Quality of Sound

Sound is the sensation produced when pressure Sound Intensities

waves in the acoustic range of frequencies strike the
Intensity, db Sound Source
eardrum. Typically, a young person can hear sound
0 Threshold of hearing
over the range of 20 to 20,000 cycles per second, or
10 Rustling leaves
hertz (Hz).
20 Rural background
Sound quality involves sound source intensity,
30 Bedroom conversation
absorption, echo, standing-wave amplification, and
reverberation time. 40 Living room conversation
50 Large office activity

Intensity 60 Face-to-face conversation

Sound intensity is measured in decibels (db). The 70 Auto interior at 55 mph
0 db level is defined as a sound energy level of 10-16 80 Face-to-face shouting
watts per square centimeter and corresponds roughly 90 Downtown traffic
to the smallest sound detectable by the human ear. 100 Tablesaw
Perceived intensity, or sound “volume,” is loga- 110 Symphony orchestra maximum
rithmic; that is, a 10-db increase in intensity is an 120 Elevated train from platform
increase of 10 times the power of the sound wave, 130 Threshold of pain (rock concert)
but is perceived as a doubling of volume. The table at
140 Jet engine
right lists characteristic sound intensities of everyday
sources.
Sound Reflection and Absorption
Absorption
The fraction of energy absorbed by a surface is its
absorption coefficient, α. Gypsum drywall is highly
reflective (α = 0.05 at 500 Hz), whereas heavy car-
pet is highly absorptive (α = 0.57 at 500 Hz). One Direct
unit of absorption is equivalent to an area of one
square foot of perfect (α = 1.00) absorption.
High absorption does not reduce the intensity of
sound received directly from a source, but reduces Absorbed
the buildup of reflected sound. It thus reduces the Reflected
total intensity of sound in a space.
Absorption is measured at 125, 250, 500, 1,000,
2,000, and 4,000 Hz. In order to give a material a
single absorption figure, the noise-reduction coef-
ficient (NRC) is defined as the average of coeffi-
cients at 250, 500, 1,000, and 2,000 Hz. The table
on the facing page lists typical NRCs for surfaces
in the home.

542 SOUND
Noise-Reduction Coefficients
Typical Noise Reduction Coefficients (NRCs)
Absorption Coefficient at, Hz

Material 250 500 1,000 2,000 NRC

Brick Bare 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.04
Painted 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02
Carpet, Heavy On slab 0.06 0.14 0.37 0.60 0.29
On 40-oz foam pad 0.24 0.57 0.69 0.71 0.55
On foam with latex backing 0.27 0.39 0.34 0.48 0.37
Concrete Block Bare 0.44 0.31 0.29 0.39 0.36
Painted 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.09 0.07
Fabric 10-oz velour hung straight 0.04 0.11 0.17 0.24 0.14
14-oz velour pleated double 0.31 0.49 0.75 0.70 0.56
18-oz velour pleated double 0.35 0.55 0.72 0.70 0.58
Floor Bare concrete 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02
Resilient on concrete 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03
Bare wood 0.11 0.10 0.07 0.06 0.09
Parquet on concrete 0.04 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.06
Furniture Bare wood 0.04 0.05 0.07 0.07 0.06
Metal 0.04 0.05 0.07 0.07 0.06
Upholstered with plastic 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.50 0.50
Upholstered with fabric 0.37 0.56 0.67 0.61 0.55
Glass Plate 0.06 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.04
Double strength 0.25 0.18 0.12 0.07 0.16
Wall 1⁄ 2” gypsum drywall 0.10 0.05 0.04 0.07 0.07
Marble 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01
Glazed tile 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
Plywood paneling 0.22 0.17 0.09 0.10 0.15
Plaster Smooth finish on brick 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.03
Smooth finish on lath 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.04
Rough finish on lath 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.04
Cellulose Fiber Sprayed 5⁄ 8" on solid backing 0.16 0.44 0.79 0.90 0.42
Sprayed 1" on solid backing 0.29 0.75 0.98 0.93 0.74
Sprayed 1" on timber lath 0.90 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.98
Sprayed 11⁄ 4" on solid backing 0.30 0.73 0.92 0.98 0.73
Sprayed 3" on solid backing 0.95 1.00 0.85 0.85 0.91

Noise-Reduction Coefficients 543

 Absorption and Reverberation
Echo
An echo is a sound reflection. To be perceived as
a distinct sound, the reflected wave must arrive
at least 1⁄17th of a second after the direct wave.
Because sound travels at about 1,000 feet per sec-
ond, an echo must have travelled at least 60 feet
further than the direct sound. Thus, echoes occur
only in rooms more than 30 feet deep. Echoes are
stronger when the reflecting surface is highly reflec-
tive and is concave toward the listener (focussing
the reflected wave toward the listener).
Standing Waves
When the dimensions of a room are a multiple
of the wavelength of a sound, the sound wave
is reinforced by reflection. Frequencies are thus
selectively amplified, distorting the original, direct
sound. The problem is made worse by reflective
room surfaces, parallel room surfaces, and room
dimensions in simple ratios, such as 1:4, 1:3, etc.
Reverberation Time
The length of time required for the intensity of
sound in a space to diminish by 60 db is the rever-
beration time of the space. A room with too short a
reverberation time is acoustically dead; too long a
reverberation time confuses sounds. Reverberation
time can be calculated as
T = V/20A
where
T = reverberation time in seconds
V = volume of room in cubic feet
A = total absorption of the room
The procedure is as follows:
1. Calculate the areas of all surfaces, including
furnishings.
2. Multiply each surface area by its 500-Hz
absorption coefficient.
3. Sum the products to get total absorption, A.
4. Calculate reverberation time, T = V/20A.
544 SOUND
Acceptable Reverberation Times
1.4
TOO ALIVE
Room reverberation time, seconds
1.2
1.0
0.8
ACCEPTABLE
0.6
0.4
0.2
TOO DEAD
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Room volume x 1,000 cu ft
Example: What is the 500-Hz reverberation time
of a 12- by 15- × 8-foot room having a bare wood
floor, gypsum drywall ceiling, smooth plaster walls,
two 3- by 5-foot windows covered by pleated 14-oz
velour drapes, and 40 square feet (floor area) of
fabric-upholstered furniture?
Surface Area, sq ft α at 500 Hz Product
Floor 140 0.10 14.0
Ceiling 180 0.05 9.0
Wall 402 0.04 16.1
Drapes 30 0.49 14.7
Furniture 40 0.56 22.4
Total room absorption, A = 76.2
Reverberation time = 1,440/(20 × 76.2) =
0.94 seconds
The volume of the room in question is 12 × 15
× 8 feet = 1,440 cubic feet. Referring to the graph of
acceptable reverberation times. you find 0.3 to 0.8
seconds for a room of this volume. Thus, the com-
puted reverberation time falls outside the acceptable
range. Carpeting the floor (carpet on foam pad, α
= 0.57) would increase he total room absorption to
142 and bring the reverberation time down to an
acceptable 0.51 seconds.
Transmission of Sound
Sound can be transmitted through a wall, floor, Types of Sound Transmission
or ceiling in three ways, as seen in the illustration
at right:
Leaks or openings  allow sound to propagate as
though the wall, floor, or ceiling didn’t exist.
Examples are the space under a door, back-to-back
electrical fixtures, rough-in holes for pipes, and heat-
ing ducts connecting rooms.

Im
Airborne sounds  set a building surface into vibra-

tion. The vibration is carried through the rigidly
attached wall studs to the opposite surface, causing
it in turn to reradiate to the other side, much like
the two heads of a drum.
Impact  of an object falling on a floor causes the
ceiling attached to the same floor joists to radiate
sound to the room below.
Walls and floor-ceilings are rated by their abili-
ties to reduce sound transmission. The reduction is
measured in decibels, where 10 db corresponds to a
factor-of-10 difference in sound energy and a factor-
of-2 difference in sound loudness (volume). The
table at middle right shows the effects on hearing of
various levels of sound reduction between spaces.
Walls are rated by sound transmission class (STC),
roughly the sound reduction at 500 Hz, but taking
into consideration frequencies from 125 to 4,000
Hz as well. Floor-ceilings are rated by both STC
and impact insulation class (IIC), a measure of the
noise transmitted when objects are dropped on the
floor above.
The table at bottom right, from the U.S.
Department of Housing and Urban Development
(HUD) Minimum Property Standards, serves as a
guide to minimum acceptable STCs and IICs for
residential construction. Walls and ceilings with
higher ratings are desirable in a quality home, espe-
cially one with children.
Further, the International Residential Code
requires, for walls and floor-ceilings separating dwell-
ing units, values of at least STC 45 and IIC 45.
pa
ct
Airborne
ak
Le
Effectiveness of Sound Reduction
Reduction Effect on Hearing
25 db Little effect, normal speech heard clearly
30 db Loud speech understood fairly well
35 db Loud speech audible but not understood
40 db Loud speech heard as a murmur
45 db Loud speech a strain to hear
50 db Loud speech not heard at all
Recommended Residential STC and IIC
STC IIC Effect on Hearing
45 — Wall separating living space from living
space or public space, such as corridor
50 — Wall separating living space from com-
mercial space or high-noise service space
such as boiler or mechanical room
45 45 Floor-ceiling separating living space from
living space or public space, such as
corridor
50 50 Floor-ceiling separating living space from
commercial space or high-noise service
space

Transmission of Sound 545

 STCs of Walls
The STC rating of a wall can be increased by three
principal techniques:
• Increasing the mass of the wall (installing a
second layer of drywall, for example).
• Decoupling the opposing surfaces (by stagger-
ing the studs, for example).
• Including sound-absorbing materials (filling
stud cavities with fibrous insulation, for example).

Sound Transmission Classes of Wall Constructions

/ " fire-rated gypsum wallboard screw-attached horizontally to both

5 8
STC 42 sides of 35/8" screw studs, 24" oc. All wallboard joints staggered.
Note that rating of 42 is below HUD and IRC minimums.

/ " fire-rated gypsum wallboard screw-attached vertically to both

5 8
STC 44 sides of 35/8" screw studs, 24" oc. Second layer laminated vertically
and screwed to one side only.

/ " fire-rated gypsum wallboard screw-attached horizontally to both

5 8
STC 47 sides of 35/8" screw studs, 24" oc. Second layer laminated vertically
and screwed to one side only. 31/2" fiberglass or mineral wool in cavity.

First layer 5/8" fire-rated gypsum wallboard screw-attached vertically to

STC 49 both sides of 35/8" screw studs, 24" oc. Second layer laminated
vertically to both sides.

First layer 5/8" fire-rated gypsum wallboard screw-attached vertically to

STC 56 both sides of 35/8" screw studs, 24" oc. Second layer laminated
or screw-attached vertically to both sides. 3" fiberglass in cavity.

546 SOUND
Sound Transmission Classes of Wall Constructions—Continued

STC 35 / " fire-rated gypsum wallboard nailed to both sides of 2x4

5 8

wood studs, 16" oc.

5/8" fire-rated gypsum wallboard. Base layer nail-applied to 2x4

STC 40
wood studs, spaced 24" oc. Face layer nail-applied.

5/8" fire-rated gypsum wallboard. One side screw-applied to

STC 43 resilient furring channel, spaced 24" oc, on 2x4 studs spaced
16" oc. Other side nailed direct to studs.

STC 46 / " fire-rated gypsum wallboard nailed on both sides to

5 8

staggered 2x4 wood studs, 16" oc, on single 6" plate.

5/8" fire-rated gypsum wallboard. One side screw-applied to

STC 50 resilient furring channel, spaced 24" oc, on 2x4 studs spaced
16" oc. Other side nailed to studs. 31/2" fiberglass in stud cavity.

Two layers of 5/8" fire-rated gypsum wallboard. One side screw-

STC 50 applied to resilient furring channel, spaced 24" oc, on 2x4 studs
spaced 16" oc. Other side nailed direct to studs.

Two layers of 5/8" fire-rated gypsum wallboard screw-attached

STC 51 horizontally to both sides of 35/8" screw studs, 24" oc.
All wallboard nailed on both sides to staggered 2x4 wood studs,
16" oc, on single 6" plate.

5/8" fire-rated gypsum wallboard. Base layer applied vertically,

STC 58 nailed 6" oc. Face layer applied horizontally, nailed 8" oc. Nailed
to double row of wood studs 16" oc on separate plates.
3½" fiberglass in cavity.

STCs of Walls 547

 STCs and IICs of Floor-Ceilings
Both STC and IIC ratings of floor-ceilings are
increased by the same three measures used in walls:
increasing mass, decoupling surfaces, and incorpo-
rating absorption materials. In addition, IICs are
dramatically increased by installation of impact-
absorbing flooring materials such as carpets and pads.
As with walls, ratings higher than minimum HUD
and IRC standards are desirable in quality homes.

Sound and Impact Transmission Classes of Ceiling Constructions

STC 37 / " vinyl tile on 1/2" plywood underlayment, over 5/8" plywood
1 8

subfloor on 2x joists at 16" oc. Ceiling 1/2" gypsum drywall

IIC 34 nailed to joists.

STC 37 / " foam rubber pad and 3/8" nylon carpet on 1/2" plywood under-
1 4

layment, over 5/8" plywood subfloor on 2x joists at 16" oc. Ceiling

IIC 56 1/2" gypsum drywall nailed to joists.

0.075" vinyl sheet on 3/8" plywood underlayment, over 5/8" plywood

STC 46 subfloor on 2x joists at 16" oc with 3" fiberglass batts. Ceiling 5/8"
IIC 44 gypsum drywall screwed to resilient channels.

1/16" vinyl sheet on 19/32" T&G Sturd-I-Floor on 2x joists at 16" oc

STC 48
with 3" fiberglass batts. Ceiling 5/8" gypsum drywall screwed to
IIC 45 resilient channels.

STC 51 44-oz carpet and 40-oz pad on 11/8" T&G Sturd-I-Floor on 2x joists
at 16" oc with 3" fiberglass batts. Ceiling 5/8" gypsum drywall nailed
IIC 80 to separate joists.

44-oz carpet and 40-oz pad on 19/32" T&G Sturd-I-Floor, nailed to

STC 56 2x3 sleepers, glued between joists to 1/2" insulation board, stapled to
1/2" plywood on 2x joists at 16" oc with 3" fiberglass batts. Ceiling
IIC 78 5/8" gypsum drywall screwed to resilient channels.

548 SOUND
Sound and Impact Transmission Classes of Ceiling Constructions—Continued

/ " wood strip flooring nailed to 2x3 sleepers, glued between joists
25 32
STC 53 to / " insulation board, stapled to 1/2" plywood on 2x joists at 16" oc
1 2

IIC 51 with 3" fiberglass batts. Ceiling 5/8" gypsum drywall screwed to
resilient channels.

25/32" wood strip flooring on 1/2" plywood subfloor on 2x joists at

STC 53
16" oc with 3" fiberglass batts. Ceiling 5/8" gypsum drywall nailed to
IIC 45 separate joists.

STC 53 44-oz carpet and 40-oz pad on 15/8" of 75 pcf perlite/sand concrete
over 5/8" plywood subfloor on 2x joists at 16" oc. Ceiling 5/8" gypsum
IIC 74 drywall nailed to separate joists.

/ " wood strip flooring nailed to 2x3 sleepers, glued to 3"-wide strips
25 32
STC 54 of / " insulation board, nailed above the floor joists to 1/2" plywood
1 2

IIC 50 on 2x joists at 16" oc. Ceiling 5/8" gypsum drywall nailed to separate
joists. 3" and 11/2" fiberglass batts between joists and sleepers.

5/16" wood block flooring glued to 1/2" plywood underlayment, glued

STC 54 to 1/2" soundboard over 1/2" plywood subfloor on 2x joists at 16" oc.
IIC 51 Ceiling 5/8" gypsum drywall screwed to resilient channels with 3"
fiberglass between joists.

STC 55 Carpet and pad on 1/2" plywood underlayment, glued to 1/2" sound-
board over 5/8" subfloor on 2x joists at 16" oc. Ceiling 5/8" gypsum
IIC 72 drywall screwed to resilient channels with 3" fiberglass between joists.

Vinyl flooring glued to 1/2" plywood underlayment over 1x3 furring

STC 57 strips between joists, on top of 1/2" soundboard, over 5/8" plywood
IIC 56 subfloor on 2x joists at 16" oc. Ceiling 5/8" gypsum drywall screwed to
resilient channels with 3" fiberglass between joists.

STC 58 Vinyl flooring on 1/2" plywood underlayment, over 1/2" soundboard

over 5/8" subfloor on 2x joists at 16" oc. Ceiling 5/8" gypsum drywall
IIC 55 screwed to resilient channels with 3" fiberglass between joists.

STCs and IICs of Floor-Ceilings 549

550
0 1 2 3 4 5

Fasteners 21
Houses consist of thousands of pieces, held together by what seems like Nails 552

millions of fasteners. What is the right type, how long should it be, how Nailing Schedule for Light
much will it hold, and how many should I use? These are the questions Construction 554
that must be answered every day on a construction project. And these are Estimating Nail Requirements
the answers this chapter provides. 556
Nails provides a field guide to 38 types of nails and 52 different Holding Power of Common Nails
applications. It shows you the relationship between pennyweight (d) 557
and nail length. It lists the type, size, and number of nails to use in Wood Screws 558
every step of residential construction. It even contains tables showing
Holding Power of Wood Screws
you exactly how much force you can expect a single nail to resist, in 32
559
species of wood.
Wood Screws shows how to drill just the right pilot hole for each size Screws and Bolts 560

of screw. It also contains tables of allowable holding power for screws. Metal Framing Connectors 564
Screws and Bolts contains illustrations of screws, bolts, screw heads, Adhesives 572
and washers.
Metal framing aids are a boon to both contractors and do-it-your-
selfers, resulting in stronger fastening in less time than required using
more traditional methods of nailing. Illustrated are dozens of these use-
ful aids.
Finally, modern chemistry has produced nothing more amazing
than the variety of adhesives you can buy at your local building supply
store. Unfortunately, they all claim to be the best for every application.
Hopefully, the adhesives guide will clear up the confusion.

551