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e )e
i i (1)
i=1

×þ fb1 ; : : :; bkg  ð ,ü Ü î ¤ Ï ‚ “ .Ý ƒ € îü õ ù¤‘ ª ° Ü Î õ ß þ Ý ƒ Þ ã — × þ ‚ “ ñ‘ Ÿ .¢¢ Ç þ‘ Þ ÷

¤ fb1 ; : : :; bkg ,(Rn ¥ E ü Î ¡ ý‘ Ìê þ¥ ýÂ “ ý‚ þ‘ • ,«‘ ¡ ´ ó‘ Ÿ ¤¢) À ª‘ “ Rn ¤¢ ‚ ä Þ ¹ õ

݃õ‘÷üõ ¤‘¹€û ´¨¤ ¤ fb1 ; : : :; bkg ‚bäÞ¹õ .i 6= j ýÂ“ bi ? bj ‚î ü—¤¬ ¤¢ ݃õ‘÷üõ Àõ‘ãµõ

fe1 ; : : :; eng ,‚÷Þ÷ ö€ä ‚“ .i = 1; : : :; k ýÂ“ jbij = 1 ùø…ä ‚“ ø Àª‘“ Àõ‘ãµõ ‚î ü—¤¬ ¤¢
,À € ª‘ “ ùÀ ª ù¢¢ 1 c ; : : :; cn Â Ô ¬‘ ÷ ü Ö ƒ Ö Ÿ ¢À ä ù‘ ð û ø ´ ¨ Rn ýÂ “ ¤‘ ¹ € û ´ ¨¤ ‚ þ‘ • × þ
´ ¨¤ ‚b þ‘ • × þ fb1; : : :; bkg À ƒ € î ­Â ê ñ‘Ÿ .´ ¨ Rn ýÂ “ À õ‘ ã µ õ ‚b þ‘• ×þ fc1e1 ; : : :; cnen g
‘“ ¤ éÂÏ ø¢ üÜ¡¢ ’® Âð . =
Pk ti bi Ýþ ¤¢ .x 2 E ø Àª‘“ E üΡ ý‘ÌêÂþ¥ ýÂ“ ¤‘¹€û
x
i 1 =

P
¤‘¹€û ´¨¤ ‚þ‘• ‚î ‘¹÷ ¥ .x
bj = k ti (bi
bj ) ¢ªüõ Û¬‘Ÿ ,݃€î ‚±¨‘½õ ,´“‘™ j ,bj
i=1
(1) ñõÂê ߃ä ßþÂ“‘€“ . x
bj = tj ŕ ,bj
bj = 1 ø i 6= j Âð bi
bj = 0 ‚î ¢ªüõ ‚¹ƒµ÷ ,´¨
:´¨ ¤Âì“ Ã÷ ‘¹€þ ¤¢

x=
Xk (x
b )b
i i (2)
i=1

1
×þ ý¢ø ¥ ‚“ .´¨ ù¢‘¨ ¤‘ƒÆ“ ¤‘¹€û ´¨¤ ‚b þ‘• ×þ ‚“ ´±Æ÷ Çþ‘Þ÷ °þÂ® ‚b ±¨‘½õ °ƒ—— ßþÀ“

üóø ,¢Âî ݃û¡ ‚Ž¤ üΡ ý‘û‘ÌêÂþ¥ ýÂ“ ¤‘¹€û ´¨¤ ý‘û‚þ‘• ßµ¡‘¨ ýÂ“ üõÞä ©ø ¤

:݃€îüõ žÂÎõ ¤ Âþ¥ ùb¤Ãð ‘fµõÀÖõ

ù‘Ú÷ ,Àª‘“ Rn ÂÔ¬‘÷ ¬‘€ä ¥ ÛØȵõ Àõ‘ãµõ ‚bäÞ¹õ ×þ fB1 ; : : :; Bk g Âð .ù¤Ãð (1-10)

.´¨ üΡ ÛÖµÆõ fB1 ; : : : ; Bk g

ø ´“‘™ j ýÂ“ .À€µÆû ÂÔ¬ ‘û ci ‚bÞû ݃€î ´“‘™ Àþ‘“ ,c1 B1 +


+ ck Bk = 0 Àƒ€î ­Âê .–‘±™

:݃€îüõ ‚±¨‘½õ Bj ‘“ ¤ ‚Ф éÂÏ ø¢ üÜ¡¢ ’®۬‘Ÿ ,ù¿ó¢

c1 (B1
Bj ) +


+ (Bk
Bj ) = 0

‚Þû ‚î Âþ¥ ´¨ ÂÔ¬‘÷ Bj
Bj = jBj j2 –¤¬ ßþ ¤¢ ‚î i = j ‚î üµìø ÂÚõ Bi
Bj = 0 üóø
¤¢ j ö .cj = 0 ‚î Ýþ ƒðüõ ‚¹ƒµ÷ cj jBj j2 = 0 ‚bФ ¥ ŕ .À÷ùÀª ­Âê ÂÔ¬‘÷ B1 ; : : :; Bk
2 .À¨¤üõ –‘±™ ‚“ Ý؟ ,¢“ ù¿ó¢ 1; : : : ; k ߃“
‚bþ‘• ×þ , E üΡ ý‘ÌêÂþ¥ ýÂ“ ùÀª ù¢¢ ‚bþ‘• Âû ×Þî ‚“ ö—üõ ‚÷Ú ݃û¢üõ ö‘È÷ ö€î
:´¡‘¨ E ýÂ“ ¤‘¹€û ´¨¤

‚ î ´ ¨ Rn ¥ ýÀ 㠓 ‹ ‹k ü Î ¡ ý‘ Ì ê þ¥ × þ E À ƒ € î ­Â ê .´ ƒ Þ ª ‹ ‹ôÂ ð ©ø ¤ (2-10)

.Àª‘“üõ fA1 ; : : :; Akg üΡ ÛÖµÆõ ‚bäÞ¹õ ¥ t1 A1 +


+ tk Ak üΡ ý‘û°ƒî— ¥ ÛØȵõ

‚b þ‘ • × þ ´ Æ¿÷ ¤‘î ßþ ýÂ “ .Ý þ¥‘Æ“ E ýÂ “ fB1 ; : : :; Bk g ¤‘ ¹ € û ´¨¤ ‚b þ‘• ×þ Ý ƒû¡üõ
´¨¤ ‚b þ‘• ×þ , Bi = jB1 j Bi0 ö¢¢ ¤Âì ‘“ ų¨ ,Ýþ ¤øüõ ´¨¢‚“ E ýÂ“ fB10 ; : : :; Bk0 g Àõ‘ãµõ
0
i

.¢ªüõ Û¬‘Ÿ ¤‘¹€û

:݃€îüõ ÛÞä Âþ¥ –¤¬ ‚“ ô‘ð ‚“ ô‘ð , fB10 ; : : : ; Bk0 g ßµ¡‘¨ ýÂ“

2
 . 10 =
B A1 ݃û¢üõ ¤Âì (1

:݃€îüõ Ýî A2 ¥ ¤ B10 = A1 “ A2 ݎ‘ì ÂþÊ— ,B20 ßµ¡‘¨ ýÂ“ (2

0
2
B1 0
B20 = A2 , A
B0
B0 B1 (3)
1 1

A2
B20

B1 0

ùø…ä ‚“ .¢ªüõ ÂÔ¬ B10 ‘“ ´¨¤ éÂÏ üÜ¡¢ ’®۬‘Ÿ Âþ¥ B20 ? B10 ‚î Àƒ€î ‚›—
üΡ üڵƓø ‚b Ф ×þ , 1 =A B10 ‚î ßþ ‚“ ‚›— ‘“ ù‘Ú÷ ,B20 = 0 Âð ‚î Âþ¥ B20 6= 0
fA1 ; : : :; Ak g üΡ ñ…Öµ¨ ­Âê 酡 ‚î Àþüõ ÀþÀ• fA1 ; A2g ¤¢ A2 , BA21

BB11 A1
0

ø, 0 0

fB10 ; B20 g ,1-10 ùb¤Ãð “‘€“ ‚î ßþ ‚¹ƒµ÷ .´¨ ,ö ‚bäÞ¹õÂþ¥ Âû üΡ ñ…Öµ¨ ‚¹ƒµ÷ ¤¢
(3) Õ±Ï ø B10 = A1 ‚î Âþ¥ hB10 ; B20 i = hA1 ; A2 i ‚î Àƒ€î ‚›— ‘f€Þ® .´¨ üΡ ÛÖµÆõ

.¢Âî ‚ó¢‘±õ ¤ B20 ø A2 ÇÖ÷ ö—üõ

,j < k ,Àª‘“ ùÀõ ´¨¢‚“ fB10 ; : : :; Bj0 g Âð .¢¢ ‚õ¢ ©ø ¤ ßþ ‚“ ö—üõ üþÂÖµ¨ ¤Ï ‚“ (3

,hB10 ; : : :; Bj0 i = hA1 ; : : :; Aj i ‚î ý¤Ï ‚“ À÷¢Þä Ýû “ ø¢ ‚“ ø¢ ø ÂÔ¬‘÷ ö ¬‘€ä ‚î

:Ýþ¥‘¨üõ Âþ¥ ©ø ¤ ‚“ ¤ Bj0 +1
A
B0 A
B0
Bj0 +1 = Aj+1 , Bj+0 1
B0 1 B10 ,


, Bj+0 1
B0 j Bj0 (4)
1 1 j j

Àþ‘“ Û¬‘Ÿ .Ýþù¢Âî Ýî Aj+1 ¥ ¤ B10 ; : : :; Bj0 ח ח “ Aj+1 ݎ‘ì ÂþÊ— (4) ¤¢ âìø ¤¢
‘“ (4) ´¨¤ éÂÏ ø¢ üÜ¡¢ ’®۬‘Ÿ ‚±¨‘½õ ‘“ ၮõ ßþ ‚î Àª‘“ ¢Þä B10 ; : : : ; Bj0 “
­Âê Õ±Ï ‚î Âþ¥ Bj0 +1 6= 0 ‚î Àƒ€î ‚›— ߃€»Þû .¢ªüõ ùÀû‘Èõ , = i 1; : : :; j ,Bi0
3
ù¡„‘“ ø .´¨ üΡ ÛÖµÆõ fA1; : : :; Aj ; Aj 1 g ø ,hB10 ; : : :; Bj0 i = hA1 ; : : :; Aj i ÂÖµ¨
+

´¨ üΡ ÛÖµÆõ 1-10 Õ±Ï ,À÷ÂÔ¬‘÷ ©Â¬‘€ä ‚bÞû ‚î fB10 ; : : :; Bj0 1 g Àõ‘ãµõ ‚bäÞ¹õ
+

:hB10 ; : : :; Bj0 +1 i = hA1 ; : : :; Aj+1 i Ýþ ¤¢ 2 ô‘ð ‚“‘Èõ ñ„Àµ¨ ‘“ f¢À¹õ ø

¬‘€ä ¥ ‚î ݃“‘þüõ ´¨¢ fB10 ; : : :; Bk0 g ‚b äÞ¹õ ‚“ ô‘ð k ¤¢ ,©ø ¤ ‚b õ¢ ‘“ °ƒ—— ßþÀ“
ø ´¨ E À㓠“Â“ ¬‘€ä ¢À㗠ö .´¨ ùÀª ۃØȗ E ¤¢ ¢Þä Ýû “ ø¢ ‚“ ø¢ ÂÔ¬‘÷
2 .Ýþ‚µê‘þ ´¨¢ E ýÂ“ Àõ‘ãµõ ‚bþ‘• ×þ ‚“ ,´¨ üΡ ÛÖµÆõ 1-10 Õ±Ï ‚äÞ¹õ

A
, 1 = (0 ; 0; ,1; 1) ö ¤¢ ‚ î R4 ¤¢ fA1 ; A2 ; A3 g ‚ ä Þ ¹ õ ‚ î Ý ƒ € îü õ Õ ƒ Ö ½ — .ñ‘ · õ

À ƒ € î ­Â ê .´ ¨ ü Î ¡ Û Ö µ Æ õ ‚b ä Þ ¹ õ × þ A3 = ( 1; 1; 3; 0) ø ,A2 = ( 1; 0; 2; 0)
cA
ŕ , 1 1 + 2 2 + 3 3 =cA cA 0

(c2 + c3 ; c3 , c1 + 2c2 + 3c3 ; c1 ) = (0; 0; 0; 0)

üΡ ÛÖµÆõ fA1 ; A2 ; A3 g ŕ ,c2 = 0 ¢ªüõ ‚¹ƒµ÷ ‘ú€þ ¥ ‚î c1 = 0 ø c3 = 0 ‚î ßþ ‚¹ƒµ÷

‚›— . E = hA1 ; A2 ; A3 i ,Ýþ ƒðüõ A1 ; A2 ; A3 üΡ ý‘û°ƒî— ¥ ÛØȵõ ý‘ÌêÂþ¥ ¤ E .´¨
¤‘ î‚ “ ¤ ´ ƒ Þ ª ‹ ‹ôÂ ð ©ø ¤ . 1 A
A2 = ,2 6= 0 …f · õ ,´ Æ ƒ ÷ À õ‘ ã µ õ fA1 ; A2 ; A3 g ‚ î À ƒ € î
:Ýþ ƒðüõ

B10 = A1 = (0; 0; ,1; 1)

B2 = (1; 0; 2; 0) , ((01;0;0;,;21;0;1))
(
(00;0;0;,;,11;1;1)) (0; 0; ,1; 1) = (1; 0; 2; 0) + (0; 0; ,1; 1)
:ù¡„‘“ . 20 = (1
B ; 0; 1; 1) ‘þ
B30 = ( 1; 1; 3; 0) , ((01;0;1;,;31;0;1)
)(
0(0;0;0;,;,11;1;1)) (0; 0; ,1; 1) , ((11;;10;;31;;01))

((11;;00;;11;;11)) (1; 0; 1; 1)
= ( 1; 1; 3; 0) + 23 (0; 0; ,1; 1) , 43 (1; 0; 1; 1)
= (, 13 ; 1; 16 ; 16 )

4
‚ î ,´ ¨ E ýÂ “ À õ‘ ã µ õ ‚b þ‘ • × þ f(0; 0; ,1; 1); (1; 0; 1; 1); (, 13 ; 1; 16 ; 16 )g ‚b ä Þ ¹ õ Å •
¤¢ ¤ ‘û Bi0 ¥ ×þ Âû ,¤‘¹€û ´¨¤ ‚bþ‘• ×þ ßµê‘þ ýÂ“ .¢Âî Ճֽ— Ã÷ ‘fރֵÆõ ¤ °ÜÎõ ßþ ö—üõ
:݃€îüõ ’® ö ñÏ §Øãõ

B1 = (0; 0; , p12 ; p12 )

B2 = ( p13 ; 0; p13 ; p13 )
B3 = (, p242 ; p642 ; p142 ; p142 )
‚µêÂ𠤑 Ã÷ Ûõ‘î ‚bþ‘• ×þ ‚“ (¤‘¹€û ´¨¤ ‘þ) Àõ‘ãµõ ‚bäÞ¹õ ×þ ۃÞؗ ¤¢ ´ƒÞª ‹‹ôÂð ©ø¤

:¢ªüõ

´ ¨¤ ‚b ä Þ ¹ õ × þ fB1 ; : : :; Bk g À ƒ € î ­Â ê .‚ þ‘ • ‚ “ À õ‘ ã µ õ ‚b ä Þ ¹ õ Û ƒ Þ Ø — (3-10)

,2-10 ©ø ¤ ¥ ù¢‘ Ô µ ¨ ‘ “ ö —ü õ ‚ ÷ Ú  Ý ƒ û¢ü õ ö‘ È ÷ . k < n ‚ î À ª‘ “ E  ¬‘ € ä ¥ ¤‘ ¹ € û

ô‘Þ— ýÂ“ ¤‘¹€û ´¨¤ ‚b þ‘• ×þ fB1 ; : : :; Bng ‚î ý¤Ï ‚“ ,´ê‘þ Rn ¥ Bk 1 ; : : : ; Bn ¬‘€ä
+

©ø ¤ ‚ “ .´ Æ ƒ÷ hA1 ; : : :; Ak i ¤¢ ‚ î ¢ ªü õ ´ ê‘ þ Rn ¥ Ak +1 ýÂ Ê € ä , k < n ö  .À ª‘ “ Rn
‚î Ýþ ¤øüõ ´¨¢‚“ Bk0 +1 ýÂʀä ,B1 ; : : :; Bk “ Ak+1 ݎ‘ì ÂþÊ— ö¢Âî Ýî ‘“ ´ƒÞª ‹‹ôÂð
:´¨ üΡ ÛÖµÆõ ø Àõ‘ãµõ fB1 ; : : : ; Bk ; Bk0 g

Bk0 +1 = Ak+1 , (Ak+1
B1 )B1 ,


, (Ak+1
Bk )Bk

fB1 ; : : :; Bk ; Bk 1 g ‚ ä Þ ¹ õ × þ ,Bk 0
jBk+1 j Bk+1
‚ î ¢ ªü õ Û ¬‘ Ÿ =
1 ÓþÂ㗠‘“ ų¨
+ +1 0

 ð .(¤‘ ¹ € û ´ ¨¤ ‚b ä Þ ¹ õ × þ ü € ã þ) À ÷¢ Þ ä Ý û  “ ø¢ ‚ “ ø¢ ø À ÷¤¢ À Ÿø ñ Ï ö  ¬‘ € ä

‚b þ‘• ×þ ¢¡ ,¢¤¢ Ìä Rn À㓠“Â“ ý¢À㗠‚“ üΡ ÛÖµÆõ ‚äÞ¹õ ßþ ö ‚î k + 1 = n
Rn ¤¢ Ak +2 k
ýÂ Ê € ä , + 1 < n  ð .Rn = hB1 ; : : :; Bk+1 i ,¢ ªü õ Rn ýÂ “ ¤‘ ¹ € û ´ ¨¤
‚î Ýþ¥‘¨üõ Bk+2 ýÂʀä ,Ak+2 ¥ ,„‘“ ©ø ¤ ‚“ .´Æƒ÷ hB1 ; : : :; Bk 1 i ¤¢ ‚î ¢ªüõ ´ê‘þ
+

5
´¨¤ ‚äÞ¹õ ×þ ‚“ ݃û¢ ô‘¹÷ ¤‘“ ( n , k) ¤ ÛÞä ßþ Âð .´¨ ¤‘¹€û ´¨¤ fB1 ; : : :; Bk 2 g
+

.¢“ Àû¡ Rn ýÂ“ ‚þ‘• ×þ ßþÂ“‘€“ ‚î ݃¨¤üõ fB1 ; : : : ; Bng ýÌä n ¤‘¹€û

݃õ‘÷üõ Rn ¤¢ ‚½Ô¬Â“ ×þ ¤ Rn ¥ E ýµÆõ ý‘ÌêÂþ¥ .‘û‘ÌêÂþ¥ ‚bó¢‘ãõ ¤¢ ¢Â“¤‘î (4-10)

ý‘û‚½Ô¬Â“ ,À€µÆû R ¯‘Ö÷ ,R ý‘û‚½Ô¬Â“ °ƒ—— ßþÀ“ .Àª‘“ (n , 1) “Â“ E À㓠‚î ü—¤¬ ¤¢
‚b ½Ô¬Â“ ×þ ñ‘Ÿ .À€ª‘“üõ R3 ¤¢ âìø –‘½Ô¬ ,R3 ý‘û‚½Ô¬Â“ ø ,R2 ¤¢ ´¨¤ ¯Î¡ ,R2
À õ‘ ã µ õ ‚b þ‘ • × þ E 0 ýÂ “ ö —ü õ ,À ª‘ “ 0 ‚ “ E ‚b µ ê‘ þñ‘ Ö µ ÷ E 0  ð .À þ  ƒ Ú “ Â Ñ ÷ ¤¢ Rn ¥ E
,C 6= 0 ,C ýÂʀä ,3-10 ¥ ù¢‘Ôµ¨ ‘“ .´êÂð ÂÑ÷ ¤¢ ´ƒÞª ‹‹ôÂð ©ø ¤ Õ±Ï fB1 ; : : :; Bn,1 g
Àõ‘ãµõ ‚b þ‘• ×þ fB1 ; : : :; Bn,1 ; C g ‚¹ƒµ÷ ¤¢ ø ´¨ ¢Þä B1 ; : : :; Bn,1 “ ‚î ¢¤¢ ¢›ø Rn ¤¢
´¨ ßþ Àª‘“ E 0 ¤¢ Rn ¥ x ÂÊ€ä ‚î ßþ ýÂ“ üê‘î ø ô¥„ üϪ ‚î Àƒ€î ‚›— .Àª‘“üõ Rn ýÂ“
:‚î

C
x = 0 (5)

Âð ŕ , cn = 0 ‚î À€µÆû üþ‘û x ö ‘f Öƒì¢ E0 ¬‘€ä ,x = Pni=,11 ciBi + cnC ݃Æþ€“ Â𐠐Âþ¥
Ýþ ¤¢ ,C
x = 0 Âð ÅØãó‘“ Bn
x = Pin=,11 ci(B1
Bn ) = 0 ù‘Ú÷ ,x 2 E

0 =C
x=
X c (C
B ) + c (C
C ) = c
n,1
i i n n
i=1

‚ î ´ ¨ ùÀ ª Ó ƒ ¬ — E = hp; B1 ; : : :; Bn,1 i Û Ø ª ‚ “ E ‚ ½ Ô ¬Â “ À ƒ € î ­Â ê ñ‘ Ÿ
 𐠑 ú € — ø  𐠴 ¨ E ¤¢ x = (x1 ; : : :; xn) ‚b Î Ö ÷ .´ ¨ E ¤¢ ý‚ Î Ö ÷ p = (p1 ; : : :; pn)
‚î ´¨ ßþ x 2 E ýÂ“ üê‘î ø ô¥„ üϪ ŕ ,x , p 2 E 0

(x , p)
C = 0 (6)

6
 ‘“ ´¨ ñ¢‘ãõ (6) ,݃û¢ Çþ‘Þ÷ ( 1 C ; : : : ; Cn) ‚“ ¤ C üþ‘— n Âð

C1 (x1 , p1 ) +


+ Cn(xn , pn ) = 0 (7)

‚½Ô¬ ø ‚½Ô¬ ¤¢ Í¡ ñøÀµõ Çþ‘Þ÷ .À€õ‘÷üõ C “ ¢Þä p ¥ ¤Áð ‚

b ½Ô¬Â“ ‚bó¢‘ãõ ¤ ‚Ф ßþ

.À€µÆû (7) «‘¡ ý‘û´ó‘Ÿ ýÀ㓠‚¨ ý‘Ìê ¤¢

ý‘ÌêÂþ¥ ×þ E Âð .¢¢ ݃Þ㗠( n , 1) ¥ Âƒè ¢‘㓐 ýµÆõ ý‘û‘ÌêÂþ¥ ‚“ ö—üõ ¤ (7)
À õ‘ ã µ õ ‚b þ‘• × þ fB1 ; : : :; Bk i ö ¤¢ ‚ î À ª‘ “ E = hp; B1 ; : : :; Bk i Û Ø ª ‚ “ ýÀ 㠓 ‹‹k ý µ Æ õ
Àõ‘ãµõ ý‚þ‘• ‚“ ¤ fB1 ; : : : ; Bk g ,(3-10) ©ø ¤ Õ±Ï ,´¨ ,E 0 ,bÀ±õ ‚“ E ‚b µê‘þñ‘Öµ÷ ýÂ“
‘û‚½Ô¬Â“ ýÂ“ ‚»÷ ‚“‘Èõ üó„Àµ¨ ‘“ .݃€îüõ ۃÞؗ Rn ýÂ“ fB1 ; : : :; Bk ; Bk 1 ; : : :; Bng
+

Bk+1 ; : : :; Bn “ x , p ‚î ¢“ Àû¡ ßþ Àª‘“ E ¤¢ x ‚bÎÖ÷ ‚î ßþ ýÂ“ üê‘î ø ô¥„ üϪ ,Àõ
:À€€îüõ ëÀ¬ Âþ¥ ‚Ф ( n , k) ¤¢ ‚î ´¨ üϑÖ÷ ‚bäÞ¹õ E ŕ .Àª‘“ ¢Þä

Bk+1
(x , p) = 0; : : :; Bn
(x , p) = 0 (8)

x1 x2 ,1 x3 +1 x4 ´ ¨¤ Í ¡ ¥ ¤ (1; ,1; 0; 2) ‚ Î Ö ÷ ‚ Ü ¬‘ ê R4 ¤¢ Ý ƒ û ¡ü õ .ñ‘· õ

2 = 1 = ,1 = 3 b b

ýø ¤ ¯‘Ö÷ ‚“ ùÀª ù¢¢ ‚bÎÖ÷ ¥ ßØÞõ ‚bܬ‘ê ßþ µû‘—î ,Í¡ ¥ ‚ÎÖ÷ ‚bܬ‘ê ¥ ¢ÊÖõ .݃€î ‚±¨‘½õ

ŕ ,(?Â) ¢¤À÷ ¤Âì ùÀª ù¢¢ Í¡ ýø ¤ ,(1 ; ,1; 0; 2) ,ùÀª ù¢¢ ‚bÎÖ÷ ‚î Àƒ€î ‚›— .´¨ Í¡

ý¢‘ä ‚b ¨À€û ñø ¤ ‚“ ö—üõ ø À÷ƒðüõ ¤Âì ¢Âê ‚“ Âʽ€õ ýµÆõ ‚½Ô¬ ×þ ýø ¤ ‚ÎÖ÷ ø Í¡

°ÜÎõ ßþ ¥ ֵ݃Æõ ü—‘±™) Àþüõ ´¨¢‚“ Í¡ “ ‚ÎÖ÷ ¥ ¢Þä ݨ¤ ‘“ ‚ܬ‘ê ßþ µû‘—î ¢Âî ­Âê

ù¢¢ Í¡ ‚“ (1 ; ,1; 0; 2) ¥ ¢Þä ý‘• ßµê‘þ ýÂ“ °ÜÎõ ßþ ­Âê ‘“ .(´¨ ùÀõ Âþ¥ ßþÂޗ ¤¢

¤ ö íÂµª ø ݃Æþ÷üõ ¤ (2 ; 1; ,1; 3) “ ¢Þä (1; ,1; 0; 2) ¥ ¤Áð ‚b ½Ô¬Â“ ‚b ó¢‘ãõ ,ùÀª
‚ó¢‘ãõ ,(7) Õ±Ï .´¨ (1 ; ,1; 0; 2) ‚“ Í¡ ‚b ÎÖ÷ ßþ µØþ¢Ã÷ âϑ֗ ‚b ÎÖ÷ .݃€îüõ Àƒ• Í¡ ‘“

7
 :´Æû ÂÑ÷ ¢¤õ ‚½Ô¬Â“

2(x1 , 1) + (x2 + 1) , x3 + 3(x4 , 2) = 0

x x x ,1 x3 +1 = x4 ¥ ü€þÃÚþ‘› ‘“ ñ‘Ÿ
:Ýþ ¤¢ 1 °ÆŸÂ“ „‘“ ‚bФ ¤¢ 21 = 21 = , 1 3

2(x1 , 1) + ( x21 + 2) + ( 21 + 1) + 3( 2 x1 , 2) = 0
x 3

x1 = 23

( 1; ,1; 0; 2) ‚“ Í¡ ‚ÎÖ÷ ßþ µØþ¢Ã÷ ( 23 ; 43 ; , 43 ; 1) ‚b ÎÖ÷ ø ,x4 = 1 ø x3 = , 34 ,x2 = 4

3 ŕ

:´¨ Âþ¥ ¤ÀÖõ “Â“ ©‚ܬ‘ê ‚î Àª‘“üõ

s
( 1 , 2 )2 + (,1 , 4 )2 + ( 4 )2 + (2 , 1)2 = p5
3 3 3 3

,a = ( a1 ; : : :; an) ,´ ¨ A –¥ õ ‚ “ a ¥ ¤Á ð Í ¡ l ,Rn ¤¢ À ƒ € î ­Â ê .ß þ Â Þ —

‚ Î Ö ÷ ý¥‚ “ À ƒ û¢ ö‘ È ÷ .´ ¨ Rn ¤¢ ‚ Î Ö ÷ × þ p = (p1 ; : : :; pn) ø 0 6= A = (A1 ; : : :; An)

ü€ãþ) q = a + (p,A
aA)
A A âìø ¤¢ ø ¢ªüõ Û¬‘Ÿ p ‚“ ‚ܬ‘ê ßþ µØþ¢Ã÷ l ýø ¤ q ý¢Âê ‚“ Âʽ€õ
.(Àƒ¨¤ q ‚bÎÖ÷ ‚“ ‘— ¢Âî À› A ýø ¤ (p , a) ݎ‘ì ÂþÊ— ùb¥À÷ ‚“ Àþ‘“ l ýø ¤ a ‚bÎÖ÷ ¥

a + tA ‚bÎÖ÷ ¥ p ‚bܬ‘ê ¤øÁ¹õ ø Àþ ƒړ ÂÑ÷ ¤¢ ¤ ,xi = ai + tAi ,l Í¡ ýµõ¤‘• ‚bó¢‘ãõ .üþ‘Þ€û¤
t
‚“ ‚›— ‘“ ‚î ¢“ Àû¡ °ÆŸÂ“ 2 ‚›¤¢ –¤‘±ä ×þ ,ùÀõ ´¨¢‚“ –¤‘±ä .ÀƒÆþ€“ t °ÆŸÂ“ ¤
.¢Âî ‚±¨‘½õ ö ¥ ¤ ’ÜÎõ t ö—üõ üÞú¨ ôÞƒ€ƒõ ‚bÎÖ÷

8
 (1) üΡ ý‘û´ª‘Ú÷

ø Óþ¢¤ m ‘“ ,n ¤¢ m °ó‘ì ×þ ¤¢ ¤ ,j = 1; : : :; n ,i = 1; : : :; m ,aij üփ֟ ¢Àä m  n üµìø

:¢ªüõ Óþ Â㗠(üփ֟) m  n Åþ —‘õ ×þ ,݃Æþ€“ Âþ¥ Ûت ‚“ öµ¨ n
2 3
a11 : : : a1n
6 .. .. 7
4 . . 5
am1 amn
Óþ¢¤ ¤¢ ‚î ´¨ ý‚þ¤¢ aij ¥ ¢ÊÖõ .À€õ‘÷üõ Åþ —‘õ ý‘û‚þ¤¢ ¤ Åþ —‘õ ¤¢ š¤À€õ ¢Àä

[aij ]i=1;:::;m j =1;:::;n µÜõ‘î ¤Ï ‚“ ‘þ ,[aij] –¤¬ ‚“ ¤ A –‘ìø üû‘ð .¢¤¢ ¤Âì ô j öµ¨ ø ô i
.݃Æþ÷üõ

–‘ƒÜÞä À€÷‘Þû ,üփ֟ ¢Àä ¤¢ ’® ÛÞä ø ,âޛ ÛÞä ö—üõ ù¥À÷ Ýû ý‘ûÅþ —‘õ ýÂ“

,À€ª‘“ m  n Åþ —‘õ ø¢ B = [bij ] ø A = [aij ] Âð .¢Âî Óþ Â㗠¤ (‘û¤¢Â“) ‘ûüþ‘— n ýÂ“ ‚“‘Èõ
ñõÂê ‘“ A + B = [cij ] ,Åþ —‘õ ø¢ áÞ¹õ

cij = aij + bij (1)

:´¨ ´¨¤ ¨ Óþ Â㗠¥ Âþ¥ «¡ ´½¬ Ճֽ— .¢ªüõ Óþ Âã—

‘ûÅþ —‘õ âޛ üþÀµ“ «¡ (1-11)

Ý þ ¤¢ ,À € ª‘ “ m  n Å þ  —‘ õ ø¢ B ø A  ð .(ü þ‘ ¹ “‘ ›) ý þÁ •Ë þ 㠗 (1-1-11)

1
 .A + B = B+A

A + (B + C ) = Ý þ ¤¢ ,À € ª‘ “ m  n ý‘ ûÅ þ  —‘ õ C ø B ,A  ð .ý þÁ •´ î ª (2-1-11)

.(A + B ) + C

Çþ‘Þ÷ O ‚“ ø ´¨ ÂÔ¬ ö ý‘û‚þ¤¢ ‚b Þû ‚î m  n ÂÔ¬ Åþ —‘õ .™ü“ Âʀä (3-1-11)

Ý þ ¤¢ ,A ,m  n Å þ  —‘ õ  û ýÂ “ ‚ î ´ ¨ ü ðÄ þø ß þ ý¤¢ (m  n Å þ  —‘ õ ‚ ÷‘ Ú þ) Ý ƒ û¢ü õ

.A + O = O+A=A

¢ªüõ Óþ Â㗠bij = ,aij ‘“ ‚î ,A = [bij ] Åþ —‘õ ,A = [aij ] ýÂ“ .‚€þ Âì Âʀä (4-1-11)

.A + ( ,A) = (,A) + A = O ‚î ´¨ üðÄþø ßþ ý¤¢ (Åþ —‘õ ‚÷‘Úþ)

bij = raij ñõÂê ‘“ rA = [bij ] Åþ —‘õ ,r 2 R ø Àª‘“ m  n Åþ —‘õ ×þ A = [aij ] Âð ñ‘Ÿ
´¨¤ ¨ Ã÷ Âþ¥ «¡ Ճֽ— .À÷ªüõ ’® r ¢Àä ¤¢ A ý‘û‚þ¤¢ ‚b Þû ü€ãþ ,¢ªüõ Óþ Âã—
:´¨

‘ûÅþ —‘õ ¤¢ ¢Àä ’® üþÀµ“ «¡ (2-11)

.A Åþ —‘õ Âû ýÂ“ 1
A = A (1-2-11)

.r; s üփ֟ ¢Àä šø ¥ Âû ø A Åþ —‘õ Âû ýÂ“ (rs)A = r(sA) (2-2-11)

.r; s üփ֟ ¢Àä šø ¥ Âû ø A Åþ —‘õ Âû ýÂ“ (r + s)A = rA + sA (3-2-11)

.B ø A ùb¥À÷ Ýû Åþ —‘õ ø¢ Âû ø r üփ֟ ¢Àä Âû ýÂ“ r(A + B) = rA + rB (4-2-11)

¼ƒ®— ‚î °¨‘€õ ý‘ûù¥À÷ ý‘ûÅþ —‘õ ߃“‘õ Ã÷ ‘ûÅþ —‘õ ’® ôúÔõ ,„‘“ –‘ƒÜÞä “ ùø…ä

2
n  p Åþ —‘õ ×þ B = [bij ] ø m  n Åþ —‘õ ×þ A = [aij ] Âð .¢ªüõ Óþ Â㗠,Àª Àû¡ ù¢¢

:¢ªüõ Óþ Â㗠Âþ¥ –¤¬ ‚“ ,AB = [cij ] ,’®۬‘Ÿ Åþ —‘õ ,Àª‘“

cij = ai1 b1j + ai2 b2j +


+ ain bnj (2)

B ý‘ûÓþ¢¤ ¢À㗠“Â“ A ý‘ûöµ¨ ¢À㗠‚î ´¨ ßþ ’®۬‘Ÿ Óþ Â㗠‚b õ¥„ ‚î Àƒ€î ‚›—
Åþ —‘õ ô i Óþ¢¤ üÜ¡¢ ’®۬‘Ÿ ¤ cij ö—üõ âìø ¤¢ ø ¢¤¢ ü€ãõ (2) –¤‘±ä ßþÂ“‘€“ ,Àª‘“
.¢Âî üÖܗ (bj 1 ; : : :; bnj ) üþ‘— n ö€ä ‚“ ,B Åþ —‘õ ô j öµ¨ ‘“ (ai1 ; : : :; ain) üþ‘— n ö€ä ‚“ A
.¢Âî ݃û¡ ü¨¤ “ ùÀ€þ ‚bÆܛ ¤¢ ¤ Óþ Â㗠ßþ ùbÃÚ÷

‘ûÅþ —‘õ ’® üþÀµ“ «¡ (3-11)

p  q ø n  p ,m  n °ƒ—— ‚“ ùb¥À÷ ý¤¢ ý‘ûÅþ—‘õ C ø B ,A .ýÂþÁ•´îª (1-3-11)

:–¤¬ ßþ ¤¢ .À€µÆû

(AB )C = A(BC )

Ýþ ¤¢ .üÈ¿• ö÷‘ì (2-3-11)

(A + B )C = (AC ) + (AB ) ; A(B + C ) = (AB) + (AC )

.Àª‘“ °¨‘€õ ùÀª Âî£ –‘ƒÜÞä ýÂ“ ëê ý‘ûÅþ —‘õ ùb¥À÷ ‚î ßþ “ ¯ø ÂÈõ

:‚î ¢ªüõ Óþ Â㗠–¤¬ ßþÀ“ In = [ij ] ,n  n ÀŸø Åþ —‘õ (3-3-11)

(
ij = 1 i=j
6 j
0 i=

3
 :Ýþ ¤¢ ,B ,n  p Åþ —‘õ Âû ø ,A ,m  n Åþ —‘õ Âû ýÂ“

A
In = A ; In
B = B

¤Á ðø ùÀ € ÷ ¡ ‚ “ ‘ ú ÷ Õ ƒ Ö ½ — ø À ÷ —ù¢‘ ¨ Â Ú þ¢ ý‘ —ø¢ ,Ý ƒ € îü õ ‚ Ž¤ ¤ (1-3-11) –‘ ± ™

,BC = [eij ] ,AB = [dij ] ,C = [cij ] ,B = [bij ] ,A = [aij ] ÀƒÆþ€“ (1-3-11) ýÂ“ .¢ªüõ

:݃€îüõ ÛÞä ‘ûÅþ —‘õ ’®۬‘Ÿ Óþ Âã— Õ±Ï .A(BC ) = [yij ] ø (AB )C = [xij ]

p
X
xij = = dik ckj
i=1
X p X n
= ( ail blk )ckj
k=1 l=1
X p Xn
= ail blk ckj
k=1 l=1
Xn X p
= ail ( blk ckj )
l=1 k=1
Xn
= ail elj
l=1
= yij
.À¨¤üõ –‘±™ ‚“ Ý؟ ø

Àª‘“ ü÷Àª ÓþÂ㗠Ã÷ BA ¢¤À÷ üõø Ãó ,Àª‘“ ùÀª ÓþÂ㗠AB Âð ‚î ´¨ Âî£ Û“‘ì ‘¹€þ ¤¢
ßþ ø ,Àª‘“ B ý‘ûÓþ¢¤ ¢À㗠“Â“ A ý‘ûöµ¨ ¢À㗠‚î ´¨ ßþ ôÃܵÆõ AB Óþ Â㗠‚î Âþ¥
ø¢ Âû BA ø AB Âð üµŸ .À€îüÞ÷ A ý‘ûÓþ¢¤ ¢À㗠‘“ B ý‘ûöµ¨ ¢À㗠ý“Â“ ¢¤õ ¤¢ üÞ؟
×þ B ø 1  n Åþ —‘õ ×þ A Â𐠅f ·õ ,À€ª‘“ ù¥À÷ ×þ ø¢ Âû ¢¤À÷ üõø Ãó ,À€ª‘“ ü÷ÀªÓþÂã—

4
 ,n > 1 ,À€ª‘“ n  1 Åþ —‘õ
2 3
b1
B = 64 ... 75
A = [a1 : : : an] ;
bn
P
´¨ n  n Åþ —‘õ ×þ BA ‚î üó‘Ÿ ¤¢ ,¢ªüõ ni=1 ai bi ‚bþ¤¢ ח ‘“ ,1  1 Åþ —‘õ ×þ AB

,n  2 ‘“ ,n  n ø¢ Âû B ø A Âð üµŸ .bjai ¥ ´¨ –¤‘±ä ö ô j öµ¨ ø ô i Óþ¢¤ ‚b þ¤¢ ‚î

f ·õ ,´Æƒ÷
:… BA ø AB ýø‘Æ— “ üõø Ãó ,À€ª‘“
" #" # " # " #" # " #
1 1 0 0 =
1 1 ; 0 0 1 1 =
0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
AIn = In A ‚ î ¢ ªü õ ‚ ¹ ƒ µ ÷ 3-3-11 ¥ ,A ,n  n Å þ  —‘ õ  û ø In Å þ  —‘ õ ¢¤ õ ¤¢ ‚ µ ± ó
.(A =)

ßØÞõ Çþ‘Þ÷ ‚¨ ö€î ,x = (x1 ; : : :; xn ) …

f ·õ ,¢Àä ¥ °—Âõ üþ‘— ‹‹n ×þ ýÂ“ ‚î Àƒ€î ‚›—

,1  n Å þ  —‘ õ × þ –¤ ¬ ‚ “ Â Ú þ¢ ,¢¤¢ ý¤¢Â “ Ý Æ ¹ — „f Þ ã õ ‚ î „‘ “ –¤ ¬ ‚ “ ü Ø þ ,Ý þ¤¢

2
x1 3
6 . 7
‚ ¨ ß þ ß ƒ “ ‚ î ´ ¨ ô¥„ ° Ü è : 4 .. 5 ,n  1 Å þ  —‘ õ × þ –¤ ¬ ‚ “ ù ¡„‘ “ ø [x1 : : : xn ]
xn
ü þ‘ — n ù‘ ð û ,¤ Ñ € õ ß þ ýÂ “ .¢ È ÷ Û ¬‘ Ÿ –‘ ƒ Ü Þ ä ¤¢ ü õ‘ ú “ ‘ — Ý þ ª Û Ž‘ ì à þ‘ Þ — Ç þ‘ Þ ÷

‚“ ù‘ðÂû ø ,݃û¢üõ Çþ‘Þ÷ hxj ‚“ ¤ ö ,¢ª ‚µª÷ 1  n Åþ —‘õ ×þ –¤¬ ‚“ x = (x1 ; : : :; xn)
.݃û¢üõ Çþ‘Þ÷ jxi ‚“ ¤ ö ,¢ª ù¢¢ Çþ‘Þ÷ n  1 Åþ —‘õ ×þ –¤¬
.Ýþ¥¢Â•üõ ´¨ \üΡ ý‘û´ª‘Ú÷" ‚î §¤¢ üܬ ၮõ ‚“ ,‘ûÅþ —‘õ ¢¤õ ¤¢ ‚õÀÖõ ßþ ‘“

f õ‘î –¤¬ ‚“ ‘¹€þ ¤¢ \ÛþÀ±—" ø \´ª‘Ú÷" ,\ⓑ—" –‘ÞÜî

‚“ ‚î À€ Âû ´ê¤ À€û¡ ¤‘î‚“ 颐µõ …

,À€ª‘“ ‚äÞ¹õ ø¢ T ø S Âð .¢ªüõ ‘Öó –‘ÞÜî ßþ ¥ ü—ø‘Ôµõ ü€û£ Âþø‘Ê— üû‘ð ü¿þ¤‘— à‘½ó

Âʀä ,S ¥ s Âʀä Âû ‚“ ‚î ´¨ f ü÷÷‘ì ,T ‚“ S ¥ (ÛþÀ±— = ,´ª‘Ú÷ =) ⓑ— ×þ ¥ ¢ÊÖõ

f Þãõ \ⓑ—" ‚b ÞÜî ‚µªÁ𠤢 .f :

üµìø „ S ,! T ݃Æþ÷üõ .Àû¢üõ ´±Æ÷ T ¥ f (s) üÊ¿Èõ
‚äÞ¹õ ×þ ¥ ý‘ûⓑ— ü€ãþ ,S = T ´ó‘Ÿ ¤¢ \ÛþÀ±—" ,Àª‘“ C ‘þ R “Â“ T ‚î ´¨ ‚µê¤üõ ¤‘î‚“
5
߃€ ‘õ .´¨ ‚µê¤üõ ¤‘î‚“ ,1 ¥ µð¤ Ó m; n ,Rn ,! Rm ý‘ûⓑ— ýÂ“ \´ª‘Ú÷" ø ,ö ¢¡ ‚“
¤ T ‚bäÞ¹õ ø ,(ø ÂÞÜì =) ‚€õ¢ ¤ S ‚bäÞ¹õ ,f : S ,! T ⓑ— ýÂ“ .ÝþªüÞ÷ Ûþ‘ì üþ‘ûÃþ‘Þ—

f ´½— S ÂþÊ— ‘þ ,f ÂþÊ— ,´¨ T ‚bäÞ¹õÂþ¥ ×þ ‚î ff (s) j s 2 S g ‚äÞ¹õ .݃õ‘÷üõ ¢Â“e

ù¢¢ Çþ‘Þ÷ f (E ) ‚“ ‚î ,f ´½— E ÂþÊ— ,S ¥ E ‚b äÞ¹õÂþ¥ Âû ýÂ“ âìø ¤¢ .¢ªüõ ùÀ÷¡

:–¤¬ ‚“ ¢ªüõ

f (E ) = ff (s) j s 2 E g

Àû¢ ‚¹ƒµ÷ ù¤Þû f (s1 ) = f (s2 ) ‚î ü—¤¬ ¤¢ ݃õ‘÷üõ ×þ ‚“ ×þ ¤ f ⓑ— .¢ªüõ Óþ Âã—

ü㓑— ,f : S ,! T ,‘ª• ø ×þ ‚“ ×þ ý‘ûⓑ— ýÂ“ .f (S ) = T Âð ݃õ‘÷üõ ‘ª• f ø ,s1 = s2

.݃û¢üõ Çþ‘Þ÷ f ,1 : T ,! S ‚“ ‚î ¢ªüõ Óþ Â㗠Âþ¥ –¤¬ ‚“ (f §Øãõ ‘þ) f öø ¤ø ô‘÷ ‚“

×þ ‚“ ×þ f ö ùø…ä ‚“ .f (s) = t ‚î ¢¤¢ ¢›ø S ¥ s ýÂʀä ,´¨ ‘ª• f ö ,t 2 T ù‘ðÂû
ü÷÷‘ì –¤¬ ‚“ f ,1 ŕ ,¢ªüõ ߃ƒã— ¢Âê ‚“ Âʽ€õ ¤Ï ‚“ s Âʀä ߃€ ,´¨ ùÀª ­Âê
:Ýþ ¤¢ ø ´¨ ü÷Àª Óþ Â㗠f ,1 (t) = s ô‘ú“ü“

f  f ,1 = 1T ; f ,1  f = 1S

.x 2 X Âû ýÂ“ 1X (x) = x ,´¨ X ‚bäÞ¹õ ü÷‘Þû ⓑ— 1X ¥ ¢ÊÖõ ‚î

‚b äÞ¹õ f ,1 (t) ¥ ¢ÊÖõ .¢ø ¤üõ ¤‘î‚“ Ã÷ Àª‘±÷ ü÷Àª Óþ Â㗠f ,1 üµìø üµŸ f ,1 (t) ¢‘Þ÷
:ü€ãþ ,À÷ªüõ (‚µª‘Ú÷ =) ù¢‘µ¨Âê t ‚“ f ´½— ‚î ´¨ S ¯‘Ö÷

f ,1 (t) = fs 2 S j f (s) = tg

,Àª‘“ T ¥ ý‚äÞ¹õÂþ¥ Y Âð ,üÜî ¤Ï ‚“ .݃÷¡üõ t ‚“ ’Æ€õ ¥Â— ‚bäÞ¹õ üû‘𠐤 f ,1 (t)
:¢ªüõ Óþ Â㗠–¤¬ ßþÀ“ ‚î ´¨ S ‚bäÞ¹õÂþ¥ ×þ (Y öø ¤ø ÂþÊ—) f ,1 (Y ) ‚bäÞ¹õÂþ¥

f ,1 (Y ) = fs 2 S j f (s) 2 Y g
6
,f : S ,! Rm ý‘ûⓑ— ,—üÜî ¤Ï ‚“ ‘þ) f : Rn ,! Rm ý‘ûⓑ— ü¨¤ “ ‘õ §¤¢ üܬ ၮõ
üþ‘— m ×þ ,‚€õ¢ ¤¢ üփ֟ ¢Àä ¥ °—Âõ üþ‘— n Âû ‚“ f ⓑ— ߃€ °ƒ—— ßþÀ“ .´¨ (S  Rn
:Àû¢üõ ´±Æ÷ üփ֟ ¢Àä ¥ °—Âõ

f (x1 ; : : :; xn) = (y1 ; : : :; ym ) (3)

¥ ×þ Âû ,f1 ; : : :; fm ⓑ— m ‚Ž¤ À€÷‘Þû f ‚Ž¤ âìø ¤¢ ŕ ,´¨ (x1 ; : : :; xn) ‚“ ‚µÆ“ø yi Âû
:݃Æþ÷üõ Ã÷ Âþ¥ –¤¬ ‚“ ¤ (3) .i = 1; : : :; m ,fi (x1 ; : : :; xn) = yi ,´¨ R ‚“ Rn
8
>
>
>
f1 (x1 ; : : :; xn ) = y1
>
<
>
::: (4)
>
>
>
:
fm(x1 ; : : :; xn) = ym
.݃õ‘÷üõ f ‚Ôóbõ ×þ ¤ fi Âû ø f = (f1 ; : : :; fm) ݃Æþ÷üõ üû‘ð
×þ fi (x1 ; : : :; xn)  û ‚ î ü —¤ ¬ ¤¢ Ý ƒ õ‘ ÷ü õ ü Î ¡ ¤ (4) ‘þ (3) ¤¢ f : Rn ,! Rm ⠓‘ —
:ü€ãþ ,Àª‘“ x1 ; : : :; xn ‚“ ´±Æ÷ ñø ‚›¤¢ ßÚÞû –¤‘±ä
8
>
>
>
y1 = a11 x1 + a12 x2 +


+ a1n xn
>
<
>
::: ::: (5)
>
>
>
:
ym = am1 x1 + am2 x2 +


+ amn xn
‚›¤¢ ¥ ‚Þû ‘¹€þ ¤¢ ,À÷‚›¤¢ ×þ ¥ ´¨¤ ´Þ¨ –…Þ› ‚b Þû ‚î ´¨ ßþ \ßÚÞû" ¥ ¢ÊÖõ

ø Ýþ ƒړ ÂÑ÷ ¤¢ 1 ‚›¤¢ ÍÖê ¤ ´¨¤ ´Þ¨ –¤‘±ä Âû Âð .¢¤À÷ ¢›ø ´“‘™ ‚b Üޛ É¡„‘“ ,1

‚÷ð ßþ .¢ª ù¢ø Ãê ‚Üޛ Âû ‚“ ´¨ ßØÞõ Ã÷ ´“‘™ ¢Àä ×þ ,݃€î éÁŸ ¤ ßÚÞû ´þ¢øÀ½õ

:݃õ‘÷üõ ýµÆõ ¤ ‘ûⓑ—

8
>
>
>
y1 = a10 + a11 x1 +


+ a1n xn
>
<
>
::: ::: (6)
>
>
>
:
ym = am0 + am1 x1 +


+ amn xn
7
ø Àþüõ ´¨¢‚“ (a10 ; : : :; am0 ) ´“‘™ üþ‘— ‹‹m ‘“ (5) ⓑ— ¤ÀÖõ ñ‘Öµ÷ ¥ (6) ýµÆõ ⓑ— ¤ÀÖõ

.´Æƒ÷ ýµÆõ ý‘ûⓑ— ‚b÷‘ðÀ› ü¨¤ “ ‚“ ý¥‘ƒ÷

ñ‘·õ À€ (4-11)

¢Àä ×þ m 2 R ö ¤¢ ‚î ´¨ f (x) = mx Ûت ‚“ f : R ,! R üΡ ⓑ— Âû (1-4-11)

üփ֟ ¢Àä b ø m ,g(x) = mx + b Ûت ‚“ g : R ,! R ýµÆõ ý‘ûⓑ— .´¨ ùÀª ù¢¢ üփ֟

.À€ª‘“üõ ,ùÀª ù¢¢

݃€îüõ Óþ Â㗠Âþ¥ –¤¬ ‚“ ¤ f : R2 ,! R2 (2-4-11)

f (x1 ; x2 ) = (2x1 ; 12 x2 )

ßþ ¢ÂØÜÞä .´¨ üΡ f ŕ ,À€µÆû (x1 ; x2 ) ‚“ ´±Æ÷ ßÚÞû 1 ‚›¤¢ 12 x2 ø 2x1 –¤‘±ä ø¢ Âû
ö ‚b ܬ‘ê ø Àû¢üõ ÇþÃê Â“Â“ ø¢ ‚“ x2 ¤½õ ¥ ¤ ‚ÎÖ÷ Âû ‚ܬ‘ê ‚î ´¨ –¤¬ ßþÀ“ ⓑ—

‘“ ¯‘Ʊ÷) ¢ªüõ ‚µª‘Ú÷ ö ¢¡ ‚“ 2 Å÷‘¹— °þ ® ‘“ x1 ¤½õ .À€îüõ ÓÊ÷ ¤ x1 ¤½õ ¥

2 Å÷‘¹— °þ ® ‘“ x2 ¤½õ ø ,(2 °þ ®

(1 Ûت) .¢ªüõ ˱րõ ¢¡ ýø ¤ 1

Q
C P
f (Q) f (P )
f (C )

f (B ) B o A f (A)
f (R) f (D ) f (S )
S
R D

8
 :݃€îüõ Óþ Â㗠Âþ¥ –¤¬ ‚“ ¤ f : R2 ,! R2 (2-4-11)

f (x1 ; x2 ) = (x1 + x2 ; x2 )

‚ÎÖ÷ Âû üóø Àªüõ ‚µª‘Ú÷ ö ¢¡ ‚“ x2 = c üÖê ´¨¤ Í¡ Âû ‚î Àƒ€î ‚›— .´¨ üΡ f
x1 ¤½õ ý„‘“ üÖê ´¨¤ ¯Î¡ °ƒ—— ßþÀ“ .À“‘þüõ üÖê ñ‘Öµ÷ c ¤ÀÖõ ù¥À÷ ‚“ Í¡ ßþ ýø ¤
¨ x1 ¤½õ ¯‘Ö÷ .À÷Ãçóüõ ¢¡ ýø ¤ ² ´Þ¨ ‚“ x1 ¤½õ ߃þ‘• üÖê ¯Î¡ ø ´¨¤ éÂÏ ‚“

.À€÷‘õüõ ´“‘™ ¢¡ ý‘›

P f (P )

o x1

f (Q) Q

 ð .À þ  ƒ Ú “ Â Ñ ÷ ¤¢ ¤  ‚b þø¥ ‘ “ R2 ¤¢ 0 ñ Ÿ ö¤ø¢ (R2 ¤¢ 0 ñ Ÿ ö¤ø¢) (3-4-11)

:À þ  ƒ Ú “ Â Ñ ÷ ¤¢ ü ± Î ì –¤ ¬ ‚ “ ö Ç þ‘ Þ ÷ ,À ª‘ “ ‚ ½ Ô ¬ ¤¢ 0 6= ý‚ Î Ö ÷ x = (x1 ; x2 )
.x2 = jxj sin  ,x1 = jxj cos 

 ( x1; x2) = x

O

:¢ªüõ f (x1 ; x2 ) ü±Îì Çþ‘Þ÷ ,݃û¢ Çþ‘Þ÷ f : R2 ,! R2 ‚“ ¤ 0 ñŸ  ‚bþø¥ ö¤ø¢ Âð
f (x1 ; x2 ) = (jxj cos( + ); jxj sin( + ))

= (jxj cos  cos  , jxj sin  sin ; jxj sin  cos  + jxj cos  sin )

= ((cos )x1 , (sin )x2 ; (sin )x1 + (cos )x2 )

9
 .´¨ üΡ f ŕ ,´¨ (x1 ; x2 ) ‚“ ´±Æ÷ ßÚÞû ×þ ‚›¤¢ ⓑ— ×þ f ‚bÔóbõ ø¢ ¥ ×þ Âû

¤ f : Rn ,! Rm ø n > m Àƒ€î ­Âê (ü—‘ʵ¿õ ý‘ÌêÂþ¥ ×þ ýø¤ ݎ‘ì ÂþÊ—) (4-4-11)

Àƒ€î Óþ Â㗠Âþ¥ –¤¬ ‚“

f (x1 ; : : :; xn) = (x1 ; : : :; xm)

m ¥ ÛØȵõ ,(x1; : : :; xm) ‚“ ¤ (x1 ; : : :; xn) ‚bÎÖ÷ ‚î ´¨ ßþ ö ¢ÂØÜÞä ø ´¨ üΡ ⓑ— ßþ
ýø ¤ (x; y; z ) ݎ‘ì ÂþÊ— f (x; y; z ) = (x; y ) ,m = 2 ø n = 3 ýÂ“ …f ·õ .¢¤‘Ú÷üõ ,ö ñø ‚bÔóbõ

.´¨ xy ‚b½Ô¬

:Àƒ€î Óþ Â㗠Âþ¥ –¤¬ ‚“ ¤ f : R2 ,! R4 (5-4-11)

f (x1 ; x2 ) = (x1 ; x1 , x2 ; 2x1 + x2 ; ,x2 )

.´¨ üΡ ⓑ— ßþ ,´¨ (x1 ; x2 ) ‚“ ´±Æ÷ ßÚÞû ×þ ‚b›¤¢ –¤‘±ä ×þ f ‚Ôóbõ Âû ö

:¢ªüõ Óþ Â㗠Âþ¥ –¤¬ ‚“ f : R3 ,! R2 (6-4-11)

f (x1 ; x2 ; x3 ) = (x1 , x2 + x3 ; x1 x2 )

.´Æƒ÷ ×þ ‚b›¤¢ ¥ x1 x2 ü€ãþ ,f ôø¢ ‚Ôóbõ Âþ¥ ´±Æ÷ üΡ ⓑ— ßþ

Âþ¥ –¤¬ ‚“ ¤ (5) ö—üõ ‚î Àƒ€î ‚›— .݃€îüõ ö‘ƒ“ ¤ ‚Æܛ ßþ ¶½“ ø¢ ö‘ƒõ ¯‘±—¤ ö€î

:´ª÷
2 3
2
y1 3 2
a11 : : : a1n 3 x1
6 . 7
6 .. 7=6 .. .. 76 .. 7
4 . 5 4 . . 56
6
7
7 (7)
4 5
ym am1 : : : amn xn
:ہõ ¤Ï ‚“ ‘þ

jyi = Ajxi (8)

10
×þ ¤¢ ¤ (5) ¤¢ aij °þÂ® ‚î ¢ªüõ Û¬‘Ÿ –¤¬ ßþÀ“ üΡ ⓑ— ×þ ¤ÀÖõ ‚b ±¨‘½õ ü€ãþ
°ƒ—— ßþÀ“ .݃€îüõ ‚±¨‘½õ jxi öµ¨ ‘“ ¤ Åþ —‘õ ßþ ’®۬‘Ÿ ø ݃û¢üõ ¤Âì m  n Åþ —‘õ
.¢ªüõ ¢‘¹þ m  n ý‘ûÅþ —‘õ ø Rn ,! Rm üΡ ý‘ûⓑ— ö‘ƒõ ×þ ‚“ ×þ Âґ€— ×þ
:¥ À€—¤‘±ä ߃þ‘• ‚“ „‘“ ¥ °ƒ—— ‚“ ¯“Âõ ý‘ûÅþ —‘õ ,„‘“ üΡ ý‘ûñ‘·õ ýÂ“

[m]
" #
2 0
0 12
" #
1 1
0 1
" #
cos  , sin 
sin  cos 
2 3
1 O
6 .. 7
4 . O 5
O 1
2 3
1 0
6
6
6
1 ,1 7
7
7
4 2 1 5
0 ,1
,ñøÀµõ ‚b þ‘• ý‘Ìä Â“ üΡ ⓑ— ÛÞä ö—üõ üΡ ⓑ— ×þ ‚“ Âґ€µõ Åþ —‘õ ‚“ ö¢Âî ù‘Ú÷ ‘“

jej i öµ¨ ¤¢ ² ´Þ¨ ¥ A = [aij ] Åþ —‘õ Â𐠂î Àƒ€î2 ‚›— 3.´ê‘þ ¤¢ f¤ê ¤ ,e1 ; : : :; en ü€ãþ
a1j
6 . 7 Åþ —‘õ ô ‹‹j öµ¨ ,¢ª ’®
¯“Âõ Åþ —‘õ ßµª÷ ýÂ“ ,°ƒ—— ßþÀ“ .Àþüõ ´¨¢‚“ 4 .. 5
amj
¤¢ °ƒ—— ‚“ ¤ Û¬‘Ÿ ¸þ‘µ÷ ø ݃€î ‚±¨‘½õ ¤ f (en) , : : : ,f (e1 ) ´¨ üê‘î ,f üΡ ⓑ— ×þ ‚“

.݃€î š¤¢ ô n ‘— ñø ý‘ûöµ¨

11
 (2) üΡ ý‘û´ª‘Ú÷

ø ¢“ ¤¢¤¡Â“ ý‚ÑŸ…õ ۓ‘ì ၀— ¥ Ýþ¢Âî ‚Ž¤ ‚µªÁð ‚b Æܛ ¤¢ üΡ ý‘ûⓑ— ¥ ‚î üþ‘ûñ‘·õ

.´Æƒ÷ ¢›õ üΡ ý‘ûⓑ— ö‘ƒõ ü÷À€ ‚“‘È— ‚›ø ‚î Àª‘“ ù¢Âî ¢‘¹þ ¤ §‘ÆŸ ßþ ´¨ ßØÞõ

ýù¢‘ãóëê ý‘û´û‘±ª ù›ø üÌ㓠¥ üΡ ý‘ûⓑ— ‚î Àþ¢ ݃û¡ ,ÅØä“ ,ùÀ€þ ‚bÆܛ À€ ¤¢

‘û¢¤ø‘µ¨¢ ßþ ¥ üØþ .´ª¢ Àû¡ ‘õ ýÂ“ üÞúõ ý‘û¢¤ø´¨¢ «¡ ßþ ü¨¤ “ .À÷¤¢ Ýû ‚“

´¨ ñø ‚›¤¢ üóú¹õ n ‚bó¢‘ãõ m ù‘Úµ¨¢ ×þ ý‘û’› ô‘Ñ÷ ø ¢›ø ¢¤õ ¤¢ Ûõ‘î ¶½“ ö‘Øõ
ùbÀ÷‘ރ쑓 ¤¢ üΡƒè ⓐ— ü¨¤ “ ýÂ“ ý¥‘¨‚€ƒõ¥ ÂÚþ¢ ý¢¤ø‘µ¨¢ .´¡¢Â• ݃û¡ ö ‚“ ‚î

Ýúõ ý¢Þ€û¤ Àþ¢ ݃û¡ üΡ ý‘ûⓑ— ¢¤õ ¤¢ ùÀ€þ ‚bÆܛ À€ ¤¢ ‚»÷ ,‘¹÷ ¤¢ ‚î ´¨ §¤¢

ü€ƒ“¥‘“ ‘õ ùbÀÞä ¤‘î .݃€îüõ ÝûÂê üΡ ý‘ûⓑ— ‚ãó‘Îõ ýÂ“ ¤ ‚€ƒõ¥ ‚Æܛ ßþ ¤¢ .¢“ Àû¡

ۓ‘ì ü—¤¬ ‚“ ¤ ‘ú÷ ö€î ø À÷ùÀª žÂÎõ Û±ì –‘Æܛ ¤¢ ‚î ¢“ Àû¡ üރû‘Ôõ ø Óþ ¤‘ã— üÌã“

.Ýþ ¤øüõ ¤¢ ù¢‘Ôµ¨

:Àª‘“ Âþ¥ ¯Âª ø¢ À›ø ‚î ü—¤¬ ¤¢ ´¨ üΡ f : Rn ,! Rm ⓑ— .ù¤Ãð (1-12)

.f (x + x0 ) = f (x) + f (x0) ,Rn ¤¢ x ø x Âû ýÂ“

0
(Óó

.f (rx) = rf (x) ,r üփ֟ ¢Àä Âû ø Rn ¤¢ x Âû ýÂ“ (’

1
f ¢ÂØÜÞä .Ýþ ƒðüõ ÂÑ÷ ¤¢ ¤ ,A ,ö ‘“ Âґ€µõ Åþ —‘õ ,Àª‘“ üΡ f : Rn ,! Rm Âð .–‘±™

:–¤¬ ‚“ Rn ¥ x ¬‘€ä ýø ¤
jf (x)i = Ajxi (1)

:ßþÂ“‘€“ .´¨

jf (x + x )i
0
= Ajx + x i 0

= Ajxi + Ajx i 0
üÆþ —‘õ ’® üÈ¿• ö÷‘ì

= jf (x)i + jf (x )i
0 0

:¤Ï ߃Þû .´¨ ¤Âì“ (Óó) ŕ

jf (rx)i = Ajrxi
= r(Ajxi)
.À÷¤Âì“ f : Rn ,! Rm ⓑ— ýÂ“ (’) ø (Óó) ý‘û¯Âª Àƒ€î ­Âê ÅØãó‘“ .´¨ ¤Âì“ (’) ø

j
¶½“ ¥ . f (x) = i Ajxi Ýþ ¤¢ ,x 2 Rn Âû ýÂ“ ‚î ¢¤¢ ¢›ø ,A ,m  n üÆþ —‘õ ݃û¢ ö‘È÷ Àþ‘“
‘— f (e1 ) ý‘û‚Ôóbõ ¥ °ƒ—— ‚“ üΡ ⓑ— ×þ Åþ —‘õ ý‘ûöµ¨ ‚î Ýþ ¤øüõ ¢‘þ ‚“ Û±ì ‚bÆܛ ö‘þ‘•

¢¤õ ¤¢ Àþ‘“ ‚î ¢¤¢ ¢›ø A ÂÑ÷ ¢¤õ Åþ —‘õ ýÂ“ ü½®ø ¢Ãõ‘÷ ßþÂ“‘€“ ,À÷ªüõ ۃØȗ f (en)
,ö ô ‹‹j öµ¨ ‚î Ýþ ƒðüõ ÂÑ÷ ¤¢ ‚÷ð ßþ ¤ A Åþ —‘õ .¢Âî ´“‘™ ¤ jf (x)i = Ajxi ý‘䢐 ö
:Ýþ ¤¢ x = (x1 ; : : :; xn) = x1 e1 +


+ xnen ýÂ“ .Àª‘“ jf (ej )i “Â“ ,j = 1; : : :; n ýÂ“
jf (x)i = jf (x1 e1 +


+ xnen )i
= jx1 f (e1 ) +


+ xn f (en)i (’) ø (Óó) Õ±Ï

= jx1 f (e1 )i +


+ jxnf (en)i

= x1 jf (e1 )i +


+ xnjf (en)i
= x1 (Aje1 i) +


+ xn (Ajeni)
= Ajx1 e1 i +


+ Ajxn eni
= Ajx1 e1 +


+ xn en i üÆþ —‘õ ’® üÈ¿• ö÷‘ì

= Ajxi
2
2 .À¨¤üõ –‘±™ ‚“ Ý؟ ø

(’) ø (Óó) ´ƒ¬‘¡ ø¢ ýƒð¤‘î‚“ ⓑ— ×þ ö¢“ üΡ ¥ ù¢‘Ôµ¨ ýÂ“ ŕ ßþ ¥ °ƒ—— ßþÀ“

.´Æƒ÷ ¯“Âõ Åþ —‘õ ¼þ ¬ ßµª÷ ‚“ ý¥‘ƒ÷ ø ´¨ üê‘î „‘“

ùbÃÚ÷ Àì‘ê ø ßû£ ¥ ¤ø¢ ñø ÂÑ÷ ¤¢ Óþ Â㗠ßþ .Ýþ¢Âî Óþ Â㗠¤ üÆþ —‘õ ’® Û±ì ‚bÆܛ ¤¢

ÂÚ÷‘ƒ“ âìø ¤¢ Åþ —‘õ ø¢ ’®۬‘Ÿ ‚î Àû¢üõ ö‘È÷ Âþ¥ ù¤Ãð üóø ,À¨¤üõ ÂÑ÷ ‚“ É¿Èõ

.´¨ Âґ€µõ üΡ ý‘ûⓑ— °ƒî—

ù¢¢ B Åþ —‘õ ‘“ g : Rm ,! Rp ø A Åþ —‘õ ‘“ f : Rn ,! Rm üΡ ý‘ûⓑ— .ù¤Ãð (2-12)

.´¨ BA “Â“ g  f : Rn ,! Rp Åþ —‘õ –¤¬ ßþ ¤¢ .À÷ùÀª

¥ ù¢‘Ôµ¨ ‘“ ö—üõ ¤ °ÜÎõ ßþ ‚î ´¨ üΡ ⓑ— ×þ âìø ¤¢ g  f ‚î Àƒ€î ‚›— ‘fµõÀÖõ .–‘±™

:¢Âî ‚ÑŸ…õ 1-12 ù¤Ãð

(g  f )(x + x0) = g (f (x + x ))
0

= g (f (x) + f (x ))
0
´¨ üΡ f ö

= g (f (x)) + g (f (x ))
0
´¨ üΡ g ö
= (g  f )(x) + (g  f )(x0)
©ø ¤ ߃Þû ‚“

(g  f )(rx) = g(f (rx))

= g(rf (x)) ´¨ üΡ f ö

= rg(f (x)) ´¨ üΡ g ö

= r(g  f )(x)

3
 :Ýþ ¤¢ .݃û¢üõ Çþ‘Þ÷ C ‚“ ¤ g  f Åþ —‘õ .Ýþ¥¢Â•üõ ù¤Ãð ý‘䢐 –‘±™ ‚“ ñ‘Ÿ

C jxi =j(g  f )(x)i

= jg (f (x))i

= B jf (x)i

= B j(Ajxi)i

= BAjxi üÆþ —‘õ ’® ýÂþÁ•´îª üðÄþø “‘€“

Åþ —‘õ ø¢ ,Àª‘“ “Â“ üþ‘— n öµ¨ Âû ¤¢ p  n Åþ —‘õ ø¢ ’®۬‘Ÿ Âð .C jxi = BAjxi ŕ

2 .À€þüõ ´¨¢‚“ ‘ûÅþ —‘õ ý‘ûöµ¨ ‚bƒÜî ,j = 1; : : :; n ,x = ej ßµêÂ𠑓 ‚î Âþ¥ À÷“Â“

×þ Rn ¥ E ‚b ä Þ ¹ õ þ¥ × þ ‘ þ ‚ î ° Ü Î õ ß þ ö¢Â î Õ ƒ Ö ½ — ýÂ “ ýù¢‘ ¨ ‚b Î “‘ ® ù ¡„‘ “
.݃€îüõ ‚Ž¤ ´¨ üΡ ý‘ÌêÂþ¥

¯Âª ø¢ Â𐠑ú€— ø Â𐠴¨ Rn üΡ ý‘ÌêÂþ¥ ×þ Rn ¥ E üú—‘÷ ‚b äÞ¹õÂþ¥ .ù¤Ãð (3-12)

:À€ª‘“ ¤Âì“ Âþ¥

.´¨ E ¤¢ Ã÷ x + x 0
ù‘Ú÷ ,À€ª‘“ E ¤¢ x ø x ù‘ðÂû
0
(Óó

.´¨ E ¤¢ Ã÷ rx ù‘Ú÷ ,r 2 R ø Àª‘“ E ¤¢ x ù‘ðÂû (’

.´ ¨ ¤¢¤ ¡Â “ ë ê ü ðÄ þø ø¢ ¥ Rn ¥ E ü Î ¡ ý‘ Ì ê þ¥  û Ý ƒ û¢ü õ ö‘ È ÷ ´ Æ ¿ ÷ .–‘ ± ™

,fA1 ; : : :; Ak g ü Î ¡ ý‘ û° ƒ  ‚b ä Þ ¹ õ ü € ã þ ,hA1; : : :; Ak i Û Ø ª ‚ “ ¤ E ü Î ¡ ý‘ Ì ê þ¥
Ûت ‚“ x ø x ŕ
0
.Ý þ  ƒ ðü õ Â Ñ ÷ ¤¢ ,´ ¨ E  ¬‘ € ä ü Î ¡ Û Ö µ Æ õ ‚b ä Þ ¹ õ × þ ‚ î
:Ýþ ¤¢ ßþÂ“‘€“ .À€µÆû x0
= t01 A1 +


+ t0k Ak ø x = t1 A1 +


+ tk Ak

x+x 0
= (t1 + t01 )A1 +


+ (tk + t0k )Ak

:¤Ï ߃Þû .x; x0 2Eø

r(t1 A1 +


+ tk Ak ) = (rt1 )A1 +


+ (rtk )Ak

4
 .rx 2Eø
ö‘ È ÷ ,À ª‘ “ (’) ø (Ó ó) ý‘ û¯Â ª À ›ø Rn ¥ E ü ú —‘ ÷ ‚b ä Þ ¹ õ þ¥ À ƒ € î ­Â ê Å Ø ã ó‘ “
ÛÖµÆõ ‚b äÞ¹õ ×þ üΡ ý‘û°ƒî— ‚b äÞ¹õ “Â“ ü€ãþ ,´¨ üΡ ý‘ÌêÂþ¥ ×þ E ݃û¢üõ
Õ±Ï Å• ,´Æû E ¤¢ x ýÂʀä ü€ãþ ´¨ üú—‘÷ E ‚î Âþ¥ 0 2 E Ýþ ¤¢ ‘f ãÎì .Àª‘“üõ üΡ

.¢¤¢ ¤Âì E ¤¢ 0 = 0
x (’)

ÂÔ¬ üΡ ý‘ÌêÂþ¥ ‚÷‘Úþ E ¢¢¤Âì Õ±Ï ‚î E = f0g ü€ãþ ,Àª‘“ ‚µªÀ÷ ýÂÚþ¢ Ìä E Âð
,‘û rA1 ü€ãþ ,A1 ’¤‘Ìõ ‚Þû ,(’) Õ±Ï ,Àª‘“ E ¤¢ A1 6= 0 ýÂÚþ¢ Ìä Âð .´¨ Rn ýÀã“
üΡ ý‘ÌêÂþ¥ ×þ E ,E = hA1 i ü€ãþ ,Àª‘±÷ E ¤¢ ýÂÚþ¢ Ìä Âð ñ‘Ÿ .À€µÆû E ¤¢ ,r 2 R
‚¹ƒµ÷ ¤¢ ø ,´Æƒ÷ A1 ’ÂÌõ ‚î ¢¤¢ ¢›ø E ¤¢ A2 ýÂÊ€ä –¤¬ ßþ Âƒè ¤¢ .´¨ ýÀ㓠×þ

,À÷¤¢ ¤Âì E ¤¢ A2 ø A1 üΡ ý‘û°ƒî— ‚Þû ,(’) ø (Óó) Õ±Ï .´¨ üΡ ÛÖµÆõ fA1 ; A2 g
.hA1 ; A2 i  E ü€ãþ
‚î ¢¤¢ ¢›ø E ¤¢ A3 ýÂʀä ,‚÷Âð ø ,´¨ ùÀª ´“‘™ Ý؟ ‚î Àª‘“ E ‚b Þû hA1 ; A2 i Âð
üΡ ý‘û°ƒî— ‚b Þû .Ýþ ƒðüõ ¤‘î‚“ f¢À¹õ ¤ „‘“ ñ„Àµ¨ .´¨ üΡ ÛÖµÆõ fA1 ; A2 ; A3 g
,À ª‘ ± ÷ E ‚ Þ û hA1 ; A2; A3i ‚ î ü —¤ ¬ ¤¢ .À € ª‘ “ E ¤¢ À þ‘ “ ,(’) ø (Ó ó) Õ ± Ï ,A1 ; A2 ; A3
Rn ¤¢ Âþ¥ À¨¤ ‚¹ƒµ÷ ‚“ ô‘ð n ·îÀŸ ¤¢ Àþ‘“ ñ„Àµ¨ ßþ .ùƒè ø ݃€îüõ ’‘¿µ÷ A4 ýÂʀä
ۃØȗ 0 ¥ ÍÖê E Âð ßþÂ“‘€“ .Àª‘“ ‚µª¢ Ìä n ¥ ǃ“ À÷—üÞ÷ üΡ ÛÖµÆõ ‚b äÞ¹õ ×þ
–‘±™ ‚“ Ý؟ ø hA1 ; : : :; Ak i = E ‚î ݃¨¤üõ ‚¹ƒµ÷ ßþ ‚“ ,1  k  n ,k üõ‘𠤢 ,Àª‘“ ùÀÈ÷
2 .À¨¤üõ

üΡ ý‘û‘ÌêÂþ¥ \ö¢“ ¼ÎÆõ" ý¢úª ùbÀþ ö¢“ ¤Âì“ Àƒþ‘— üä÷ ù¤Ãð ßþ ‚î Àƒ€î ‚›—

E ¤¢ x ø x  ð ø ,´ ¨ â ìø E ¤¢ ü õ‘ Þ — ‚ “ x ø 0 ¥ ¤Á ð Í ¡ À ª‘ “ E ¤¢ x ý‚ Î Ö ÷  ð

0
.´ ¨

E ýÂ“ ¯Âª ø¢ ßþ Âð ,ù¤Ãð ôø¢ ´ÞÆì Õ±Ï .´¨ âìø E ¤¢ x ø x ,0 ¥ ¤Á𠂽Ԭ ,À€ª‘“
0

.´¨ Rn Ìä k üΡ ý‘û°ƒî— ‚bÞû ¥ ÛØȵõ E ‚î ¢Âî Ý؟ ö—üõ À€ª‘“ ¤Âì“

5
 (3)  


 


        ! "# 

f : Rn ;! Rm (1)

. " (1)
     "  " ( )  *+ . ), 

.-
-.+ 0 2 Rm 0 2 Rn f , 0 12 (1-13)

:(  .1 Rn ) 45 6 7 x  0 = 0x ( +
.



f (0) = f (0  x) = 0  f (x) = 0

6 8 9( ) :( (6 689( )  ; )
 689( )  ( 7 , f  0 1 2  (2-13)

.1 (6 689( ) :( ; )


    1  0 " (  ," (   .   < +   E
  6 8 9 ( ) : ( 1 5 = 1  4 + .



  (1-12) @ ) A  .1 Rm
 689( ) :( f (E) = ff (x) j x 2 E g

 ; x x
0
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0 0
B (  ,"- f (E ) 7 B y y
0
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1
 DE . E
y + y = f (x) + f (x ) = f (x + x )
0 0

; F
  y + y 2 f (E )
0
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0
, 
b  (3-12) 
b @ HI , x
x 2 E
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J

,r2R C

ry = rf (x)
= f (rx) (1-12) HI

,
689( ) :( ( 7  ( 10 ; F(" . ry 2 f (E ) DE ,3-12 HI rx 2 E B

:1-+ ( ) ! K  
 6 689( )  L= .1
 689( ) :( 

a + E = fa + x j x 2 E g

 M -    ( 7 7  F( .1 E ) " -   7   :( a B
  6 89( ) :( E 

 689( ) :( f (E )  ("( N  B f (x) 2 f (E ) J ."-
f (a + x) = f (a) + f (x)

6 DE ,1 f (a) 10 7 O f (E ) 
b 9(L#+  N 6 689( ) ( 7 ,1

2 .1

: ( 6   6 8 9 ( )  (  7  , f (a) 2 f (E )  
  K  ,N  LN"      "     

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+ 
 689( )  ( ) 1+ P   "
689( )

 *+ HI ,( . <+   Rn b + E a + E

 B f 
@ ."
"Q
 B 6 ) 689( ) B C 

689( ) B
Q( , " f (b) + f (E ) f (a) + f (E )

B ;  R+ ( 7 ,"- "S N

: Rm ) (H () 6 )

B "Q
 f (E2 ) f (E1 )
B ,"- Rn ) 6 ) B "Q
 6 689( ) B E2 E1B C (3-13)

2 . " (H () 6 )

2
 2 3
;1 1
6 2 1
0
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     .    (4-18)
5 1 ;2
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+ (X
Y
Z )    f 12 (x
y
z ) 
b  # +    ( 7  . (   C
 < +   -

:(  . (X
Y
Z ) = f (x
y
z )

X = ;x + y
Y = 2x + y ; z
Z = 5x + y ; 2z (2)

,(6"QB
 689( )) 0 )  VC 

b 2AK :(  R3 W#+ 
b
 DE , Z = 2Y ; X  "  

. (   C
 < +  X   2AK " J    f  0 L = ." + -
  -. + x1 ; 2x2 + x3 = 0
Q(

:(  (2) HI ."( . <+   (x
y
0) W#+ ) MS , xy
74 
b 2AK 14+

f (x
y
0) = (;x + y
2x + y
5x + y)

 C .    xy
 74 
b 2AK ( 7  x1 ; 2x2 + x3 = 0 
b 2 A K  #+  


B x ;= Y 6  ( ) .  S+ "( ,"- 6#+ FJ :( (x1
x2
;x1 + 2x2 )

8 :1 y
;x + y = x1
>
>
>
>
<
> 2x + y = x2
>
>
>
: 5x + y = ;x + 2x
1 2
 < =Z
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2 x + x
y = 13 2 x = 12 2x,
+ x ;
 9    7 2  Y LB 
b 5 Q B

  : (   :( I   xy
 7 4 
b 2AK  B  D E ."
\" K [+ ]   5Q    

 " S+ zx yzB
74 !2AK  S 

b 2 .-
-.+ R3 
b
 ( 7 2AK


b 2 A K  (  7  L = . -
  - . + f (R3)   : (   : (  I   [  + ! 2 A K F ( ) : (    

." (x
y
x + 2y ) M-  2AK F( W#+ .

  f 12  x1 + 2x2 ; x3 = 0

:(  (2) HI

f (x
y
x + 2y) = (;x + y
x ; y
3x ; 3y)

3
 1 O ,( 7
Q( ,1 (;1
1
3)
( )
 8 ( 7 
b #+   
<=Z

x =y=z
;1 1 3
B (6" Q B)  2 A K : (
8 Q , ( 
      
 2AK  (  7 ;  F("  ."- 

 
+ +   J   1  F (  -
^   
5  ." + -
(6" Q  : () 1  O  : (
8 Q 

b

.1 " F-B  _@ F( 6"Q 6
  ?1 = ( 7 "Q FQ

:
U(
+ ker(f )  B 
a( Q ( ) ! K   f
b ,(1)
  6

ker(f ) = fx 2 Rn j f (x) = 0g (3)

.1 Rn
 689( ) :( ker(f ) (4-13)

,r2R BZ     C B ,1 ker(f )  x+x 0

    S+ "( ,"- ker(f )  x x
0
B  C .


:1 ker(f )  [+ rx  S+ "(

f (x + x ) = f (x) + f (x )
0 0
1-12 HI

= 0+0=0
f (rx) = rf (x) 1-12 HI

= r0 = 0
2 ."
!0  M= B

f 12 L ( 7 ,"( 1 Rn 10 8 :(  f 

b  L#+ ) L C ,(3-13) HI L=

F (    , -
  - . + f0g 

b  # + :       
5B ,1  f 1 2       (  7  " Q 
 B 6 )

: " #+ : :( L  ( 7

4
,DMQ5 .1 ff (a)g 
b #+ : f 12 a+K ( 7 , a 2 Rn B "- f 
b  K C (5-13)

b f  12 
I#+ 
b 
d =b  Y ) 
b 
d = f 1 (b)
)
;
,"- Rm  6#+ b C

.1 K 6 ) B "Q
 6 689( ) :( ( 1
R ( ("+-
-.+

,"-+
R f 1 (b)

;
" e9 ]B 1
 6 B ( g@ N   M= LB 1
 .


:
S+ . f (a) = b     B Rn a  6 7 .+

f 1 (a) = a + K
;

:(  , x2K  a+x M-  7
Q( , a+K 7  6 14+

f (a + x) = f (a) + f (x)
= f (a)
= b
:( +
, a 2 f 1 (b)
0 ;
C DMQ5

a = a + (a ; a)
0 0
(4)

 ( ) 1   a ;a
0

f (a ; a) = f (a ) ; f (a)
0 0

= b;b
= 0
  M= !0 B 1  7 :(  a _
d f 1 (b)
;
8   "
S+ (4) F(

2 .-

h  f : Rn ;! Rm
  :( M

 )  
i25  B  6 ( 7  6d+

B 0 
b  # +       , -
  - . + Rm
  6 8 9 ( ) : (   Rn   ,(2-13) H  I ."  

5
) B  ."+-
9 ( 7 
b #+ :( 

  :(   "Q
 B 6 ) 689( )

:(   W#+ 
b
   VC
K 6 ) B "Q
 9  72 689( ) :( Rn 
b #+ 

Rn

f f (Rn)
O

K = ker(f )

1 

    d   + C F ( 
      M 
 a  K  F (  
." + -
  - . + f (Rn)    # +

   # + : (       "Q 
 B 6 ) 6   6 8 9 ( ) ) :(  
     M
 0   

F( e#+ 0   "(
<+  .1 Rm
 689( ) :( K= B -
P# Rm
"Q k  "- - (n ; k)  6"Q , f 12 Rn ( 7 "( ,#+ :  6 689( )

:1  ( )
 M= B  .1 

:! K F(  ,"- Rn
 689( ) :( E " e9 (6-13)

dim E = dim f (E ) + dim(E \ ker(f )) (5)

(1 "Q 6Q 
e
dimension aA4 dim d( )

,1 
  6 8 9 ( ) : ( , Rn )
  6 8 9 ( ) B   l  -   "     f  " #

  .


e 9   F ( 
b "  S 6  . 
 Q  " Q e B 1 
  6 8 9 ( ) : ( E \ ker(f ) F (   

E1  B  J ,"- E1 \ E2  B  x x
0
B C ."- Rn
 689( ) B E2 E1B "

6
 C F   *
 . x + x 2 E1 \ E2
0
DE , x + x 2 E2 x + x 2 E1
0
B
0
 (  ,"     E2  B  B

.rx 2 E1 \ E2 DE , rx 2 E2 rx 2 E1
B (  , r2R x2E\EB
0

b 
d !  K F (  .
 dim(E \ ker(f )) = l "    e 9 . ( ) E
 M = !  0   L =

 Q ( ,1  8 9 ( ) F ( 6   ( E      B E \ ker(f )  K   ) fA1
: : :
Alg
   #

AK  E W#+ 
b
 , E  ker(f ) f B [5 .+ ,
 E \ ker(f ) = E C . E \ ker(f ) = hA1
: : :
Ali
6 7 ,"-+ E 
b
 E \ ker(f ) C .1  (5) L 9 B , dim f (E ) = 0 ,"+-
-.+

# fA1
: : :
Al+1 g 

b 
d .1   + A1
: : :
Al )
 
         B E  Al+1
Y  8 ) f (E ) dim E = l + 1
B  (  , hA1
: : :
Al+1 i = E  C f #  ) 1 
 
.(? J 

 ( ) 1 "- MS f (Al+1 )

f (t1 A1 +    + tl Al + tl+1 Al+1 ) = Pli=1 ti f (Ai) + tl+1 f (Al+1 )
= tl+1 f (Al+1 )
L  9 f" d B dim f (E ) = 1 F (    .Al+1 2= ker(f )  J f (Al+1 ) 6= 0  . (
9 I )


b 
d   E Al+2) 6  7   ," -  + E 
b
 hA1
: : :
Al+1 i  C L = .1     (5)

 M   N  LN"   B " -  + A1
: : :
Al+1 )
 
        ([ 9
fA1
: : :
Al+1 g

6 8  k
 # 
b 
d   ] C k; l  , dim E = k  C ,
   I   .   

   2  f (E ) " Q  L = .1  E f B [ 5     

6   ( E : (  fA1
: : :
Al
Al+1
: : :
Ak g
:(  E x ) 8  6 .

x = t1 A1 +    + tlAl + tl+1 Al+1 +    + tk Ak

f (x) = t1 f (A1 ) +    + tl f (Al) + tl+1 f (Al+1 ) +    + tk f (Ak ) 1-12 

= tl+1 f (Al+1 ) +    + tk f (Ak ) (i = 1
: : :l 6 Ai 2 ker(f ) J )


b 
d  10 C .1 f (Al+1 )
: : :
f (Ak ) )
 ; :( E ( 7 8  F(

 (5) 
b  B dim(f (E )) = k ; l  -
d+ ,1
 # ff (Al+1 )
: : :
f (Ak)g
7
" 
 Q ( ," -  +
   #  \  9 
b 
d "   e9 1 Q B F( ! 0 6  ." 
! 0

: "- -  B cl+1
: : :
ck
##=

cl+1 f (Al+1 ) +    + ck f (Ak ) = 0

f (cl+1 Al+1 +    + ck Ak ) = 0
 J F
@  B 1  f 
b    ) 6 8  cl+1 Al+1 +    + ck Ak   " 
 S + F (

#  # = "  F (    .1  E \ ker f 8 , cl+1 Al+1 +    + ck Ak Al+1
: : :
Ak 2 E

,

: "+   B c1
: : :
cl
cl+1 Al+1 +    + ck Ak = c1 A1 +    + clAl
c1 A1 +    + clAl ; cl+1 Al+1 ;    ; ck Ak = 0
T N  ,"  -   A K " (  ; ( @ 
b
 fA1
: : :
Ak g
  LZ #         

]
   (5)  M = B ff (Al+1 )
: : :
f (Ak )g
  LZ #   !  0 B . cl+1 =    = ck = 0
2 ."

 ( B 7    ;   F ( ,4-18 L p   " d
 . +     + 
   ,6-13     

  I  "+ 6"Q :(
8Q B 6"QB
8Q ,Lp 
  12 C+C !2AK

:- - "( .
"E  4-18 Lp  f 

b  14+  F( 6 . 2 B ( [d

Ajxi = j0i

.x3 = 3x1 x2 = x1
B F( . (;x1 + x2
2x1 + x2 ; x3
5x1 + x2 ; 2x3 ) = (0
0
0) (

:1 O ) 1 !  f 
b   F( d+

x1 = x2 = x3
1 1 3
(6)

l  1 2;l  6-18 HI E ( 7 "Q ,"- R3 6"QB
 689( ) :( E C L=

F (    1  f0g O#9  B E l  -  ( ,   B  M  B .1      E l  - " Q 

8
     
 Q ( ,1  6" Q  : (     B E l  -  ( B ,1  6" Q B E  ( 7  B l=0 !  K

) :(  ,4-18 Lp  .1 6"Q :( ( 7 B l=1 ! K F(   ,   E 




,:(  ( 7 F( ,"+  l- 0  O#9 ((6) 1 O
Q()  
74 !2AK

,l=1  6
Q( ,1 (6) 1 O  - x1 + 2x2 ; x3 = 0 

b 2AK
5B .1 6"QB

."-
6"Q :( , f 12  ( 7 d+  B

9
 (4) üΡ ý‘û´ª‘Ú÷

ýµÆõ ý‘û‘ÌêÂþ¥ ýø ¤ üΡ ý‘ûⓑ— ¢ÂØÜÞä ¥ üãõ‘› ´±Æ÷ ‚“ ÂþÊ— ÝþÀþ¢ Û±ì ‚Æܛ ¤¢ ‚»÷

ü óø À ÷À ªü õ ¯ “ õ ü Î ¡ ý‘ û‘ Ì ê þ¥ ‚ “ Ý ƒ Ö µ Æ õ ¤ Ï ‚ “ fÂ · î ùÀ ª Â î£ ý‘ ûù¤Ã ð .À û¢ü õ

f ·õ .´Æƒ÷ ¤ª¢ ýµÆõ ý‘û‘ÌêÂþ¥ ¢¤õ ¤¢ ´¨¤¢ ýÂƒð‚¹ƒµ÷

:ù¤Ãð ßþ ¡ …

dim(E ) = dim(f (E )) + dim(E \ ker f ) (1)

ü€ãþ ,Àª‘“ E ý¥õ ø Àã±Þû ýµÆõ ý‘ÌêÂþ¥ ×þ E 0 Âð .´¨ ¤Âì“ E üΡ ý‘û‘ÌêÂþ¥ ýÂ“
 þ Ê —) dim f (E 0) = dim f (E ) ‚ î Ý ƒ ÷¢ü õ ‚ Ø Ü “ ,´ Æ ƒ ÷ žÂ Îõ E 0 \ ker f Â Ú þ¢ ,E 0 = p+E
ŕ ,(´¨ Àã±Þû ø ý¥õ ,Àã±Þû ý¥õ ýµÆõ ý‘û‘ÌêÂþ¥

dim(E 0) = dim f (E 0) + dim(E \ ker f ) (2)

.´¨ f ¢ÂØÜÞä ™ ¤¢ E0 À㓠´ê ùÀ€€î߃ƒã— ,‚µÆû ‘“ 0 ‚“ E0 ‚bµê‘þñ‘Öµ÷ íÂµª À㓠‘¹€þ ¤¢ ü€ãþ
.Ýþ¢Âðüõ ¥‘“ Û±ì ‚bÆܛ ñ‘·õ ‚“ ,ÂîÁ— ßþ ‚“ ‚›— ‘“

2 3
6
,1 1 0
ßþ ‚b µÆû .݃€îüõ ü¨¤ “ ¤ 4 2 1 ,1 75 Åþ —‘õ ‘“ ¤ f : R3 ,! R3 üΡ ⓑ— .ñ‘·õ
,5 1 ,2
x x x
× þ ‚ “ ‚ µ Æ û Û õ‘ª ýÀ ã“ø¢ ü Î ¡ ý‘ û‘ÌêÂþ¥ ‚ î Ý þÀ þ¢ .´ ¨ 11 = 12 = 33 ´ ¨¤ Í ¡ ⠓‘—

‚ ½ Ô ¬ ü õ‘ Þ — ‚ “ À ÷¤¢ íÂ µ ª ‚ µ Æ û ‘ “ 0 ¤¢ Í Ö ê ‚ î ýÀ 㠓ø¢ ü Î ¡ ý‘ û‘ Ì ê þ¥ ø ´ ¨¤ Í ¡

ýµÆõ ý‘ÌêÂþ¥) Àª‘“ R3 ¤¢ ù¿ó¢ ‚b½Ô¬ ×þ F Âð ñ‘Ÿ .À÷ªüõ ‚µª‘Ú÷ x1 , 2x2 + x3 = 0
1
F 0 Âð .Ýþ ƒړ ÂÑ÷ ¤¢ ¤ ,F 0 ,bÀ±õ ‚“ ö ‚b µê‘þ ñ‘Öµ÷ Àþ‘“ ö ÂþÊ— À㓠߃ƒã— ýÂ“ ,(ýÀã“ø¢

,–¤¬ ßþ Âƒè ¤¢ .¢ªüõ ´¨¤ Í¡ ×þ F ÂþÊ— ,Àª‘“ ‚µÆû ý¥õ F ü€ãþ ,Àª‘“ ‚µÆû Ûõ‘ª
¯Î¡ ÂþÊ— ´ƒã®ø ö€î .¢ªüõ ýÀã“ø¢ ö ÂþÊ— ø ´¨ íµÈõ 0 ¤¢ ÍÖê ‚µÆû ‘“ F 0
L0 ´ ¨¤ Í ¡ ‘ — ¢ ª Û Ö µ € õ bÀ ±õ ‚ “ L ´ ¨¤ Í ¡  ð .Ý ƒ € îü õ ü ¨¤  “ f  ™ ´ ½ — ¤ R3 ´ ¨¤
‘“ L0 ‘þ ø ´¨ ‚µÆû ý¥õ ´¨¤ Í¡ ×þ L –¤¬ ßþ ¤¢ ‚î ,´¨ ‚µÆû “Â“ ‘þ L0 ,Àþ ´¨¢‚“
ö ÂþÊ— ôø¢ ´ó‘Ÿ ¤¢ ø ¢ªüõ ‚ÎÖ÷ ×þ L ÂþÊ— ñø ´ó‘Ÿ ¤¢ .´¨ íµÈõ 0 ¤¢ ÍÖê ‚µÆû
.´¨ ´¨¤ Í¡ ×þ

üΡ ⓑ— ŕ .Ýþ¥¢Â•üõ ‚µªÁð ‚bÆܛ ¶½“ ¢¤õ ¤¢ ü܃Þؗ ‚µØ÷ À€ Âî£ ‚“ ö€î

f : Rn ,! Rm

.´¨ ÂÑ÷ ¢¤õ

´ó‘Ÿ ßþ ¤¢ .ker(f ) = f0g ‚î ´¨ ßþ f ö¢“ ×þ ‚“ ×þ ýÂ“ üê‘î ø ô¥„ üϪ (1-14)
.n  m ‘fõø Ãó

­Âê ñ‘Ÿ .´Æƒ÷ ×þ ‚“ ×þ f ,f (x) = f (0) = 0 ö ,Àª‘“ ‚µÆû ¤¢ x 6= 0 ýÂʀä Âð .–‘±™

ü€ãþ ,f (x1 , x2 ) = 0 ‚î Ýþ ƒðüõ ‚¹ƒµ÷ ´¨ üΡ f ö .f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) ø ker f = f0g Àƒ€î
´ó‘Ÿ ßþ ¤¢ .À¨¤üõ –‘±™ ‚“ ö¢“ ×þ ‚“ ×þ ø x1 = x2 ­Âê Õ±Ï Å• ,x1 , x2 2 ker(f )
2 .n  m ‚î Ýþ ƒðüõ ‚¹ƒµ÷ ,f (Rn)  Rm ö ø ,dim(f (Rn)) = n
:Ýþ ¤¢ E = Rn üµìø ,(1) ñõÂê ¤¢

n = dim(f (Rn)) + dim(ker(f ))

:ßþÂ“‘€“ .n = m + dim(ker(f )) ü€ãþ ,f (Rn) = Rm ‚î ´¨ ßþ ñ¢‘ãõ f ö¢“ ‘ª•

2
´ó‘Ÿ ßþ ¤¢ .dim(ker(f )) = n , m ‚î ´¨ ßþ f ö¢“ ‘ª• ýÂ“ üê‘î ø ô¥„ üϪ (2-14)
2 .n  m ‘fõø Ãó
¢ªüõ ‚¹ƒµ÷ (2-14) ø (1-14) ¥ ,m = n ´ó‘Ÿ ¤¢ ü€ãþ ,f : Rn ,! Rn ý‘ûⓑ— ýÂ“
:‚î

2 .Àª‘“ ‘ª• Â𐠑ú€— ø Â𐠴¨ ×þ ‚“ ×þ f : Rn ,! Rn üΡ ⓑ— (3-14)

ⓑ— ö¢“ ‘ª• ø ×þ ‚“ ×þ (öø ¤ø) §Øãõ ⓑ— ¢›ø ýÂ“ üê‘î ø ô¥„ üϪ ‚î ݃÷¢üõ

f ,1 : Rn ,! Rn ü㓑— ,Àª‘“ (‘ª• „f¢‘ãõ) ×þ ‚“ ×þ f : Rn ,! Rn üµìø °ƒ—— ßþÀ“ .´¨

‚î ¢¤¢ ¢›ø

f ,1 (f (x)) = x ; f (f ,1 (x)) = x

¢›ø x2 ø x1 ,´¨ ‘ª• f ö .y1 ; y2 2 Rn Àƒ€î ­Âê .´¨ üΡ Ã÷ f ,1 ‚î ݃€îüõ ‘䢐
ßþÂ“‘€“ .y2 = f (x2 ) ø y1 = f (x1 ) ‚î À÷¤¢
f ,1 (y1 + y2 ) = f ,1 (f (x1 ) + f (x2 ))
= f ,1 (f (x1 + x2 )) ´¨ üΡ f ö

= x1 + x2
= f ,1 (y1 ) + f ,1 (y2 )
,Àª‘“ üփ֟ ¢Àä ×þ r ø y = f (x) Â𐠰ƒ—— ߃Þû ‚“
f ,1 (ry ) = f ,1 (rf (x))
= f ,1 (f (rx)) ´¨ üΡ f ö

= rx
= rf ,1 (y )
,Àª‘“ f üΡ ⓑ— Åþ —‘õ A Âð .¢ªüõ ’Æ€õ ,B ,n  n üÆþ —‘õ ö ‚“ ,´¨ üΡ f ,1 ö
ü÷‘Þû ⓑ— 1R ö ¤¢ ‚î f ,1  f = 1R ø f  f ,1 = 1R Ýþ ¤¢ .݃€îüõ ü¨¤ “ A ‘“ ¤ B ‚bФ
n n n

3
’®۬‘Ÿ ‘“ Âґ€µõ üΡ ý‘ûⓑ— °ƒî— ø ´¨ In “Â“ 1Rn Åþ —‘õ ‚î ‘¹÷ ¥ .´¨ Rn
:Ýþ ¤¢ ,´¨ ¯“Âõ ý‘ûÅþ —‘õ

BA = In ; AB = In

Ç þ‘ Þ ÷ A,1 ‚ “ ¤ ö „f Þ ã õ ø ¢ ªü õ ùÀ ÷ ¡ A Å þ  —‘ õ § Ø ã õ ‘ þ öø ¤ø B Å þ  —‘ õ ß ƒ € 

.݃û¢üõ

×þ ý‘û’› ¢¤õ ¤¢ ¶½“ ‚“ ¤ ü¨À€û ێ‘Æõ üÌ㓠ö—üõ ‚÷Ú Àû¢üõ ö‘È÷ Âþ¥ ñ‘·õ

.´Æ› ý¤‘þ ‚ó‘bÆõ ۟ ¤¢ ëê °ó‘Îõ ¥ ų¨ ø ¢Âî ÛþÀ±— ×þ ‚›¤¢ ‚bó¢‘ãõ ù‘Úµ¨¢

:݃û¢üõ ö‘È÷ .À€µÆû R4 ¤¢ (ýÀã“ø¢ ýµÆõ ý‘ÌêÂþ¥) ‚½Ô¬ ø¢ E2 ø E1 Àƒ€î ­Âê .ñ‘·õ
E2 ý¥õ ‚b½Ô¬ ×þ E20 ø E1 ý¥õ ‚b½Ô¬ ×þ E10 ø Àª‘“ ‚ÎÖ÷ ח ×þ E1 \ E2 Âð (Óó)
.´¨ ‚ÎÖ÷ ח ×þ Ã÷ E10 \ E20 ù‘Ú÷ ,Àª‘“
¢›ø ,E2 ý¥õ E20 ý‚½Ô¬ ø E1 ý¥õ E10 ý‚½Ô¬ ,Àª‘“ ´¨¤ Í¡ ×þ E1 \ E2 Âð (’)
.´¨ üú— E10 \ E20 ‚î À÷¤¢
‚½Ô¬ E2 ø ,üΡ ÛÖµÆõ fA1 ; A2 g ,Àª‘“ A2 ø A1 –¥õ ‚“ p ¥ ¤Áð ‚b½Ô¬ E1 Àƒ€î ­Âê
íµÈõ ‚bÎÖ÷ ×þ ‘fÖƒì¢ E2 ø E1 ‚î ßþ .üΡ ÛÖµÆõ fB1 ; B2 g ø ,B2 ø B1 –¥õ ‚“ q ¥ ¤Áð
üփ֟ ¢Àä ¥ (s1 ; s2 ; t1 ; t2 ) ý¢Âê ‚“ Âʽ€õ üþ‘—¤‘ú ‚î ´¨ ö‘ƒ“ ۓ‘ì –¤¬ ßþÀ“ À÷¤¢
:‚î ¢¤¢ ¢›ø

p + s1 A1 + s2 A2 = q + t1 B1 + t2 B2 (3)

R
Ý ƒ Æ þ ÷ü õ .À € µ Æ û ü þ‘ —¤‘ ú  ü € ã þ , 4  ¬‘ € ä ‚ Þ û p; q; A1 ; A2 ; B1 ; B2 ñ‘ Ÿ

,A2 = (a12 ; a22 ; a32 ; a42 ) ,A1 = (a11 ; a21 ; a31 ; a41 ) ,q = (q1 ; : : :; q4 ) ,p = (p1 ; : : :; p4 )
éÂÏ ø¢ ô¤‘ú ‘— ñø ý‘û‚Ôób õ Âð ŕ ,B2 = (b12 ; b22 ; b32 ; b42 ) ,B1 = (b11 ; b21 ; b31 ; b41 )

4
 :¢ªüõ Û¬‘Ÿ ݃û¢ ¤Âì “Â“ ¤ (3)
8
>
>
>
p1 + s1 a11 + s2 a12 = q1 + t1 b11 + t2 b12
>
>
>
>
< p2 + s1 a21 + s2 a22 = q2 + t1 b21 + t2 b22
>
(4)
>
>
> p3 + s1 a31 + s2 a32 = q3 + t1 b31 + t2 b32
>
>
>
>
>
:
p4 + s1 a41 + s2 a42 = q4 + t1 b41 + t2 b42
Û¬‘Ÿ Âþ¥ ù‘Úµ¨¢ ,´¨¤ ´Þ¨ ‚“ –…Þ› Âþ‘¨ ø ² ´Þ¨ ‚“ s1 ; s2 ; t1 ; t2 ý¤¢ –…Þ› ñ‘Öµ÷ ‘“

:¢ªüõ
2 32 3 2 3
a a ,b11 ,b12 s1 q1 , p1
66 a11 a12 ,b21 ,b22 7
7 6 7
6 s2 7 6
6 q2 , p2 7
7
64 a21 a22
31 32 ,b31 ,b32 7
56 5=6
4 t1 7 4 q3 , p3 7
5 (5)

a41 a42 ,b41 ,b42 t2 q4 , p4

×þ ÍÖê E2 ø E1 ‚Ø€þ .À€îüõ Óþ Â㗠f : R4 ,! R4 üΡ ⓑ— ×þ ² ´Þ¨ 4  4 Åþ —‘õ
(q , p) ‚bÎÖ÷ ‚“ R4 ‚bÎÖ÷ ×þ ‘ú€— ø ×þ ‚î ´¨ ö‘ƒ“ ۓ‘ì –¤¬ ßþÀ“ À€ª‘“ ‚µª¢ íÂµª ‚bÎÖ÷
¥Â— ý‘û‚äÞ¹õ ‚b Þû ‚î ݃÷¢üõ .´¨ ýÌä ח f ,1 (q , p) ,¥Â— ‚b äÞ¹õ ,¢ªüõ ‚µª‘Ú÷
´¨ f0g “Â“ ‚µÆû ´ó‘Ÿ ßþ ¤¢ ŕ .À€µÆû ý¥õ Ýû ‘“ ø À€þüõ ´¨¢‚“ ‚µÆû ñ‘Öµ÷ ¥ üú—‘÷

ßþÃÚþ‘› ý¥õ ý‘ÌêÂþ¥ ø¢ ,E2 ø E1 ý‘› ‚“ Âð ñ‘Ÿ .´¨ ‘ª• ø ×þ ‚“ ×þ f ‚¹ƒµ÷ ¤¢ ø
’› f¢À¹õ ,´¨ ‘ª• ø ×þ ‚“ ×þ f ‚î ‘¹÷ ¥ üóø ,¢ªüõ ­ä (5) ´¨¤ éÂÏ ÍÖê ,݃€î
Ã÷ ý¥õ ý‘ÌêÂþ¥ ø¢ íÂµª ü€ãþ ,Àþüõ ´¨¢‚“ ù‘Úµ¨¢ ýÂ“ (s1 ; s2 ; t1 ; t2 ) ý¢Âê ‚“ Âʽ€õ
.´¨ ‚ÎÖ÷ ח ×þ

°ÜÎõ ßþ ,üΡ ý‘ûⓑ— ö‘“¥ ‚“ .´¨ ´¨¤ Í¡ ×þ E1 \ E2 Àþ ƒړ ÂÑ÷ ¤¢ ¤ üµó‘Ÿ ö€î
‚î ¢ªüõ ‚¹ƒµ÷ .´¨ ýÀ㓠×þ f ,1 (q , p) ¥Â— ‚äÞ¹õ ‚î ¢Âî ö‘ƒ“ –¤¬ ßþ ‚“ ö—üõ ¤
(3-14) Õ±Ï ø ´Æƒ÷ ×þ ‚“ ×þ f ßþÂ“‘€“ .´¨ ýÀ㓠×þ f : R4 ,! R4 üΡ ⓑ— ‚b µÆû
üú— ö ‚“ ’Æ€õ ¥Â— ‚bäÞ¹õ ‚î ¢Âî ¤‘ƒµ¡ ý¤Ï ö—üõ ¤ (5) ´¨¤ éÂÏ ßþÂ“‘€“ .´Æƒ÷ ‘ª•

‘“ ‚î ßþ ‚¹ƒµ÷ .Àƒ¨¤ ý‚ÎÖ÷ ߃€ ‚“ ö—üõ ,q °¨‘€õ ƒƒç— ø p ßµªÀû‘Ú÷ ´“‘™ ‘“ …f·õ .Àª‘“

5
 .Àƒ¨¤ âϑֵõ Âƒè ‚b½Ô¬ ø¢ ‚“ ö—üõ E2 ø E1 °¨‘€õ ý¥õ ñ‘Öµ÷
¤ üΡ –„¢‘ãõ ý‘ûù‘Úµ¨¢ ‚“ ¯“Âõ ý‘ûñb ¨ ý¤‘ƒÆ“ ‚î Àû¢üõ ö‘È÷ ü“¡ ‚“ „‘“ ñ‘·õ

m üÜî ù‘Úµ¨¢ .¢¢ ’› Ýþù¢Âî °Æî üΡ ý‘ûⓑ— ¢¤õ ¤¢ ‚î ü—‘ä…ϐ ×Þî ‚“ ö—üõ ö€î

:Ýþ ƒðüõ ÂÑ÷ ¤¢ Âþ¥ –¤¬ ‚“ ¤ ×þ ‚›¤¢ üóú¹õ n ‚bó¢‘ãõ

8
>
>
>
a11 x1 +


+ a1n xn = b1
>
<
> ::: (6)
>
>
>
: a x +


+a x = b
m1 1 mn n m
:‚¬…¡ ¤Ï ‚“ ‘þ

Ajxi = jbi (7)

,Àª‘“ ùÀª ۃØȗ ÂÔ¬ ¥ ´¨¤ éÂÏ ø „‘“ À€÷‘õ ö ² éÂÏ ‚î üû‘Úµ¨¢ .A = [aij ] ö ¤¢ ‚î
:À€õ‘÷üõ (7) ‘þ (6) ‚“ ‚µÆ“ø (Å÷‘¹µõ ‘þ) ßÚÞû ù‘Úµ¨¢

Ajxi = j0i (8)

:À€îüõ ‚¬…¡ ¤ üΡ ý‘ûⓑ— ‚b¨À€û ø „‘“ –„¢‘ãõ ý‘ûù‘Úµ¨¢ ۟ ±› ߃“ ‚bФ Âþ¥ ñøÀ›

‚¨À€û ±›
b ’Æ€õ ¥Â— ‚bäÞ¹õ ßµê‘þ ùÀª ù¢¢ b ýÂ“ (6) ۟
b ‚“ ’Æ€õ ¥Â— ‚bäÞ¹õ ö¢“ üú—‘÷ ùÀª ù¢¢ b ý¥‚“ ’› ¢›ø
f üΡ ⓑ— ö¢“ ‘ª• b Âû ý¥‚“ ’› ¢›ø
f0g = ‚µÆû ¢›ø –¤¬ ¤¢ ’› üÚ÷‘Úþ
‚µÆû ßµê‘þ ßÚÞû ù‘Úµ¨¢ ۟

Âþ¥ ¤¢ ¢¢ ’› üΡ ý‘ûⓑ— ‚b ¨À€û ‚“ Û¨— ‘“ ö—üõ ö€î ‚î ¤ ý±› ô‘ØŸ ¥ ‚÷Þ÷ À€

.À÷ùÀõ ‘ûßþ Âޗ ¤¢ ýÂÚþ¢ ý‘ûñ‘·õ .Ýþ ¤øüõ

ù‘Úµ¨¢ ‚î ¢Âî ¤‘ƒµ¡ ý¤Ï ¤ b ö—üõ ,Àª‘“ ‘ûñú¹õ ¢À㗠¥ ǃ“ –„¢‘ãõ ¢À㗠Âð (4-14)
.Àª‘“ ‚µªÀ÷ ’›

6
¢›ø b 2 Rm ü€ãþ ,´Æƒ÷ ‘ª• ¯“Âõ üΡ ⓑ— 2-14 Õ±Ï ‚î ´¨ m > n ´ó‘Ÿ ßþ .–‘±™

2 .´¨ üú— f ,1 (b) ‚î ¢¤¢

¤¢ ‚î x + x ¥ À€—¤‘±ä (6) ý‘û’› ‚bÞû ,Àª‘“ (6) ’› ×þ (x1 ; : : :; xn) = x Âð (5-14)
.´¨ Âґ€µõ ßÚÞû ù‘Úµ¨¢ ’› ×þ x ö

Å • ,´ ¨ f ‚b µ Æ û ¤¢ x ü € ã þ ,À ª‘ “ ß Ú Þ û ù‘ Ú µ ¨¢ ’ › × þ x  ð .f (x) = b Ý þ ¤¢ .–‘ ± ™

ù‘Ú÷ ,Àª‘“ (6) ¥ ýÂÚþ¢ ’› x Àƒ€î ­Âê ÅØãó‘“ .f (x + x) = f (x) + f (x)

f (x , x) = f (x) , f (x) = b , b = 0

2 .x = (x , x) + x ´ª÷ ö—üõ ø ´¨ ‚µÆû ¤¢ x , x ŕ

´ó‘Ÿ ßþ ¤¢ ‚î ÝþÀþ¢ .Àþ ƒړ ÂÑ÷ ¤¢ ¤ (‚ó¢‘ãõ ¢À㗠= ñú¹õ ¢Àã—) m = n Ýúõ ´ó‘Ÿ
,´ ó‘ Ÿ ß þ ¤¢ .f0g = f ‚ µ Æ û , þÁ •öø ¤ø f ,‘ ª • f ,× þ ‚ “ × þ f :À € µ Æ û ñ¢‘ ã õ  þ¥ Í þÂ ª

’› ,² ´Þ¨ ¥ A,1 ¤¢ (7) éÂÏ ø¢ ö¢Âî ’Â® ‘“ ø ´¨ ÂþÁ•öø ¤ø Ã÷ ,A ,¯“Âõ Åþ —‘õ
:Àþüõ ´¨¢‚“ ù‘Úµ¨¢ (¢Âê ‚“ Âʽ€õ)

jxi = A,1 jbi (9)

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