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1C 10.

3 1

P (r, ¨ ) A coordinate system represents a point in the plane by an ordered pair of numbers called
coordinates. Usually we use Cartesian coordinates, which are directed distances from
r
two perpendicular axes. Here we describe a coordinate system introduced by Newton,
called the polar coordinate system, which is more convenient for many purposes.
We choose a point in the plane that is called the pole (or origin) and is labeled O. Then
¨ we draw a ray (half-line) starting at O called the polar axis. This axis is usually drawn
O
x horizontally to the right and corresponds to the positive x-axis in Cartesian coordinates.
polar axis
If P is any other point in the plane, let r be the distance from O to P and let  be the
FIGURE 1 angle (usually measured in radians) between the polar axis and the line OP as in Fig-
ure 1. Then the point P is represented by the ordered pair sr, d and r,  are called polar
coordinates of P. We use the convention that an angle is positive if measured in the
(r, ¨ ) counterclockwise direction from the polar axis and negative in the clockwise direction.
If P − O, then r − 0 and we agree that s0, d represents the pole for any value of .
¨+π We extend the meaning of polar coordinates sr, d to the case in which r is negative by
¨
O
agreeing that, as in Figure 2, the points s2r, d and sr, d lie on the same line through O
| |
and at the same distance r from O, but on opposite sides of O. If r . 0, the point sr, d
lies in the same quadrant as ; if r , 0, it lies in the quadrant on the opposite side of the
(_r, ¨ ) pole. Noticehat s2r, d represents the same point as sr,  1 d.

FIGURE 2
ExAmplE 1 Plot the points whose polar coordinates are given.
(a) s1, 5y4d (b) s2, 3d (c) s2, 22y3d (d) s23, 3y4d

soluTion The points are plotted in Figure 3. In part (d) the point s23, 3y4d is located
three units from the pole in the fourth quadrant because the angle 3y4 is in the second
quadrant and r − 23 is negative.

3π
5π
4
O (2, 3π) O
5π
”1, 4 ’

3π
4
O
O
2π
_ 3

”2, _ 2π
3
’
3π
”_3, 4
’
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1C 10.3 2

In fact, since a complete counterclockwise rotation is given by an angle 2, the point
represented by polar coordinates sr, d is also represented by

sr,  1 2nd and s2r,  1 s2n 1 1dd

where n is any integer.

The connection between polar and Cartesian coordinates can be seen from Figure 5,
in which the pole corresponds to the origin and the polar axis coincides with the positive
x-axis. If the point P has Cartesian coordinates sx, yd and polar coordinates sr, d, then,
from the igure, we have

y
P (r, ¨ )=P (x, y)

r
y

¨
O x x

FIGURE 5

x y
cos  − sin  −
r r

and so

x − r cos  y − r sin 

y
r2 − x2 1 y2 tan  −
x

ExAmplE 2 Convert the point s2, y3d from polar to Cartesian coordinates.
soluTion Since r − 2 and  − y3, Equations 1 give

 1
x − r cos  − 2 cos −2? −1
3 2

 s3
y − r sin  − 2 sin −2? − s3
3 2

Therefore the point is s1, s3 d in Cartesian coordinates.

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1C 10.3 3

1
r= 2
r=4 Polar curves
r=2 The graph of a polar equation r − f sd, or more generally Fsr, d − 0, consists of all
r=1 points P that have at least one polar representation sr, d whose coordinates satisfy the
equation.
x
ExAmplE What curve is represented by the polar equa tion r − 2?
soluTion The curve consists of all points sr, d with r − 2. Since r represents the
distance from the point to the pole, the curve r − 2 represents the circle with center O
and radius 2. In general, the equation r − a represents a circle with center O and radius
FIGURE |a ■

(3, 1) ExAmplE Sketch the polar curve  − 1.

(2, 1) soluTion This curve consists of all points sr, d such that the polar angle  is
¨=1 1 radian. It is the straight line that passes through O and makes an angle of 1 radian
(1, 1) with the polar axis (see Figure ). Notice that the points sr, 1d on the line with r . 0
1
are in the first quadrant, whereas those with r , 0 are in the third quadrant.
O
x
ExAmplE
(_1, 1) (a) Sketch the curve with polar equation r − 2 cos .
(b) Find a Cartesian equation for this curve.
(_2, 1)
soluTion
(a) In Figure 8 we ind the values of r for some convenient values of  and plot the cor-
FIGURE 7
responding points sr, d. Then we join these points to sketch the curve, which appears
to be a circle. We have used only values of  between 0 and , since if we let  increase
beyond , we obtain the same points again.

 r − 2 cos  ” œ2 π
„,     ’
π 4 π
0 2 ”1,     ’
3 ” œ3
„,     ’
6
y6 s3
y4 s2
y3 1 (2, 0)
y2 0 π
”0,     ’
2
2y3 21
3y4 2s2
FIGURE
Table of values and 5y6 2s3 2π ”_ œ3„,  5π
    ’
”_1,      ’
3 3π 6
graph of r − 2 cos   22 ”_ œ2„,      
4
’

(b) To convert the given equation to a Cartesian equation we use Equations 1 and 2.
From x − r cos  we have cos  − xyr, so the equation r − 2 cos  becomes r − 2xyr,
which gives

2x − r 2 − x 2 1 y 2 or x 2 1 y 2 2 2x − 0

Completing the square, we obtain

sx 2 1d2 1 y 2 − 1

which is an equation of a circle with center s1, 0d and radius 1.

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1C 10.3 4

dy
dy d
−
dx dx
d

ExAmplE

(a) For the cardioid r − 1 1 sin  of , find the slope of the tangent line when  −
y3.
(b) Find the points on the cardioid where the tangent line is horizontal or vertical.
soluTion Using Equation 3 with r − 1 1 sin , we have

dr
sin  1 r cos 
dy d cos  sin  1 s1 1 sin d cos 
− −
dx dr cos  cos  2 s1 1 sin d sin 
cos  2 r sin 
d

cos  s1 1 2 sin d cos  s1 1 2 sin d

− −
1 2 2 sin 2 2 sin  s1 1 sin ds1 2 2 sin d

(a) The slope of the tangent at the point where  − y3 is

dy
dx Z −y3
−
cossy3ds1 1 2 sinsy3dd
s1 1 sinsy3dds1 2 2 sinsy3dd
− 2 (1 1 s3 )
1

(1 1 s3 y2)(1 2 s3 )

1 1 s3 1 1 s3
− − − 21
(2 1 s3 )(1 2 s3 ) 21 2 s3
(b) Observe that

dy  3 7 11
− cos  s1 1 2 sin d − 0 when  − , , ,
d 2 2 6 6

dx 3  5
− s1 1 sin ds1 2 2 sin d − 0 when  − , ,
d 2 6 6

Therefore there are horizontal tangents at the points s2, y2d, ( 12 , 7y6), ( 12 , 11y6)
and vertical tangents at ( 23 , y6) and ( 23 , 5y6). When  − 3y2, both dyyd and
π dxyd are 0, so we must be careful. Using l’Hospital’s Rule, we have
”2, 2 ’

”1+ œ„
S DS D
3 π
, ’
2 3 dy 1 1 2 sin  cos 
m=_1 lim − lim lim
ls3y2d2 dx l s3y2d2 1 2 2 sin  l s3y2d2 1 1 sin 
” 32 , 5π ’ ” 32 , π6 ’
6 1 cos  1 2sin 
−2 lim −2 lim −`
(0, 0) 3 l s3y2d2 1 1 sin  3 l s3y2d2 cos 

” 21 , 7π
6
’ ” 21 , 116π dy
By symmetry, lim − 2`
 ls3y2d1 dx
FIGURE
Tangent lines for r − 1 1 sin  Thus there is a vertical tangent line at the pole (see Figure ).
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1C 10.4 1

The area A of the polar region 5 is

A−y
b 1
2
a
2 f f sdg d

A−y
b 1
2
a
2r d

with the understanding that r − f sd.

ExAmplE Find the area enclosed by one loop of the four-leaved rose r − cos 2.
soluTion Notice from Figure that the region enclosed by the right loop is swept out
by a ray that rotates from

 − 2y4 to  − y4. Therefore Formula 4 gives

y4 1
A−y d − 12 y y
y4 y4
2
2r cos 2 2 d − cos 2 2 d
2y4 2y4 0

− y
0
y4 1
2 s1 f
1 cos 4d d − 12  1 41 sin 4 g y4
0
−

8

r=cos 2¨ π
¨= 4

π
¨=_ 4

FIGURE
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$
4 2

ExAmplE 2 Find the area of the region that lies inside the circle r − 3 sin  and out-
side the cardioid r − 1 1 sin .
soluTion The cardioid (see Example 10.3.7) and the circle are sketched in Fig-
ure 5 and the desired region is shaded. The values of a and b in Formula 4 are deter-
mined by inding the points of intersection of the two curves. They intersect when
3 sin  − 1 1 sin , which gives sin  − 12, so  − y6, 5y6. The desired area can be
found by subtracting the area inside the cardioid between  − y6 and  − 5y6 from
the area inside the circle from y6 to 5y6. Thus
5y6 5y6
A − 12 y s3 sin d2 d 2 21 y s1 1 sin d2 d
y6 y6

Since the region is symmetric about the vertical axis  − y2, we can write

A−2 Fy1 y2

2 y6 9 sin 2 d 2 21 y
y6
y2
s1 1 2 sin  1 sin 2d d G
−y
y2
s8 sin 2 2 1 2 2 sin d d
y6

−y fbecause sin  − g
y2
s3 2 4 cos 2 2 2 sin d d 2 1
2 s1 2 cos 2d
y6

g
y2
− 3 2 2 sin 2 1 2 cos  y6 −

r=3 sin ¨

5π π
¨= 6 ¨= 6

O r=1+sin ¨

FIGURE
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4 3

The length of a curve with polar equation r − f sd, a <  < b, is

yÎ S D
b 2
dr
L− r2 1 d
a d

ExAmplE Find the length of the cardioid r − 1 1 sin .

soluTion The cardioid is shown in Figure 8. Its full length is given by the parameter
interval 0 <  < 2, so Formula 5 gives

L− y0
2
Î SD
r2 1
dr
d
2
d − y
0
2
ss1 1 sin d 2 1 cos 2  d − y
0
2
s2 1 2 sin  d

We could evaluate this integral by multiplying and dividing the integrand by

s2 2 2 sin  , or we could use a computer algebra system. In any event, we ind that
the length of the cardioid is L − 8.

FIGURE
r − 1 1 sin