Effects of Traditional and Simplified Methods of Rhythm-Reading Instruction

Author(s): Muriel J. Bebeau

Source: Journal of Research in Music Education , Summer, 1982, Vol. 30, No. 2
(Summer, 1982), pp. 107-119
Published by: Sage Publications, Inc. on behalf of MENC: The National Association for
Music Education

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/3345042

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 JRME 1982, VOLUME 30, NUMBER 2, PAGES 107-119 107

Two experiments were conducted to compare the effectiveness of teaching rhythm reading
using a traditional approach versus a simplified speech cue method. Results of the first
experiment indicated the superiority of the speech cue method. Experiment 2 was
conducted to determine whether the speech cue method could be used effectively with
minimal teacher training. A 23-item rhythm-reading test was administered to 107 third
graders before and after rhythm instruction by each method. In both experiments, the
speech cue group made significantly greater gains than the traditional group. The
difference between pretest and posttest scores was significant for both treatment groups.
The findings have general application for rhythm-reading instruction using the speech
cue method for early training.

Muriel J. Bebeau The University of Minnesota

Effects of Traditional
and Simplified Methods
of Rhythm-Reading
Instruction

Little experimental research has been conducted to substantiate the

effectiveness of various rhythm-reading procedures and methods advo-
cated by music educators. Only two studies (Boyle, 1970; Palmer, 1976)
provide answers to questions related to the effectiveness of rhythm-
reading procedures commonly used in schools. Such investigations are
important because the inability to read rhythmic patterns is a major
source of error in sight reading music (Van Nuys and Weaver, 1943;
Thomson, 1953).
The purpose of this study was to experimentally compare the effects
on rhythm-reading accuracy of two methods of rhythm-reading instruc-
tion: a traditional approach that incorporated prior research findings
and a simplified speech cue method. In addition to reporting results of
two experiments, this paper examines some assumptions music educa-
tors have made about when and how to begin rhythm-reading instruc-

Requests for reprints should be sent to Muriel J. Bebeau, Assistant Professor, School of
Dentistry, Health Science Unit A, 515 Delaware Street SE, Minneapolis 55455.

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108 BEBEAU

tion, analyzes problems entailed in currently recommended methods,

and describes a simplified speech cue method of rhythm-reading
instruction.

Assumptions about Early Instruction

Training in music-reading skills may be a desirable way to overcome

errors in rhythm reading, but it is difficult for children to acquire these
skills at an early age. Music educators generally agree that acquisition of
a pulse response, preferably through physical activities, is a preferred, if
not a necessary, prerequisite to rhythm-reading instruction (Cheyette
and Cheyette, 1969; Elliott, 1960; Ernst and Gary, 1965; Garretson,
1976; Gelineau, 1970). In their view, the traditional method of rhythm
reading should be introduced only after children can maintain the
underlying beat and apply the necessary mathematical concepts. If
rhythm-reading instruction is begun with young children, methods that
simplify the process, such as those of Orff and Kodily, are recommend-
ed.
The assumption that acquisiton of pulse response is a prerequisite to
rhythm reading has not been demonstrated experimentally, but there is
evidence about the importance of maintaining an underlying pulse
response by overt movement when reading rhythm in the traditional
way. Boyle's investigation (1970) indicated that students who read
rhythm in the traditional way made significantly greater gains as a result
of rhythm reading if they were required to maintain an overt pulse
response at all times. Is maintaining an overt pulse response also
essential if reading rhythm by a simplified method? Will students who
read rhythms exclusively by simplified methods maintain accurate pulse
duration between notes and series of notes?
While methods that simplify the reading process are recommended
for beginners, it is generally assumed that students will eventually
transfer to a more traditional method. However, the influence of
simplified methods on later rhythm-reading ability has not been studied.
Use of any method of instruction raises numerous questions: Why do
students make so many errors when reading rhythm by the traditional
method? How do the various methods simplify the process? Can
simplified methods be used effectively to teach complex rhythms? Will
use of such methods reduce error in sight reading?

Analysis of Rhythm-Reading Methods

Traditional methods. Music educators understandably delay the teach-

ing of rhythm reading by the traditional methods until children have
acquired the necessary mathematical concepts needed to answer ques-
tions such as: "If an eighth note gets one count in 6 meter, how many
counts will a sixteenth note get?" or, "If a dot adds half the value of the
note to the note, how many counts will a dotted eighth note get in 4 or i
meter?" But rhythm reading is a difficult skill to acquire even when
children or novice adults possess the mathematical skills.

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 JRME 109

The reasons for this difficulty become evident when educators consid-
er the steps a novice must think through to determine when and how
long to play a given note. These steps are: (1)determine which symbol
receives one pulse in the given meter signature, (2)identify the symbol
by name or meaning, (3)determine the durational value of the symbol,
(4)set up a steady pulse response with accent on the appropriate pulse,
and (5)make a rhythmic response on the appropriate pulse. For exam-
ple, when asked to read in 4 meter, the child must (1) know that the
quarter note receives one pulse in 4 meter, (2) know that a dot adds half
the value of the note to the note, (3)recognize that half of two is one,
thus the half note receives three pulses in this case, (4)set up a steady
pulse response (usually by verbally counting "one, two, three, four"),
and (5)make a motor response on the appropriate pulse. Since the
motor response is as likely to be performed on a "one" as on a "two"
when a dotted half note is encountered in 4 meter, the motor and verbal
responses may actually interfere with one another. This problem is
compounded because a child is usually required to make a motor
response every time he or she makes a verbal response, since the music
selected for teaching children to read musical notation contains far more
quarter notes than any other kind of note. Thus, the child may acquire a
response set for making simultaneous verbal and motor responses.
Simplified methods. Methods of simplifying rhythm reading have been
developed by Orff and Kodaily. In the Orff method, the rhythmic
pattern of spoken words is used to elicit a rhythmic response to a symbol
or group of symbols. For example, if the child is to play ? J, the teacher
may suggest, "your name plays that rhythm, Jim-my Jones." The Kodaly
method pairs the words "ta" and "ti" with the quarter note and eighth
note. The method relies on mathematical skills only to determine the
number of syllables a half or whole note should receive. The methods of
Orff and Kodaly differ in the way in which they simplify the process, but
both methods employ speech cues.
The simplified speech cue method. The present study describes a method
that combines elements of both the Orff and Kodaly methods. From
Orff, it employs the idea of selecting speech cues that have durational
value closely corresponding to the actual value of the notes with which
they are paired. From Kodly, it uses the idea of permanently pairing
speech cues with symbols. In the present method, a separate spoken cue,
selected because of its inherent durational value, is permanently paired
with each kind of note and rest. The speech cues elicit appropriate
rhythmic responses to notes, and a combination of speech and move-
ment cues inhibits inappropriate motor responses on rests and the
successive pulses of held notes. The steps involved are considerably less
complex than those that must be learned when applying mathematical
concepts as in the traditional method. When rhythmic symbols are read
by applying speech cues, the child (1)identifies the symbol by word and
hand movement, (2)speaks the word and executes the body motion that
simultaneously performs the rhythmic response, and (3)maintains a
steady pulse while accenting the appropriate pulse.

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110 BEBEAU

Comparison of Traditional and Speech Cue Methods

Two experiments were conducted to compare a traditional method of

rhythm reading with a simplified speech cue method described in this
study. The traditional method, as defined for this study, incorporated
the findings of Boyle (1970). Students applied mathematical cues while
maintaining a separate overt pusle response. The comparison of the
methods was made when the mathematical skills required to transfer
from one meter base to another were held constant. Instruction consist-
ed of the presentation of 12 rhythmic concepts in 4 meter. The
dependent measure was accuracy of children's rhythm-reading ability.
In Experiment 1, a music teacher with prior experience using both
methods conducted both instructional sessions with a carefully matched
sample of students. Experiment 2 was conducted to replicate Experi-
ment 1 with a larger and more representative sample and to establish the
ease with which the innovation could be installed in an instructional
setting. For this reason, an experienced music teacher who had no prior
knowledge of the speech cue method taught both methods in Experi-
ment 2.

EXPERIMENT 1

Method

The children in the study consisted of all pupils enrolled in the third
grade of a private school in Phoenix, Arizona. The class of 27 children
from middle-class homes was selected for the study because they had not
had group instruction in the reading of rhythmic patterns as a part of
their school music program. Permission was secured from all parents in
order to permit assignment of children to either treatment. The
children were pretested with a 23-item rhythm-reading test. Matched
pairs, formed on the basis of grade point average and pretest scores,
were then randomly assigned to one of the two treatment groups.
The mean rhythm-reading pretest score for the traditional group,
which consisted of nine boys and five girls, was 10.52 (SD = 53.94) and
the mean grade point average was 3.05 (SD = .62). The mean rhythm-
reading pretest score for the simplified speech cue group, which
consisted of eight boys and five girls, was 11.46 (SD = 24.35) and the
mean grade point average was 3.06 (SD = .55). The large SD reflects
prior instruction of some students in each group.
For this investigation, the general objective of reading rhythm was
modified as follows: Given 12 symbols arranged in rhythmic patterns
(excluding syncopated rhythms and tied notes) in 4 time meter, the
student will play or clap the rhythmic pattern, while maintaining a
steady pulse.
The only difference between treatments was the experimental varia-
tion. Comparison of methods was limited to 1 meter, since third-grade
children have not mastered the concepts of fractions needed in the
traditional method to transfer from one meter base to another.

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 JRME 1

In the speech cue treatment, the instructional cues, or inf

given the children consisted of spoken cues and associated
cues (see Figure 1). When children using this method see a n
they speak the associated cue and perform the kinesthetic m
they clap or play the rhythmic pattern. Children in the
treatment were given the usual mathematical cues to ass
reading the notes or rests. They were required to count pul
they clapped or played the rhythmic pattern of the notes.
The content was organized into 18 lessons, as shown in
Outline in Figure 2. The lesson content was the same for each
the instructional cues given to the children at the begin
instructional session differed according to treatment. An exa
information presented, which includes the instructional cue
each group for lesson 7, follows:

JJ-- IJJJJJJ W I
Traditional group: Remember, there are four pulses in a measure, and
the quarter note receives one pulse. The new note is an eighth note
[teacher points to the eighth note]. Each eighth note receives one half a
pulse. Count 1, 2, 3, 4, evenly, and clap once on count 1, once on count

Figure 1-Speech and visual cues for held notes

Symbol Speech Cues Visual Cues for Held Notes

"tahn"
"um

"half note"

"hat rest" (whisper) (

o "wa-ter-me-lon"

"great
(whisper) big whole rest" "wa-ter-men-on" ,,umrn
-- "whole-rest" 3 meter
(whisper)
"whole rest" 2 meter
(whisper)
d. "half note dot"
"ta" "ta ta" "half - note - dot"
"ta" (whisper) r
3

"tri-pel-et" " ,
"tahn dot"
"tick-a-tick-a"
2 "skip-ping" "tahn - dot" "hat rest"
Note: After a rhythmic response is established for each kind of note or
duple meter, the child is taught to accent the pulse indicated by the time si
and to use bar lines to determine where the accent should occur. Rhythms i
meter are then introduced.

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112 BEBEAU

2, twice on count 3, then rest on count 4. Like this [teacher demon-

strates]. Let's read and clap together.
Speech cue group: Remember, there are four pulses in each measure.
The new note is called an eighth note [teacher points to the eighth note].
It is read "ta" when it is alone and "ta-ta" when two are found together.
"Ta-ta" is read on one pulse. Like this [teacher demonstrates]. Let's read
and clap together: "Tahn, tahn, ta-ta, um, tahn, ta-ta, ta-ta, tahn."
Practice exercises that contained 30 to 40 rhythmic patterns were
designed for each of the 12 rhythmic concepts. The first few exercises
for each lesson included many examples of the new concept. Subsequent
exercises integrated the new concepts with concepts presented in previ-
ous lessons. The possible combination of concepts for the exercises was
limited to those that frequently occur in music. The sample exercises
presented on the content outline indicate the complexity of the patterns
the children clapped during the practice portion of the lesson.
A criterion test (see Figure 3) and scoring procedures were developed
for pretest and posttest purposes. Three experienced music teachers
participated in the development and field testing of the test and scoring
procedures. The first part of the test was designed to measure the
student's ability to read each of the twelve rhythmic concepts taught

Figure 2-Content Outline by Lesson

Lesson Symbol presented (both groups) Sample rhythmic phrases used for
rhythm reading practice (both groups)

1. Rt inst r Iumnt II
4. 3.3 3

10. jvi. 4 nc- It

7. 4iJ I 2cp eJ ,,I
8. Rhythm instruments introduced

9.4
10. Review concepts
d, S- jl-
11. 4 i. .i. i 1 t IJ
12. Review concepts II
13. .fT 4 .. j
14. Review concepts

16. Review concepts; ensemble playing

17. Review concepts; ensemble playing
18. Review concepts; ensemble playing

Note. From 30 to 40 measures containing variations of the rhythm pattern

described were written on a staff-lined chalk board. The notation was written in

either clef on various degrees of the staff.

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 JRME 113

during the treatment phase of the experiment. Since the objective was
concise measurement of the concepts, items were not longer than one or
two measures in 4 meter, except when it was necessary to have a measure
preceding and following a measure in which concepts such as whole rest
or whole note were being assessed. The items were arranged from
simple to complex in the test, and each rhythmic concept was presented
in at least two separate items. Two additional items were prepared to
assess the student's ability to maintain a steady pulse. These items were
eight and ten measures in length and contained only simple rhythmic
patterns.
Responses to the 23-item test were independently scored at different
times by three separate judges who assigned from zero to five points for
varying degrees of rhythm and tempo accuracy. The scale was designed
to give slightly more weight to accuracy in performing the rhythmic
pattern than to accuracy for maintaining a steady tempo, since the
performer's inability to read the rhythmic pattern is most often responsi-
ble for variations in tempo. Because it was usually possible to detect
which treatment the child had received as the posttest items were being
scored, each judge was asked to score each item at two different times,
compare the scores, and resolve any discrepancies. Reliability estimates

Figure 3-Rhythm Reading Test'

Directions: After I say the number of the exercise, play or clap the rhythm. Try to
maintain a steady pulse. If you make an error, you may repeat the item. I may ask
you to repeat an item if it is unclear.

1. JJJ jI 10. J. JJ II 19. JJ. J II

2. Jt iJJ 11. | I-J 11 20. i
3. ,,11II 12. ,J-Ioll| 21. r J i,
4. ,,,I 13. ,=,JJ 111 22. ,,I,,1,,11 ,, J 11, ,
f--

5. IJ. J II 14. JZ J i1-1 oll JJJIJJJJ IJ J IJJJ

6. JJ tJ J 11 15. J J I-"I J. 11 23. IJJ J IJ-- ol JLJ- t

7. JJJJlo IJJJJII 16. J J .7 JII jtjt Jj" J l,,. .ll
8. J1,JJII 17. "J JZ I
9. , J" II 18. ; ,, J;."IJ 1II
'For presentation to students, items were prepared on a series of 10"
by 12" cards. Each item was presented in 4 meter and all notation
appeared on the first space of the treble clef staff.

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114 BEBEAU

among judges' ratings for the items ranged from correlations of .80 to
.96, indicating substantial interjudge agreement. The average of the
three independent scorings (115 points possible) was used for analysis.
Procedures

The children were individually tested, and their responses were tape
recorded for later scoring. Procedures for pretesting and posttesting
were identical, except that during pretesting, children were permitted to
select one of several methods for playing the items. Since most children
had little prior training in rhythm reading, testing was stopped if a child
missed four consecutive items. During the posttest, all children complet-
ed all items by clapping. Children were directed to count or speak the
spoken cues as they clapped each item.
The children were instructed in two separate groups, and the order of
instruction for the groups was reversed each week. Both instructional
sessions were conducted in a nearby music room by the investigator who
was employed as the school music teacher. The investigator had ten
years of experience using the traditional method and one year of
experience teaching the speech cue method. Absenteeism was fairly
infrequent during the four-week experiment, but biweekly make-up
sessions were conducted to maintain equivalency of the groups due to
attrition factors.
Each group received 15 minutes instruction for each of 18 days. A
new symbol was introduced in 12 different lessons. The children in the
speech cue group were taught the spoken cue and its accompanying
kinesthetic cue; children in the traditional group were taught the value
name of the note and the number of pulses it received in 4 meter.
Practice in clapping out and reading various rhythmic patterns that
contained the new note was then provided for both groups. This was
followed (except for the first lesson) by practice exercises that combined
the new symbol with symbols learned in prior lessons. All practice
exercises were written on the chalkboard for the first 15 lessons. The
notation, identical for each group, was written on the various degrees of
the staff, in either clef, in the range that is common to vocal music.
Common rhythm instruments were introduced during the eighth
lesson and were used during review lessons and ensemble sessions to add
variety. Children learned to play the rhythm on rhythm instruments as
an alternative to the clapping procedure used to teach the concepts.

Results

The experimental design was a pretest-treatment-posttest design with

random assignment of matched pairs to the two treatment groups. The
data were analyzed by use of a t test.
The mean pretest and posttest scores on the rhythm reading test for
the traditional and speech cue treatments are shown in Table 1. No
significant difference existed between the mean pretest scores for the
two treatment groups. The greater pretest SD of the speech cue group
of 24.35 is accounted for by two pupils who had pretest scores of 68.

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 JRME 115

Most pupils in both groups had pretest scores of 0. The test for
homogeneity of variance yielded an Fobs of 1.84, which did not exceed
the critical value for the .05-level test, F(12, 12) = 2.60. The greater
posttest SD of the traditional groups is accounted for by scores that
ranged from 23 to 94 in a negatively skewed distribution (M = .78, Mdn
= 85.5). Three scores were greater than 1 SD below the mean. The
scores of the speech cue group ranged from 83 to 110 in a slightly
negatively skewed leptokurtic distribution (M = 100, Mdn = 101.5). The
test for homogeneity of variance of posttest scores yielded an Fobs of 7.30,
which exceeded the critical value for the .01-level test, F(12, 12) = 4.16.

Table 1-Comparison of Pretest and Posttest Rhythm Reading Scores by

Treatment: Experiment I

Pretest Posttest Comparison

Treatment Group n Mean S D Mean S D D t
Traditional 14 10.52 17.94 78.12 24.49 67.70 11.26**
Speech cue 13 11.46 24.35 100.15 7.58 88.69 14.84**
D .94 22.03 21.09
Comparison
t .11 3.51** 2.39*

Note: Maximum score = .115.

*p < .05; **p < .01.
EXPERIMENT 2
Method

Eighty children from typical middle-class homes who were third

graders in a suburban school near Phoenix, Arizona, were pretested and
randomly assigned to the two treatment conditions.
The music teacher who voluntarily administered the treatments had
15 years of experience as an elementary school music teacher. The
method that she regularly used to teach rhythm was similar to the
traditional method described in Experiment 1 in every respect except
ordinary variations in order of presentation of concepts and slight
variations in information given the children to enable them to perform a
rhythmic pattern. This teacher was given one hour of speech cue
training by the investigator two weeks before Experiment 2 began.

Procedures

The procedures, materials, and data analysis for Experiment 2 w

identical to those used for Experiment 1, except that no make-
sessions were conducted to insure equivalency of the groups due
attrition factors. All 80 children completed instruction, but 30 child
were randomly selected from each group for comparison of gain sco
Two children, one from each treatment group, missed posttest sessio
due to absenteeism and were dropped from the experiment.

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116 BEBEAU
Results

Table 2 shows the mean pretest and posttest scores on the rhythm-
reading test by treatment for Experiment 2. The 8.12 point difference in
posttest scores between the traditional group and the speech group was
not significant, t(56) = 1.59, p < .10. However, the gain score for 56.36
for the speech cue group was significantly greater (t(56) = 2.03, p < .05)
than the gain score of 46.47 for the traditional group. The fact that the
mean pretest score for the traditional group was considerably higher
than that of the speech cue group accounts for the lack of significant
difference between groups when posttest scores only are compared.
In Experiment 2, posttest scores ranged from 14 to 95 for the
traditional group (M = 60.71, Mdn = 62) and from 37 to 97 for the
speech cue group (M = 68.83, Mdn = 67). The test for homogeneity of
variance of posttest scores between groups yielded an Fobs of 1.76, which
did not exceed the critical value for F(28, 30) = 1.87. The grand mean of
the combined traditional and speech cue groups was 64.82, SD 19.59.
The greater variance of the traditional group is accounted for by seven
pupils' scores that were lower than 1 SD below the grand mean, two of
which were lower than 2 SD below the grand mean. Only two pupils
from the speech cue group attained scores slightly lower than 1 SD below
the grand mean. The number of scores that exceeded 1 SD above the
grand mean were equal for the two groups.
In Experiment 2, the mean gains in rhythm-reading performance
from pretest to posttest were not as great as they were for Experiment 1,
but the gains of 46.47 for the traditional group and 56.36 for the speech
cue group were significant (t(28) = 16.66, p < .01 for the speech cue
group). Both the traditional and the speech cue treatment significantly
improved the rhythm-reading performance of these third-grade chil-
dren.

Table 2--Comparison of Pretest and Posttest Rhythm Reading Scores by

Treatment: Experiment II
Pretest Posttest Comparison
Treatment Group na Mean S D Mean S D D t
Traditional 29(40) 14.01 13.27 60.71 21.60 46.47 13.92**
Speech Cue 29(40) 11.32 11.41 68.83 16.25 56.36 16.66**
D 2.69 8.12 9.89
Comparison
t .81 1.59 2.03*

Note: Maximum score = .115. aNumber in pa

children in each treatment group.
*p < .05.
**p < .01.

DISCUSSION

This study was conducted to determine the comparative effec

speech cue method and the traditional mathematical cue m

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 JRME 117

teaching students to read rhythmic phrases. Evidence yielded by two

separate experiments favored the speech cue method. In Experiment 1,
the differences between posttest scores were significant at the .01 level,
favoring the speech cue group. In Experiment 2, differences between
posttest scores were not significant, but differences between gain scores
were significant (p < .05) in favor of the speech cue group. In addition,
these experiments indicate that third-grade students taught to read
rhythm by either method can make dramatic gains in rhythm reading as
a result of systematic, regular instruction.
The data from this study suggest that, at least for the kinds of
rhythmic instruction described herein, several advantages are associated
with the use of the speech cue method with beginning musicians. First,
students using the speech cue method performed rhythmic patterns
more accurately than students using the traditional method. Second,
although the number and kinds of errors made by students were not
systematically recorded during training, the investigator noted that
when using the speech cue method the teacher stopped less frequently
to correct rhythm-reading scores and thus completed more practice
exercises during instruction than when using the traditional method.
Third, the investigator observed that students using spoken cues had
little difficulty maintaining an independent part during ensemble play-
ing and were not as easily confused as traditional students by a part that
was inconsistent with their own.
Finally, an interesting finding with respect to group instruction in
rhythm reading was an observed reduction in the within-group variance
attributed to the speech cue strategy. In both experiments, the greater
variance of the traditional method group could be accounted for by the
number of students who attained scores between one and three standard
deviations below the grand mean. Planning for instruction in general
music classes is often frustrating to teachers because they must accom-
modate individual differences related not only to scholastic ability but
also to prior musical achievement. Instruction directed to the midpoint
of such a group ususally succeeds only in increasing the range with
respect to that skill and in either frustrating or boring students. A
strategy for teaching that reduces performance variation as a result of
instruction is important.
The differential effectiveness of the two methods compared was
demonstrated only for third graders, taught to read rhythmic phrases in
4 meter. The comparison was limited to rhythms in one meter base since
mathematical skills required to transfer from one meter base to another
are seldom well established by third grade. Whether the accuracy in
rhythmic performance obtained with the speech cue method would
extend to rhythms in any other meter base is open to question.
Presumably, at least for young children, the speech cue method would
be more effecient because little additional training is required to play
rhythms in any given meter base. The student changes meter simply by
making the accent indicated by the meter signature apparent in his or
her speech and movement (see Figure 1).
The importance of requiring students to maintain a separate overt

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118 BEBEAU

pulse response while learning to read rhythmic patterns (Boyle, 1970)

may be a unique requirement of the traditional method and not
generalizable to other methods. Students in the speech cue treatment
were not required to maintain a separate overt pulse response, yet they
read rhythmic phrases with greater precision than traditional method
trained students. The application of mathematical relationships requires
concentration and, as indicated by the task analysis, a considerable
amount of cognitive processing. If the traditional method student does
not concentrate strongly upon maintaining the underlying beat, he may
be tempted merely to approximate the durational value of the symbols.
By requiring the student to maintain an overt pulse response, Boyle may
have been ensuring that a student actually practice applying mathemati-
cal relationships, which in turn resulted in improved accuracy.
Inability to maintain a steady pulse is often thought to be a major
cause of inaccurate rhythm reading (Cheyette and Cheyette, 1969;
Elliott, 1960; Ellison, 1959; Ernst and Gary, 1965; Garretson, 1976;
Gelineau, 1970). Data from the present study suggest that the inability to
read phrase rhythms accurately is not a function of an inability to
maintain a steady pulse. Rather, it is more likely a function of the
student's inability to process the information in time to make the desired
response. Therefore, it seems doubtful that methods that stress early
acquisition of pulse response would be any more effective in assuring
accurate rhythm reading than methods that do not.
The present findings provide a rather strong indication that rhythm
reading need not be delayed until an underlying pulse response is well
established or until mathematical concepts are well developed. The
speech cue method enables early training in rhythm reading. As
children acquire the necessary mathematical concepts, usually during
the middle grades, a gradual transition will probably occur naturally,
especially if the child continues music instruction. The most predictable
problem associated with the transition would be reverting to the use of
speech cues when a difficult phrase is encountered. Whether reverting
to speech cues is less desirable than either stopping or altering the
underlying pulse to accommodate the need for additional cognitive
processing time, as is generally the case, is open to question. Whether the
speech cue method would be equally effective for all ages of beginning
students, whether older children who can more readily apply mathemat-
ical relationships would also read rhythms more precisely using the
speech cue method, and whether accuracy in rhythmic performance by
the speech cue method would be obtained when other meter bases are
introduced are all questions worthy of further research. Most important,
however, is evidence indicating that when instructional procedures in
rhythm reading are subjected to task analysis and empirical verification,
highly accurate reading of rather complex rhythmic patterns can
become a reality, even for the young child.

REFERENCES

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 JRME 119

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Cheyette, I., and Cheyette, H. Teaching music creatively in the elementary school. New
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Ellison, A. Music with children. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1959.
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Palmer, Mary. Relative effectiveness of two approaches to rhythm reading for
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Thomson, A. G. An analysis of difficulties in sight reading music for violin and clarinet.
Doctoral dissertation, University of Cincinnati, 1953.
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June 23, 1981

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