Carpeting
Carpet
Most wall-to-wall carpeting is produced by looping
yarns through a coarse-fiber backing, binding the
backs of the loops with latex, then applying a second
backing for strength and dimensional stability. Finally,
the loops may be left uncut for a tough, nubby surface
or cut for a soft, plush surface. The quality of carpet-
ing is determined mostly by its face weight, defined as
ounces of yarn (pile) per square yard.
Installation
There are two basic carpet installation methods:
Padded and Stretched  carpeting is stretched
over a separate pad and mechanically fastened at joints
and the perimeter. Soft foam pads are inexpensive
and give the carpet a soft, luxurious feel. The more
expensive jute and felt pads give better support and
dimensional stability and make the carpet last longer.
Glued-Down  carpets are usually used in areas
such as offices and stores, where carpets are subjected
to heavily loaded wheel traffic. They are usually
glued down with carpet adhesive with a pad. This
minimizes destructive flexing of the backing and
prevents rippling.
Carpet Pile Types
UNCUT LEVEL LOOP UNCUT UNEVEN LOOP
Good for offices and high-wear areas Good for offices and high-wear areas
CUT YARN, TIGHT TWIST CUT YARN AND UNCUT LOOP
Good for living rooms and bedrooms Good for family and children's rooms
402 FLOORS, WALLS, AND CEILINGS
Fiber Materials
Manufacturers prefer to specify the trade names of
their yarns rather than chemical type, because they
all claim to have variations with superior qualities.
However, the general characteristics are as shown
below.
Carpet Materials
Fiber Advantages Disadvantages
Acrylic Resembles wool Not very tough
Attracts oily dirt
Nylon Very tough None
(most popular) Resists dirt
Resembles wool
Low static buildup
Polyester Soft, luxurious Less resilient
deep pile Attracts oily dirt
Polypropylene Waterproof Crushes easily
indoor/outdoor Resists fading
Resists stains
Easily cleaned
Wool Most durable Most expensive
Easy to clean
Feels good
Easily dyed
CUT YARN, MINIMUM TWIST
Good for living rooms and bedrooms
CUT YARN (SHAG)
Entries, family and children's rooms
Resilient Flooring
Resilient Flooring
No-wax cushion vinyl is the most popular type of
resilient flooring, mainly because of its economical
price, ease of installation, and variety of patterns
and styles. However, linoleum flooring is making
a comeback because it offers similar advantages
without any of the adverse environmental impact of
vinyl products. Vinyl is made with petroleum prod-
ucts and can produce toxic fumes when it burns.
Linoleum is made from natural materials.
Available as 12-foot-wide rolls and as 9-by-9-
inch and 12-by-12-inch tiles, cushion vinyl consists
of a shiny (no-wax) clear vinyl coating, colored vinyl
substrate, high-density vinyl foam, and a felt back.
The roll material may be loose-laid, with double-
sided tape or joint adhesive only at seams, or it may
be fully glued down. Tiles are meant to be glued
down. Some are self-sticking; others are applied over
vinyl adhesive.
The primary measure of quality and longevity is
the thickness of the clear no-wax wear layer. When
the wear layer is worn through, the flooring has to
be replaced or periodically treated with a vinyl dress-
ing or wax.
All resilient flooring must be applied over a solid,
smooth base. If the base is not smooth, the vinyl will
appear wavy. If the base is not solid (plywood with a
missing knot, for example), women's heels or other
heavily loaded objects may punch through.
The table at right describes adequate bases for
resilient flooring. However, plywood is recom-
mended as the best underlayment by most resilient-
flooring manufacturers.
Plywood Underlayment
Underlayment grades of plywood have a solid, sanded
surface and solid inner plies for resistance to indenta-
tion and punctures from concentrated loads. APA
underlayment-rated plywood is also dimensionally
stable and eliminates swelling, buckling, and humps
around nails. Where floors may be subject to mois-
ture, use panels with an Exterior exposure rating.
Ordinary sanded plywood grades such as A-C or
B-C Exterior and C-D Plugged Exposure 1 plywood
are not adequate substitutes for underlayment grade,
because they do not insure equivalent resistance to
indentation or puncture.
The thickness of plywood underlayment required
over uneven floors depends on floor roughness and
expected loads. Usually a minimum thickness of
11⁄32 inch, although 1⁄4 inch is acceptable for under-
layment over smooth subfloors, especially in remod-
eling work. Thicker plywood underlayment, which
is stiffer and more dimensionally stable, is recom-
mended for large floor areas where sidelighting
across long expanses of flooring tends to highlight
any floor surface irregularities.
Plywood underlayment also provides a smooth
surface for installation of adhered carpet flooring.
Concentrated loads from wheel traffic may
cause deterioration of the plywood underlayment
face beneath resilient floor covering. For such appli-
cations, smooth, tempered hardboard underlayment
may be more appropriate.
Bases for Resilient Flooring
Existing Floor Cover or Repairs
Plywood subfloor, not Hardboard or plywood
rated as underlayment underlayment
Plywood rated as None needed
underlayment
OSB rated as None needed
underlayment
Single-layer Plywood underlayment,
board subfloor 5 ⁄ 8" minimum
Subfloor plus finish Replace damaged strips;
floor of strips less renail loose spots;
than 3" wide sand smooth
Subfloor plus finish Hardboard or plywood
floor of strips more underlayment
than 3" wide
Concrete None needed, but clean
thoroughly by degreasing
and wire brushing
Resilient Flooring 403
 Ceramic Tile
Tile Varieties
The word tile generally means any hard-wearing
material used to cover floors, walls, and roofs. In
building we are most interested in six categories of
tile intended to cover floors and walls
Glazed Wall Tile is intended for decorative
interior applications. The most popular size is 41⁄2 by
41⁄2 inches, but many other rectangular, hexagonal,
octagonal sizes are available.
Mosaic Tile is premounted and spaced on a
fabric backing. All mosaics come with 1⁄16-inch joints.
Paver Tile is formed by compressing clay
dust. Most pavers are rectangular, but hexagons and
Spanish patterns are also available.
Floor Tile (Porcelain) is made of highly
refined clay and fired at extreme temperatures, result-
ing in a floor surface which wears well and is water-
and frost-resistant.
Quarry Tile is an extremely hard, wear-re­
sistant, unglazed, moderately-priced tile which is
ideal for floors.
Natural Stone, usually cut to standard sizes, is
also used as a flooring tile. Granite, marble, and slate
are the most popular, with the granite and marble
usually polished to a mirror finish. 5. extra-heavy interior or exterior commercial.
Floor Tile Ratings
Floor tiles, unlike wall tiles, are subject to wear and
freezing, and must not be slippery underfoot. The
most important ratings to consider are as follows:
Coefficient of Friction (ASTM C 1028)
tells how slippery the tile is when dry and when wet.
It is thus vital when trying to avoid slip and fall inju-
ries. The American Disabilities Act (ADA) requires
ratings of ≥0.6 for level floors and ≥0.8 for ramps.
Water Absorption (ASTM C 373) tells the
maximum amount of water the tile can absorb as a
percentage by weight. It is important if exposed to
freeze–thaw cycles. Non-vitreous absorbs >7 percent
water, semi-vitreous absorbs 3 to 7 percent water,
vitreous absorbs .5 to 3 percent water, and impervious
absorbs <0.5 percent water.
Abrasive Hardness (ASTM C 501)
Measures the resistance to abrasion of the tile surface.
The higher the number, the harder the tile surface:
1. walls only.
2. low-traffic residential.
3. residential and medium interior commercial.
4. heavy interior commercial.

Modular Ceramic Tile Sizes

Type Thickness Shape Dimensions, inches
Glazed Wall 5⁄16 rectangular 3x6, 41⁄4x41⁄4, 6×41⁄4, 6x6, 6x8, 8x10
Mosaic 1⁄4 rectangular 1x1, 1x2, 2x2
1⁄4 hexagonal 1x1, 2x2
Paver 3⁄8 rectangular 4x4, 4x8, 6x6

1⁄2 rectangular 4x4, 4x8, 6x6

Floor 3⁄8 rectangular 6x6, 6x12, 12x12, 13x13, 16x16

Quarry 1⁄2 rectangular 3x3, 3x6, 4x4, 4x8, 6x6, 8x8

3⁄4 rectangular 4x8, 6x6

404 FLOORS, WALLS, AND CEILINGS

Tile Setting Materials
Cement Backerboard
Other than concrete, the best base for setting tiles is
cement backerboard, a fiberglass-reinforced cement
panel which is rigid and water-resistant. It comes in
panel sizes of 3×5 feet, 4×4 feet, and 4×8 feet and
thicknesses of 1⁄4 and 1⁄2 inches.
Fasten the backerboard in place using 11⁄4-inch
(11⁄2-inch for 1⁄2-inch board) No. 8 galvanized, wafer-
head, self-countersinking screws, available where
backerboard is sold.
Mortars and Adhesives
A wide variety of materials is available for setting tiles.
The choice depends on the application (wet or dry,
freezing or not) and the skill level of the tile setter.
Organic mastics are used exclusively for wall
tiles up to 6 by 6 inches which are not subject to
loads. They are convenient in that they are sup-
plied premixed in a can.
Thin-set mortars consist of premixed sand and
portland cement. A latex additive improves bonding,
water resistance, and flexibility. The latex version is
recommended over all wood substrates.
Grout
Grout (for filling the joints between tiles) may be
identical to the tile-setting material, except that
organic mastic may be used only for setting tile. More
commonly the grout is of finer consistency and con-
tains dye to match or complement the color(s) of the
tile. Latex grout, like latex-additive mortar, improves
bonding, water resistance, and flexibility.

Tile-Setting Materials
Material Form Bed, in Advantages Disadvantages
Organic adhesive
Ready-set mastic 1⁄16 Easy application Interior only
Low cost Immersion resistance
Flexible bond
Epoxy mortar 2 or 3 parts 1⁄16–1⁄8 Excellent resistance to Limited working time
mixed on site water and chemicals Difficult application
Very strong bond
Thin-set mortar Dry mix of 1⁄4 Immersion resistance Requirement of being
portland cement, Freeze resistance kept moist for 3 days
sand, and latex before grouting
Portland cement Portland cement, 3⁄4 walls Allowance for slight Presoaking of tiles
mortar sand, and water 11⁄4 floors leveling of uneven required; metal lath
mixed on site surfaces reinforcement
recommended

Tile Setting Materials 405

 Standard Tile Sizes
Wall Tile

FIELD TILE (thickness ⁄")

8"
6"
3" 6"
41/4" 6"
10"
8"
6" 6"
41/4" 41/4"

3" X 6" 41/4" X 41/4" 6" X 41/4" 6" X 6" 6" X 8" 8" X 10"
field field field field field field

TRIM SECTIONS (thickness ⁄")

6"
6"
5"
33/4" 41/4" 41/4"
3/4"
2" 2"

6" X 2" 6" X 33/4" 6" X 41/4" 41/4" X 6" 6" X 2" 41/4" X 41/4" 41/4" X 6" 6" X 5" 6" X 3/4"
bullnose bullnose bullnose 6" X 6" surface 41/4" X 6" surface curb bead
bullnose bullnose surface bullnose
bullnose

55/8" 55/8"
55/8" 55/8"
37/8" 37/8" 37/8" 37/8"
33/8"

41/4" X 37/8" 6" X 33/8" 6" X 37/8" 41/4" X 55/8" 6" X 37/8" 6" X 37/8" 6" X 55/8" 6" X 55/8" 6" X 55/8"
cove cove cove 6" X 55/8" base base base base base
cove

406 FLOORS, WALLS, AND CEILINGS

 Mosaic Tile

FIELD TILE (thickness ¼")

1" 2"

1"
2" 2"

1"

1" X 1" 1" X 2" 2" X 2"

field field field

2"

1"

1" octagon 2" octagon

field field

TRIM SECTIONS (thickness ¼")

1" 1"
1" 1"

1" 1"
1" 1"

1" X 1" 2" X 1" 1" X 1" 2" X 1"

bead bead cove cove

2" 2"

1" 1"

1" X 1" 1" X 2" 1" X 2" 2" X 2"

surface surface surface surface
bullnose bullnose bullnose bullnose

Standard Tile Sizes 407

 Paver Tile

PAVER FIELD TILE

(both ½" and ⁄" thick)
4" 6" 4"

4"
6"

8"

PAVER TILE TRIM

(½" thick unless noted)

3/8" 3/8"

8"
6" 6"

41/4" 4" 41/4"

6" X 6" 41/4" X 41/4" 4" X 8" surface 6" X 6" surface 8" X 4" surface 41/4" X 41/4"
bullnose bullnose bullnose bullnose bullnose surface
bullnose

6" 51/2" 51/2"

4" 6"

6" X 6" double 8" X 4" double 6" X 51/2" 6" X 51/2" 6" X 6" window sill
bullnose bullnose cove cove base or step nosing

408 FLOORS, WALLS, AND CEILINGS

 Quarry Tile

FIELD TILES (thickness ½") FIELD TILES (thickness ½" & ¾")
8" 4"

3" 6"

4"
3" 8" 8"
6" 6"
3" 4"

3" X 3" 3" X 6" 4" X 4" 8" X 8" 4" X 8" 6" X 6"
field field field field field field

QUARRY TILE TRIM

8"
6" 6" 6"

4" 4" 4"

4" X 4" X 1/2" 8" X 4" X 1/2" 6" X 6" X 1/2" 4" X 8" X 1/2" 6" X 6" X 3/4" 6" X 4" X 1/2" 6" X 6" X 1/2"
6" X 4" X 1/2" bullnose bullnose bullnose bullnose double double
bullnose bullnose bullnose

2" 6"

6"X 2" X 1/2" 6" X 6" X 3/4"

5" 5" cove window sill or step nosing
5"
5"

2" 6"

6" X 6" X 3/4"

6" X 5" X 1/2" 6" X 5" X 3/4" 6" X 5" X 1/2" 6" X 5" X 3/4" 6" X 2" X 3/4" window sill or step nosing
cove base cove base cove cove cove

Standard Tile Sizes 409

 Tile Patterns
Tile Patterns

Dark rectangle 50% Dark rectangle 50% Dark rectangle 50%

Light rectangle 50% Light rectangle 50% Light rectangle 50%

Dark rectangle 50% Dark rectangle 67% Dark rectangle 50%

Light rectangle 50% Light rectangle 33% Light rectangle 50%

Dark rectangle 50% Dark square 20% Dark square 50%

Light rectangle 50% Light rectangle 80% Light square 50%

Dark rectangle 50% Dark rectangle 89% Dark rectangle 58% Dark square 25%
Light rectangle 50% Light square 11% Light rectangle 17%

410 FLOORS, WALLS, AND CEILINGS

 Tile Patterns—Continued

Dark square 56% Dark square 75% Dark square 67%

Light square 44% Light square 25% Light square 33%

Dark square 25% Dark rectangle 50% Dark square 80% Dark square 31%
Light square 25% Light square 20% Light square 69%

Dark square 50% Light rectangle 25% Dark rectangle 40% Dark square 20% Small light square 4% Dark rectangle 32%
Light square 25% Light rectangle 40% Large light square 64%

Small light square 33% Light rectangle 33% Dark square 50% Dark square 20%
Large dark square 33% Light square 50% Light rectangle 80%

Tile Patterns 411