 1088-1096
tive wear test for different additive frac- to predict the wear behaviour of com-  3 S. Mohanty, Y. P. Chugh: Development of fly
tions. posites. ash-based automotive brake lining, Tribol Int.
40 (2007), No. 7, pp. 1217-1224
 4 G. McIntyre, R. Holinski: Improvement of fric-
tion brake lining performance, Proc. of the 21st
Sliding Distance Experimental Simulated
MoS2 (wt%) Annual Brake Colloquium and Exhibition, SAE
[m] Final mass of sample [g] Final mass of sample [g] Technical Paper 2003-01-3316
250 1.9650 1.9650  5 Y. Lu: A combinatorial approach for automo-
tive friction materials effects of ingredients on
500 1.9647 1.9646 friction performance, Compos. Sci. Technol. 66
0%
750 1.9644 1.9621 (2006), pp. 591-598
 6 R. L. Sands: Sintered friction materials,
1000 1.9641 1.9594 Powder Metallurgy Practice and Application 9
250 1.9715 1.9714 (1966), pp. 199-203
 7 E. Atzeni, L. Iuliano: Experimental study on
500 1.9713 1.9713
3% grinding of a sintered friction material,
750 1.9712 1.9701 J. Mater. Process. Tech. 196 (2008), pp. 184-186
 8 M. H. Cho, S. J. Kim, D. Kim, H. Jang: A combi-
1000 1.9710 1.9689
natorial approach for automotive friction mate-
250 1.9749 1.9749 rials: effects of ingredients on friction perfor-
500 1.9748 1.9744 mance, Wear 258 (2005), pp. 1682-1687
5%  9 M. Boz, A. Kurt: The effect of Al2O3 on the fric-
750 1.9746 1.9737 tion performance of automotive brake friction
1000 1.9745 1.9726 materials, Tribol. Int. 40 (2007), pp. 1161-1169
10 G. B. V. Kumar, C. S. P. Rao, N. Selveraj:
250 1.9623 1.9623
Mechanical and tribological behavior of partic-
500 1.9622 1.9619 ulate reinforced aluminium metal matrix com-
7% posites: A review, J. of Mineral & Mater Char-
750 1.9621 1.9613
act. & Eng. 10 (2011), pp. 59-91
1000 1.9620 1.9604 11 N. S. M. EL-Tayeb, K. W. Liew: On the dry and
wet sliding performance of potentially new
Table 2. Experimental and simulation results of final mass amount of test sample frictional brake pad materials for automotive
industry, Wear 266 (2009), pp. 275-287
12 M. Younesi, M. E. Bahrololoom, M. Ahmadza-
deh: Prediction of wear behaviors of nickel
free stainless steel-hydroxyapatite bio-compos-
Abstract ites using artificial neural network, Comp.
Mater. Sci. 47 (2010), pp. 645-654
13 F. S. Rashed, T. S. Mahmoud: Prediction of
Nichtlineare Modellierung des Verschleißverhaltens pulvermetllurgi- wear behaviour of A356/SiCp mmCs using
scher Bremsbeläge. Die Reibwerkstoffe für Automobilbremssysteme ha- neural networks, Tribol. Int. 42 (2009),
pp. 642-648
ben eine signifikante Bedeutung für das gesamte Bremsverhalten eines 14 C. S. Ramesh, A. R. Khan, N. Ravikumar,
Fahrzeuges. Es sind Verschleißversuchsergebnisse mit und ohne MoS2- P. Savanprabhu: Prediction of wear coefficient
Zusatz für die Interaktion einer 1040-Stahlscheibe mit einem pulverme- of Al6061-TiO2 composites, Wear 259 (2005),
pp. 602-608
tallurgischen (PM) kupferbasierten bei konstanter Belastung und Gleitge- 15 D. Aleksendric: Neural network prediction of
schwindigkeit vorgestellt worden. Für den vorliegenden Beitrag ist ein brake friction materials wear, Wear 268 (2010),
pp. 117-125
nichtlineares Modell entwickelt worden, das mit einem zuvor entwickel- 16 D. Uzunsoy, E. Kelesoglu, Y. Eraslan: Contri-
ten linearen Modell und experimentellen Ergebnissen verglichen worden bution of MoS2 additives to the microstructure
and properties of PM copper based brake
ist. Hierzu ist ein aufgeschaltetes Netzwerk mit einer versteckten Lage
lining material, Materials Testing 51 (2009),
verwendet worden, um die bestmöglichen Ergebnisse zu erzielen. Der Er- pp. 318-322
gebnisvergleich zeigt, dass das nichtlineare Modell Ergebnisse hervor- 17 L. Ljung: System Identification - Theory for
the User, 2nd Ed., PTR Prentice Hall., Upper
bringt, die näher an den experimentellen Resultaten liegen. Daher kann Saddle River (1999)
die nichtlineare Prozessmodellierung als effektives Werkzeug gegenüber 18 Matlab R2011b Documentation, 2011,
http://www.mathworks.com/help/toolbox/
zeitaufwendigen Experimenten angewendet werden, um die Materialei- ident/ug/bq5o_xw-1.html
genschaften von Bremsbelägen vorherzusagen. 19 I. Istif, O. Isin, E. Uzunsoy, D. Uzunsoy: Linear
Model for PM Brake Lining Material Wear

54 (2012) 1

Behavior, Materials Testing (2010), No. 11-12,
pp. 795-799
20 Matlab R2011b Documentation, 2011,
http://www.mathworks.com/help/toolbox/
ident/gs/bq_ylot.html
The Authors of This Contribution
Dr. Ilyas Istif obtained his BSc degree from Yildiz
Technical University, Turkey in 1990. He com-
pleted his MSc and PhD degree at Istanbul Tech-
nical University, Turkey in 1995 and 2003,
respectively. Currently, he is working at Yildiz
Technical University, Turkey as an assistant pro-
fessor. His main research area includes modeling,
identification and control of industrial hydraulic
systems.
Dr. Ovun Isin obtained his BSc and MSc de-
grees from Yildiz Technical University, Turkey in
1991 and 1995 respectively. He completed his
PhD at the same university in 2000. Currently, he
You will find the article and additional material by entering the document number MP110295
on our website at www.materialstesting.de
54 (2012) 1
View publication stats
MODELLING AND SIMULATION 5
is working at Yildiz Technical University, Turkey
as a Lecturer. His main research area includes in-
ternal combustion engines, fuels and combustion.
Dr. Erdem Uzunsoy obtained his BSc and MSc
degrees from Yildiz Technical University, Turkey
in 1994 and 1998, respectively. He completed his
PhD at the University of Birmingham, UK, in
2003. Currently, he is working at Yildiz Technical
University, Turkey as an assistant professor. His
main research interest includes vehicle dynamics
and road vehicle systems.
Dr. Deniz Uzunsoy obtained her BSc and
MSc degrees from Yildiz Technical University,
Turkey in 1995 and 1997, respectively. She
completed her PhD at the University of Birming-
ham, UK, in 2003. Currently, she is working at
Yildiz Technical University, Turkey as an asso-
ciate professor. Her main research interest in-
cludes powder metallurgy, processing of metal-
lic nanopowders, material characterization and
wear test.