Journal of Archaeological Science 39 (2012) 1296e1305

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Journal of Archaeological Science

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Long-term clay raw material selection and use in the region of Classical/
Hellenistic to Early Byzantine Sagalassos (SW Turkey)
B. Neyt a, *, D. Braekmans a, J. Poblome b, J. Elsen a, M. Waelkens b, P. Degryse a
a
Section Geology, Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200E, PO Box 2408, 3001 Heverlee, Belgium
b
Sagalassos Archaeological Research Project, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Blijde Inkomststraat 21, PO Box 3314, 3000 Leuven, Belgium

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: A provenance study was carried out on coarse ceramics from the Classical/Hellenistic to Mid-Byzantine
Received 17 May 2011 city of Sagalassos, SW Turkey. The ceramics were sampled from the excavations of the city, and clay raw
Received in revised form materials were sampled throughout its ancient territory. Used techniques were optical microscopy and
31 December 2011
electron microprobe analysis on thin sections, geochemical analysis (fusion ICP/MS and mineralogical
Accepted 6 January 2012
analysis (X-ray diffraction). The geochemical/mineralogical diversity in the ceramics is not as wide as for
the clay raw materials. It seems that even at the restricted scale of this study, the resources were limited
Keywords:
to the area around the ancient site. The differences between the ceramics are likely due to the use of
Ceramics
Provenance
different ophiolitic clay bodies being exploited for their production.
Clay raw material Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Sagalassos
Petrography
Geochemical analysis
Electron microprobe analysis

1. Introduction and aims
Sagalassos is a Classical/Hellenistic (5the2nd century BC) to Mid
Byzantine (12th/13th century AD) town situated in the south-
western parts of Turkey (Fig. 1), where, since 1986, multi-strategy
archaeological research is carried out by the Katholieke
Universiteit Leuven (Waelkens, 1993, 2008; Waelkens and Poblome,
1993,1995,1997; Waelkens and Loots, 2000; Waelkens and Degryse,
2008). During most of its existence, Sagalassos also functioned as
a regional centre for pottery production (Poblome, 2011). The most
representative local product was the mass produced red slipped
tableware, also known as Sagalassos red slip ware (SRSW), datable
between the end of the 1st century BC and the 7th or early 8th
century AD (Poblome, 1999; Poblome et al., 2010). Previous prove-
nance studies indicated that SRSW was manufactured from a single
clay source exploited in a nearby valley system, close to the present-
day village of Çanaklı (Fig. 2) (Ottenburgs et al., 1993). On the other
hand, large amounts of local coarse wares show a clear chemical and
petrographical distinction with these tablewares (Ottenburgs et al.,
1993). This paper focuses on the macroscopically defined group of
the so-called coarse ‘Fabric 4’ wares, from which mostly cooking and
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ3216326442; fax: þ3216322980.
E-mail address: Bert.Neyt@ees.kuleuven.be (B. Neyt).
storage/transport vessels were produced (Degeest, 2000). Previous
chemical analyses showed more heterogeneity than for the table-
wares (Ottenburgs et al., 1993; Degeest et al., 1997; Poblome et al.,
1997, 2002; Degryse et al., 2003; Degryse and Poblome, 2008).
With this study, an attempt is made to explain the attested hetero-
geneity. The aim of this paper is to present a petrographical char-
acterization of the coarse Fabric 4 wares found at Sagalassos and in
the associated study region. Together with bulk chemical analysis,
X-ray diffraction and focussed electron microprobe analysis, an
attempt is made to link the observations to the varieties in the local
geological substrate (Fig. 2), with the following questions in mind:
Are there different exploited sources to produce these ceramics, or
could the heterogeneity of the sherds be the result of different
preparations methods (adding tempers or mixing clays)? A
comparison with the different clay sources from the territory of
Sagalassos is made. Solving these issues is important from an
archaeological point of view as the outcome will feed our under-
standing of the regional system of production, and how it evolved
through time. Indeed, the nature of the clay used for Fabric 4 is
compatible with an origin from the Potters’ Quarter in eastern
suburbia of Sagalassos (Degryse et al., 2003), but so far no evidence
has been discovered, such as Fabric 4 wasters, which could hint at
Fabric 4 being an urban product. On the other hand, the fact that,
from the third quarter of the fourth century AD onwards, also a local
amphora series was being produced in Fabric 4 could be indicative

0305-4403/$ e see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jas.2012.01.005
 B. Neyt et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 39 (2012) 1296e1305 1297

Fig. 1. Location of Sagalassos in Turkey.

for production of these vessels in farmsteads where also the prod-
ucts, such as wine or oil, intended for the amphorae were available
(Poblome et al., 2008). This is a common production logic in the
Roman world (Peacock and Williams, 1986) and could imply that
various different production units associated with farms were active
in the production of late Roman Fabric 4 amphorae. If, moreover, the
local amphora fabric characteristics prove to be compatible with
those of the cooking wares found at Sagalassos and made from the
same Fabric 4, the late Roman production units could have had
a diverse production portfolio. Finally, when the sampled Fabric 4
cooking ware sherds from earlier, Roman imperial centuries, and
even from the Classical/Hellenistic era, should provide a compatible
set of results, a decentralised, rural model of production could
be reconstructed throughout many centuries of occupation at
Sagalassos.
The importance of this paper lies in the fact that it illustrates
how a small-scale regional provenance study of ceramics can
contribute greatly to the larger picture of a long-term and multi-
dimensional archaeological and interdisciplinary project such as
the Sagalassos project. It also forms a solid base for further
ceramological research in the area. The detailed and long-term
research at Sagalassos leads to wider and more detailed conclu-
sions than a single case study ever could. The importance of the
study is mainly reflected in the ability of establishing and dis-
tinguishing whether the main types of pottery appearing in
Hellenistic to Roman periods are locally produced or imported.
These results add a very important voice to the discussion on the
changes in craft activities, and by extension possible cultural
changes in Sagalassos, Pisidia and the area of Southwest Turkey in
general. It is moreover prevalent to dissolve the danger on circular

Fig. 2. Geological map of the area around Sagalassos, corresponding to the Roman territory of the city, with the locations of the archaeological sites and villages mentioned in the
text (De Laet, 2007). The legend describes the most important geological units in the area.
1298 B. Neyt et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 39 (2012) 1296e1305

argument when conclusions are drawn based solely on the ground
of macroscopic, archaeological analogies.
2. Materials and methods
A selection of 31 Fabric 4 sherds was made, from the excavated
deposits at Sagalassos and from the material collected during the
urban survey campaigns on this site, with the aim of representing
the attested range of macroscopic differences, chronological stages
and functional diversity within this large fabric group (Table 1).
Three samples (29, 32 and 33) were collected during the urban
survey campaigns. These were macroscopically defined as ‘black
cored, gritty cooking ware’, with typological characteristics attrib-
utable to the Classical/Hellenistic period. This cooking ware fabric is
found both at Sagalassos and at Düzen Tepe, an extensive Classical/
Hellenistic proto-urban settlement at 1.8 km south of contempo-
rary Sagalassos (Vanhaverbeke et al., 2010). Previous archaeometric
research has linked the clay of this ware to clay pockets present on
Düzen Tepe (Braekmans et al., 2011).
Nine samples were found in the layers associated with the
housing unit to the north of the Neon Library, datable to SRSW
Phase 2 or the 2nd half of the 1st century AD (1e4, 9e12 and 28).
Two types of products are represented by these samples: contem-
porary cooking ware vessels (Degeest, 2002) and a local variant of
the so-called Pompeian red wares, being flat-bottomed pans for
baking bread provided with a thick ‘non-stick’ red or black coating
on the interior. The concept of the latter wares originated in Central
Italy in the middle of the third century BC and production of this
product caught on in various regional production centres
throughout the Roman Empire, including Phocaea on the West
coast of Turkey (Peacock, 1977; Hayes, 1997).
Sample 7 was found in strata to the west of the Neon Library,
datable to SRSW Phase 3 or the 1st half of the 2nd century AD. This
sample formed part of a baking pan in the local tradition of Pom-
peian red wares.
Ten sherds were found in deposits from the eastern portico
alongside the Lower Agora (18e27), datable to the 2nd half of the
6th century AD. Three, possibly four sherds, belonged to contem-
porary cooking vessels (Degeest, 2000) and six, possibly seven
sherds, to the local Fabric 4 amphora series (Poblome et al., 2008).
Eight sherds were sampled from deposits in the Urban Mansion
(8, 13e17, 30 and 31), datable to SRSW Phase 9 or 550/575-7th
century AD, except for samples 30 and 31, which were collected
from post-abandonment layers and can, in general terms, be
typologically attributed to the Early Byzantine period. Four,
possibly five sherds, were of Early Byzantine cooking vessels
(Poblome et al., 2010) and three, possibly four sherds, of the local
Fabric 4 amphora series (Poblome et al., 2008).
A total number of 70 clay raw materials were sampled
throughout the territory of Roman Sagalassos (Fig. 2). These
represent most of the important clay deposits in the territory, and
cover the different valley systems in the study region, including the
large plains south of LakeBurdur (Fig. 2).
The selected sherds were studied under the polarizing micro-
scope (Leica DM-LP). Thin sections were prepared for each of the 31
sherds. They were studied under plane polarized light and crossed
polarizers. Pictures were taken with a Delta Pix DP 200 camera.
Chemical analysis of ceramics and unfired clay raw materials was
done by Fusion ICP/MS at ActLabs in Canada. Samples were
powdered using a Spex Ball Mill with sialon containers. The
powdered samples were mixed with a flux of lithium metaborate/
tetraborate and fused in an induction furnace. The fused sample
was immediately poured into a 5% nitric acid solution containing an
internal standard and mixed continuously until completely
dissolved. Major oxides (SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, MgO, MnO, CaO, TiO2,
Na2O, K2O, P2O5), the loss on ignition (LOI) and a selection of trace
elements (Ba, Sr, Zr) were measured with a Varian Vista 735 ICP.

Table 1
Fabric 4 ceramics studied. Dates provided by J. Poblome, Sagalassos Archaeological Research Project.

Sample no. Location Context Layer Date Extra information

01 Library SA-1994-L-140 12S 2nd half 1st c. AD Gritty cooking ware
02 Library SA-1994-L-140 12S 2nd half 1st c. AD Gritty cooking ware
03 Library SA-1994-L-134 11S 2nd half 1st c. AD
04 Library SA-1994-L-134 11S 2nd half 1st c. AD
07 Library-West SA-1994-LW-177 18C 1st half 2nd c. AD Tefal fabric 6
08 Domestic Area SA-2001-DA2-118 4 end 6th-7th c. AD L4 Room XXIV fabric 4
09 Library SA-1994-L-134 11S 2nd half 1st c. AD Gritty cooking ware
10 Library SA-1994-L-161 15S 2nd half 1st c. AD Gritty cooking ware
11 Library SA-1994-L-151 13S 2nd half 1st c. AD Tefal fabric 6
12 Library SA-1994-L-151 13S 2nd half 1st c. AD Tefal fabric 6
13 Domestic Area SA-2001-DA2-80 3 end 6the7th c. AD L3 Fabric 4 Room XXVIeXXVII
14 Domestic Area SA-2001-DA2-80 3 end 6the7th c. AD L3 Fabric 4 Room XXVIeXXVII
15 Domestic Area SA-2001-DA2-80 3 end 6the7th c. AD L3 Fabric 4 Room XXVIeXXVII
16 Domestic Area SA-2001-DA2-80 3 end 6the7th c. AD L3 Fabric 4 Room XXVIeXXVII
17 Domestic Area SA-2001-DA2-80 3 end 6the7th c. AD L3 Fabric 4 Room XXVIeXXVII
18 Lower Agora SA-2003-LA2-201 2 2nd half 6th c. AD Room E9
19 Lower Agora SA-2003-LA2-201 2 2nd half 6th c. AD Room E9
20 Lower Agora SA-2003-LA2-201 2 2nd half 6th c. AD Room E9
21 Lower Agora SA-2003-LA2-201 2 2nd half 6th c. AD Room E9
22 Lower Agora SA-2003-LA2-201 2 2nd half 6th c. AD Room E9
23 Lower Agora SA-2003-LA2-201 2 2nd half 6th c. AD Room E9
24 Lower Agora SA-2003-LA2-201 2 2nd half 6th c. AD Room E9
25 Lower Agora SA-2003-LA2-201 2 2nd half 6th c. AD Room E9
26 Lower Agora SA-2003-LA2-201 2 2nd half 6th c. AD Room E9
27 Lower Agora SA-2003-LA2-201 2 2nd half 6th c. AD Room E9
28 Library SA-1994-L-110 10S 2nd half 1st c. AD Tefalware - fabric 6
29 City survey SA-2005-CS-86 surface Hellenistic Sector 28 e Black cored gritty cook ware
30 Domestic Area SA-2001-DA2-58 2 early Byzantine L2 Room XXVIeXXVII
31 Domestic Area SA-2001-DA2-58 2 early Byzantine L2 Room XXVIeXXVII
32 City survey SA-2005-CS-76 surface Hellenistic Black cored gritty
33 City survey SA-2005-CS-76 surface Hellenistic Black cored gritty
 B. Neyt et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 39 (2012) 1296e1305 1299

The other trace elements (Cr, Co, Ni, Zn, Cs, La, Yb, Lu, Hf, Th, U)
were measured by a Perkin Elmer Sciex ELAN ICP/MS. Electron
microprobe analysis (EMPA) was done at the University of Salzburg,
on a JEOL JXA-8600 superprobe at 15 kV accelerating voltage, 40 nA
beam intensity and 5 mm electron-beam diameter. Thin sections
were carbon coated, and standards used were quartz for Si,
synthetic g-Al2O3 for Al, synthetic MgO for Mg, rutile for Ti,
wollastonite for Ca, apatite for P, sylvite for K, halite for Na, metallic
Fe for Fe and alabandite for Mn. Presence of H2O and microporosity
in the ceramic sherds tends to slightly lower the total values from
the analyses. Quantitative mineralogy was performed on the clay
raw materials with X-ray diffraction (Philips PW1830 diffractom-
eter with Bragg/Brentano q-2q setup) using CuKa radiation, accel-
eration voltage of 45 kV and current of 30 mA. The scan range of the
measurements was 5e65 2q, with a step size of 0.02 2q and time
per step 2 s. The quantification of the non-clay minerals was done
by Rietveld refinement. Samples were powdered with a McCrone
micronizing mill, and a standard of 10% ZnO was added (Mertens
et al., 2009; Snellings et al., 2010). Clay minerals were identified
by X-ray diffraction on oriented slides in three different states:
air-dry, ethylene-glycol solvated and heated to 550  C for 1 h.
3. Results
3.1. Ceramics
3.1.1. Petrography
All studied sherds show poorly to very poorly sorted inclusions.
The colour of the matrix is in most sherds reddish brown. Most
common inclusions are basaltic lava fragments, chert fragments,
siltstone fragments, clay nodulae and pyroxene, amphibole, biotite
and feldspar minerals. Pyroxene and amphibole are mostly sub-
hedral to idiomorphic. Biotite is only present as small elongated
crystals. Chert fragments are angular to subangular. The lava frag-
ments consist mostly of a fine-grained, sometimes needled feldspar
matrix with phenocrysts of pyroxene and feldspar. The siltstone
fragments are always rounded and consist of small quartz and
feldspar crystals with small muscovite laths. Clay nodulae are also
rounded and show a high sphericity. They contain mostly feldspar
and quartz inclusions. None of the sherds show traces of clay mixing.
From these first data, it is clear that the used raw material shows
similarities to the ophiolitic mélange unit and the flysch deposits
found in local geological substrate. The ophiolite units present in the
territory contain a variety of disturbed and often thoroughly
weathered lithologies, such as pillow lava, gabbroid rocks, serpen-
tinites, radiolarian cherts,. The flysch deposits contain mostly
sand- and siltstones (Muchez et al., 2008). There are however some
differences between the sherds. A remark should be made about the
difference between coarse and fine fractions, in the light of
a discussion about technological processes. It proved to be impos-
sible for most of the sherds (except samples 16 and 17) to make
a distinction between coarse inclusions that were deliberately
added to the clay paste, and coarse inclusions that were already
present in the clay paste. Whether the ceramics were produced with
primary clay deposits or a clay paste with deliberate human
manipulation is impossible to attest, hence opening up a discussion
about archaeologically relevant production choices is difficult.
The absence and/or presence of some inclusions, together with
textural differences give rise to following petrographical grouping.
Group 1 shows a reddish brown to dark brown matrix, with poorly
sorted inclusions. Most typical are the euhedral pyroxene and
amphibole fragments, the basaltic lava fragments with euhedral
pyroxene and feldspar phenocrysts in a fine-grained feldspar
matrix, the rounded clay nodulae and the presence of rounded
siltstone fragments. This group can be subdivided in a few
subgroups: A coarse group (group 1A, samples 14, 20, 22, 26, 27, 30
and 31) (Fig. 3) with inclusion sizes up to 3 mm, a group with lesser
coarse fragments and strikingly more small fragments (group 1B,
samples 8, 18 and 24) (Fig. 3), and a group with large inclusions
(up to 1.8 mm), no siltstone fragments and lesser clay nodulae

Fig. 3. Pictures of thin sections. Crossed polars, scale bar indicated. A: Sample 14, Group 1A, ophiolite/flysch production, with a large basaltic fragment with augite and biotite
phenocrysts in a feldspar matrix; B: Sample 8, Group 1B, ophiolite/flysch production, with euhedral amphibole fragment; C: Sample 16, Group 2, chert tempered, large chert
fragment and smaller volcanic fragment with plagioclase phenocryst; D: Sample 15, Group 3; cherty fabric, with large radiolarite chert fragment; E: Sample 3, Group 5, quartz-rich
fabric, with a large quartzite fragment, a biotite lath and smaller quartz inclusions; F: Sample 13, Group 6, with large angular basalt fragment and rounded tuff fragment.
1300 B. Neyt et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 39 (2012) 1296e1305

(group 1C, samples 9 and 10). Group 2 sherds (samples 16 and 17)

7.09
1.55
8.00
2.40
7.65
0.07
3.95
0.78
7.54
5.17
6.25
0.92

9.20
1.41
18.8
(Fig. 3) have a reddish brown matrix and the same constituents as

U
group 1, but all in much smaller amounts. The most typical feature
of this group is the abundance of large angular chert fragments up

3.75

5.52

8.56
30.16

29.00

50.45
10.68
26.30
8.49
33.27
13.78
32.30
12.59

47.60
48.2
Th
to 1.6 mm. It is highly probable that for these sherds, chert frag-
ments were deliberately added to the clay paste. Group 3 (samples

8.26
0.66
8.30
0.57
7.55
2.05
5.55
1.20
9.07
3.43
8.00
0.42

9.50
2.17
11, 12, 15, 19, 21, 23, 25 and 28) (Fig. 3) is also a cherty fabric, but the

10.1
Hf
other inclusions are also widely present, albeit in variable amounts.
Angular radiolarite chert fragments (up to 1.2 mm) are abundant,

0.44
0.03
0.47
0.01
0.44
0.04
0.59
0.02
0.44
0.06
0.41
0.01
0.37
0.35
0.09
Lu
next to basalt fragments, feldspar and pyroxene fragments. This
group is fairly heterogeneous when compared to the others. When

2.99
0.24
3.10
0.14
3.00
0.28
4.35
0.07
2.96
0.41
2.90
0.00

2.30
0.52
2.4
Yb
group 2 and group 3 are compared, it becomes clear that for group 2

Chemical analysis of 26 sherds, grouped according to their petrography. Main element content is recalculated on a LOI-free basis. Main elements and LOI in wt%, trace elements in ppm.
the chert fragments are much larger than the rest of the inclusions.

30

35

64

56

50

46
141

161

269

122
39
134

152

106
174
This size distribution is not present in group 3. Group 4 (samples 1

La
and 2) contains the sherds with a higher amount of mica (biotite)

7.50
0.97
7.25
0.49
6.35
0.07
6.45
0.21

4.75

0.00
10.31

6.80

6.97
1.76
laths (up to 0.2 mm) and limestone fragments (up to 0.7 mm), next

12.8
Cs
to basalt fragments and angular chert fragments, pyroxene, feldspar
fragments and minor amounts of amphibole. Their matrix is dark

22

14

31

0
120

115

120

85
21
103

110

110
93
25
Zn
reddish brown. Group 5 (samples 3, 4 and 7) contains sherds with
a cloudy quartz-rich fabric. The matrix is light brown to light

25

21
179

165

70
28
30
0

72

15
141

70
42
30
103
Ni
greenish. Typical is the presence of quartzite fragments, next to
opaque minerals and quartz. Weathered basalt fragments are also

Co
29
3
30
1
18
5
15
1
22
6
18
1
14
20
3
present. Group 6 sherds (samples 13, 29, 32 and 33) have a very

0
380
33
350

140
71
80
0
367
147
230
156
100
333
80
dark to reddish brown matrix with overall large inclusions. Typical

Cr
for this group is the presence of large (up to 1.4 mm) rounded
volcanic tuff fragments, next to feldspar, pyroxene, amphibole and

309
34
327
28
412
69
210
42
342
138
306
12
356
368
62
Zr
biotite fragments. These tuff fragments are not observed in the
other sherds.

1234
292
1198
284
2755
787
1012
310
1016
474
1415
696
776
1725
641
Sr
3.1.2. Chemical analysis
1350
185
1405
251
3146
952
929
288
1473
720
1617
726
2095
1936
455
In order to get a more detailed insight into the differences
Ba

between these petrographically distinguished groups, the sherds

4.42
2.25
2.07
1.30
6.01
0.51
1.45
0.52
3.60
2.08
7.90
1.77
4.82
7.00
5.30
were analyzed for their bulk chemistry. The results for the chemical
LOI

analysis of 28 sherds are given in Table 2. To make a valid

comparison between ceramics and clays, all main element analyses
P2O5
0.28
0.06
0.31
0.06
0.85
0.76
0.29
0.08
0.29
0.15
0.44
0.00

0.45
0.12
0.6
are recalculated on a LOI-free basis. The samples are combined
following the petrographical grouping from the previous section.
TiO2
0.89
0.04
0.93
0.01
0.75
0.07
0.60
0.01
0.86
0.15
0.81
0.06

0.81
0.03
0.9
Group 1A has a similar composition as group 1B. The difference
between these two subgroups may lie in the preparation of the
3.27
0.26
3.71
0.16
4.15
0.25
3.45
0.61
3.35
1.04
3.23
0.99

4.02
0.27
K2O

clays before firing. Group 1A contains coarser fragments than group 5.1
1B, hence the coarser material may have been grinded for group 1B.
Na2O

Group 1C has lower SiO2 values and higher Al2O3 values than group
1.46
0.19
1.50
0.11
2.51
0.33
1.11
0.49
1.20
0.53
1.57
1.11

2.21
0.25
1.1

1A/B. Their composition lies very close to that of group 6. The

absence of siltstone can be the cause for this lower SiO2 content.
1.95
0.56
1.85
0.54
3.09
0.44
2.57
0.11
3.89
2.63
9.10
5.71

2.28
0.44
CaO

4.4

Group 2 has the highest SiO2 content, which is explained by the

abundance of the chert temper. Trace element content is low in
MgO
2.11
0.21
2.11
0.25
1.89
0.61
1.63
0.19
1.87
0.77
1.78
0.59

1.57
0.16
1.5

comparison to the other groups. The heterogeneity of group 3 is

confirmed by the analyses, but still shows some similarities with
MnO
0.15
0.02
0.17
0.01
0.14
0.00
0.15
0.00
0.14
0.05
0.15
0.03

0.16
0.02

the production of group 1A/B. The higher CaO content of group 4

0.1

sherds can be linked to the limestone fragments present. The

quartz-rich fabric of group 5 shows higher amounts of K2O, Th and
Fe2O3(T)

U and lower Cr and Ni. Group 6 has high Al2O3 and K2O values and
7.40
0.39
7.18
0.37
6.39
0.89
5.65
0.04
6.97
0.67
6.40
0.53

7.14
0.65
6.3

lower MgO content, which can not be related directly to the

petrographical observations, and might indicate the use of
17.03
0.39
16.86
0.28
19.42
0.94
14.75
1.58
17.21
1.99
17.08
2.47
Al2O3

20.54
0.56
17.2

a different, more kaolinite-rich clay paste.

3.1.3. Electron microprobe analysis

65.45
0.57
65.40
0.21
60.84
1.16
69.81
3.12
64.21
2.08
59.43
0.05

60.82
1.36
SiO2

62.9

As chemical analysis of coarse ware pottery displays a higher

level of variation than similar analysis of fine ware pottery, an
Mean

Mean

Mean

Mean

Mean

Mean

Mean
Stdev

Stdev

Stdev

Stdev

Stdev

Stdev

Stdev
n¼1

electron microprobe study was performed on the thin sections to

counterbalance this variation by determining the presence of
possible archaeologically meaningful compositional differences.
1A

1B

1C

5
6

The thin sections (and their respective petrographical groups) that

Group

Group

Group

Group

Group

Group

Group
Group
n¼7

n¼2

n¼2

n¼2

n¼7

n¼2

n¼3
Table 2

were studied with electron microprobe analysis are shown in

Table 3. The analyzed inclusions were mainly feldspar, pyroxene,
 B. Neyt et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 39 (2012) 1296e1305
Table 3
Selected sherds for electron microprobe analysis.
Group 1A, Ophiolite/flysch production 14, 20, 22, 26, 27
Group 1B, Ophiolite/flysch production finer 8, 18, 24
Group 1C, Ophiolite production 9, 10
Group 2, Chert tempered 16, 17
Group 3, Cherty fabric 15, 19, 21, 23, 25, 28
Group 4, Mica/limestone fabric 1, 2
Group 6, Tuff fabric 13, 29, 32, 33
amphibole and biotite. In samples 21, 22, 23 and 29, a represen-
tative portion of the larger feldspar inclusions were analyzed to
determine their compositional range (Fig. 4), varying from potas-
sium feldspar over anorthoclase to oligoclase in each one of the
samples. Pure albite phases seem to be absent. In the other
samples, less feldspars were analyzed, but all give similar results.
There are however some noticeable differences. Sample 21 seems
to have a more limited range of feldspar compositions, with the
absence of more potassium-rich varieties. Also for each petro-
graphical group, the composition of the pyroxenes was analyzed,
showing compositions that fall in the range of the clinopyroxene
series (diopsideeaugite). Table 4 shows the mean compositions of
the amphiboles analyzed. These are all Ca-amphiboles, part of the
magnesiohornblende series (kaersutite), and have a rather limited
range in composition. The micas analyzed (Table 5) also have
similar compositions, falling in the range of biotite. Low CaO
(<0.5%) and high TiO2 (up to 4.3%) contents point towards an
alkaline ophiolitic source for these micas. Their MgO and FeO(T)
content, however, shows some degree of variation between and
within the petrographical groups. In some of the samples, sphene,
ilmenite and apatite were found. An attempt was made to
measure the chemical content of the clay paste between the
inclusions. Results for this are very poor, probably due to high
microporosity, incomplete dehydroxylation during the firing
process, or even rehydration or rehydroxylation during burial
(Ionescu and Hoeck, 2009). The few measurements that gave good
results show a great deal of variety, and an interpretation is
difficult to make. They represent a mixture of different clay
Fig. 4. Compositions of analyzed feldspars by electron microprobe analysis. (K ¼ K-feldspar, Na ¼ Na-feldspar and Ca ¼ Ca-feldspar).
1301
minerals (high SiO2 and Al2O3) and most probably some micron-
sized mineral fragments (Ionescu et al., 2011). The poor results
for the clay matrix emphasize the importance of distinguishing
indigenous inclusions from inclusions that were deliberately
added, as to assess information about the raw state of the clay
paste. As discussed earlier however, this proved to be impossible
for most of the ceramics studied.
3.2. Clay raw materials
Table 6 shows the mean results of the chemical analysis of the
most important clay samples from the territory of Sagalassos.
Table 7 shows a selection of results for the quantitative mineralogy.
The grouping is based on both chemistry and mineralogy. Group A
contains the clay raw materials from the valley of Çanaklı. These
clays were used for the production of SRSW (Ottenburgs et al.,
1993). They all contain large amounts of chlorite/smectite mixed
layers, quartz, calcite, plagioclase and K-feldspar. Group B are the
clays from the Burdur plain. These are characterised by the pres-
ence of large amounts of illite/smectite mixed layers, chlorite,
calcite, dolomite and sometimes aragonite. Quartz and feldspar
contents are low. The MgO-content is fairly high. Group C repre-
sents clay raw materials sampled in the vicinity of flysch deposits in
the northern part of the Çanaklı valley and the central part of the
Aglasun valley (Fig. 2). Chemical content is more heterogeneous,
but quartz content is always high. Group D are the clays from the
valley of Taşkapı. These are clay deposits that formed in an intra-
montane valley west of Sagalassos. They are smectite-rich, and
TiO2-content is fairly high. Group F are clays from the Ag lasun
valley and the deposits around the sites of Sagalassos and Düzen
Tepe. They are characterized by a lack of calcite, low amounts of
quartz, the presence of kaolinite and an overabundance of K-feld-
spar. Ba and Sr values are high, while Cr and Ni values are low. Al2O3
content is high. Group G represents the clay samples near the
lasun
village of Yazır. Yazır is situated in the central part of the Ag
valley, east of Ag lasun, where the bordering flysch deposits are
replaced by limestone deposits. They show a consistent homoge-
neity, but a substantial difference from other clay deposits in this
1302 B. Neyt et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 39 (2012) 1296e1305

Table 4
Composition of amphiboles analyzed by electron microprobe analysis (wt%).

Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P2O5 K2O CaO TiO2 MnO FeO(T)
Group 1A Mean 2.13 10.20 12.40 39.41 0.00 1.81 11.47 2.47 0.29 16.00
n ¼ 14 Stdev 0.18 0.76 1.04 2.89 0.00 0.23 1.93 0.44 0.13 1.43
Group 1B Mean 2.10 9.74 12.32 37.19 0.00 1.70 11.24 2.17 0.28 15.92
n¼5 Stdev 0.21 1.23 0.74 1.31 0.00 0.17 0.25 0.18 0.10 2.01
Group 1C Mean 2.15 10.77 13.17 41.43 0.00 1.66 9.41 2.53 0.24 15.91
n ¼ 11 Stdev 0.23 1.15 0.90 2.24 0.00 0.06 1.33 0.37 0.09 1.91
Group 2 Mean 2.13 10.55 11.61 40.10 0.00 1.81 14.36 2.76 0.23 14.81
n¼3 Stdev 0.01 0.29 0.29 0.40 0.00 0.06 0.08 0.07 0.01 0.09
Group 3 Mean 2.19 10.67 12.31 35.66 0.00 1.72 11.47 2.63 0.29 15.33
n ¼ 27 Stdev 0.16 0.83 0.80 1.90 0.00 0.19 1.27 0.33 0.17 1.46
Group 4 Mean 2.37 11.79 11.94 42.00 0.00 1.50 9.84 2.53 0.22 13.57
n¼4 Stdev 0.16 0.68 0.67 0.96 0.00 0.23 0.37 0.19 0.02 0.91
Group 6 Mean 2.28 10.33 12.11 37.46 0.00 1.55 11.12 2.24 0.25 15.42
n ¼ 22 Stdev 0.09 0.40 0.55 0.75 0.00 0.11 0.20 0.37 0.07 1.21

valley (group C and F). Group I are clay raw materials into which
pits were dug and filled up with rubbish in Classical/Hellenistic
times at Düzen Tepe (Vanhaverbeke et al., 2010). They are miner-
alogically similar to the clays of group F, but Fe2O3(T) and Al2O3
content are considerably higher and Na2O, Ba and Sr values are
lower. And finally, group K are the clays from the valley of Seydiköy
in the southeast of the study region. These have a more variable
nature, as the flysch clays from group C.
4. Discussion
In this study a selection of Classical/Hellenistic to Early Byzan-
tine coarse wares found during the archaeological research at
Sagalassos were examined by several analytical techniques. Petro-
graphical investigation on thin sections led to six different groups.
Group 1 seems to be the largest group, and all the inclusions can be
linked to the prevailing geological substrate, namely the ophiolite
sequence (volcanics, chert) and the flysch deposits (siltstone)
around Sagalassos. Group 2 seems to be a chert tempered ophiolite/
flysch production. Group 3 is more problematic, as the samples
studied consist of material that can be linked to the prevailing
geology around Sagalassos, but the amounts and ratios of the
different constituents seem too different from group 1 to simply
state an identical origin. Group 4 contains more mica and limestone
fragments, but reflects again the local substrate. Tuff fragments in
the sherds from group 6 point to a different source material that is
nonetheless linkable to geological substrate from around Saga-
lassos. The quartz-rich fabric of group 5 is a somewhat aberrant
fabric. Especially the appearance of quartzite raises the question
whether this fabric is local, because no quartzite rock formations
are described in the area.
An attempt was made to consolidate this petrographical
grouping further by means of bulk chemical analysis and electron
microprobe analysis on minerals. The bulk chemical analyses
reflect in general terms the petrographical observations, but sherds
with similar chemical content can show nonetheless a different
petrography. An example is the comparable chemical content of
group 1C and group 6. Another example is the heterogeneity in the
chemical content of group 3, which sometimes show overlap with
other petrographical groups. The difference in texture, but not in
composition, of some of these sherds, might be the result of tech-
nological differences. It was already noted however that this
discussion might be ambiguous for these ceramics. The presence of
more mica fragments in group 4 is obscured in bulk chemical
analysis because of the presence of other (fired) phyllosilicates. In
some cases, the chemical variation seen within the petrographical
groups might just be the result of the inherent heterogeneity of
coarse wares. The chemical data confirm the grouping to a satis-
fying extent, but the electron microprobe data do not. All of the
analyzed minerals show identical ranges in composition. This
consistency remains even between the different petrographical
groups. The raw materials used must hence have been derived from
similar sources. The compositions of the biotites, amphiboles and
pyroxenes can directly be related to the ophiolitic outcrops in the
vicinity of Sagalassos (Muchez et al., 2008). The quartz-rich group 5
sherds were however not studied by EMPA, because of the absence
of pyroxene/amphibole/biotite inclusions for comparison.
4.1. Comparison with clay raw materials
It seems difficult to make a direct link between the petro-
graphical groups and singular clay sources, based on the compar-
ison with clay raw material data, but it is apparent however that
most clay raw materials matching the ceramics (i.e. group F and I)
were found in and around the central part of the valley system of
Aglasun, in a radius of 5 km around Sagalassos. It is striking that no

Table 5
Composition of micas analyzed by electron microprobe analysis (wt%).

Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P2O5 K2O CaO TiO2 MnO FeO(T)
Group 1A Mean 0.57 18.43 14.36 36.38 0.00 8.91 0.11 4.29 0.09 10.04
n¼7 Stdev 0.08 1.68 0.66 0.79 0.00 0.89 0.03 1.02 0.05 3.70
Group 1B Mean 0.42 13.76 14.96 34.59 0.00 8.09 0.26 3.34 0.14 13.48
n¼5 Stdev 0.17 0.96 0.46 1.68 0.00 0.22 0.35 0.44 0.05 2.69
Group 1C Mean 0.28 13.04 14.49 37.98 0.02 7.32 0.27 3.74 0.20 15.97
n¼3 Stdev 0.39 2.30 0.26 1.63 0.03 1.01 0.20 0.72 0.09 1.86
Group 3 Mean 0.47 14.35 13.68 33.52 0.00 8.15 0.25 4.45 0.15 16.86
n¼8 Stdev 0.17 2.71 0.76 1.60 0.01 2.34 0.56 1.80 0.05 5.17
Group 4 Mean 0.43 13.73 13.72 37.86 0.00 7.63 0.50 4.11 0.10 15.45
n¼4 Stdev 0.21 1.08 0.18 0.84 0.00 1.63 0.52 0.58 0.04 0.18
Group 6 Mean 0.47 15.04 13.81 35.35 0.02 7.70 0.28 3.13 0.24 13.82
n¼9 Stdev 0.30 2.04 1.28 1.85 0.07 1.28 0.28 1.00 0.19 1.87
Table 6
Chemical analysis of different clay sources sampled in the territory of Sagalassos. Main element content is recalculated on a LOI-free basis. Main elements and LOI in wt%, trace elements in ppm.

SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3(T) MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O TiO2 P2O5 LOI Ba Sr Zr Cr Co Ni Zn Cs La Yb Lu Hf Th U
Group A Mean 54.58 16.31 8.31 0.12 5.58 10.28 0.96 2.74 0.89 0.24 15.80 459 302 159 261 25 232 104 6.2 52 2.3 0 4.0 13.5 2.8
n ¼ 18 Stdev 1.10 2.53 0.97 0.03 0.58 3.94 0.19 0.40 0.08 0.09 1.48 152 90 26 51 4 28 27 1.2 27 0.4 0 0.7 5.7 0.6
Group B Mean 47.88 10.92 7.13 0.15 9.62 19.87 1.83 1.68 0.72 0.21 22.32 227 374 86 456 28 306 64 2.9 19 1.7 0 2.6 5.2 1.6
n ¼ 11 Stdev 5.15 1.51 0.79 0.02 1.97 5.10 2.14 0.30 0.10 0.18 3.46 40 151 10 349 6 119 8 0.9 3 0.3 0 0.4 1.2 0.3
Group C Mean 63.56 13.08 6.59 0.15 2.93 8.97 1.35 2.45 0.72 0.20 11.52 713 733 204 497 26 210 87 5.2 72 2.6 0 5.9 15.6 3.5
n¼6 Stdev 4.27 2.15 0.75 0.02 0.24 7.38 0.35 0.37 0.07 0.02 3.98 316 225 55 29 2 17 21 0.5 42 0.4 0 1.2 7.1 1.1
Group D Mean 57.58 15.62 9.96 0.23 4.99 7.06 0.95 2.12 1.27 0.22 14.63 412 282 143 440 35 155 95 2.7 45 2.7 0 4.2 8.6 1.8
n¼6 Stdev 1.93 2.03 1.56 0.04 0.08 5.56 0.14 0.13 0.08 0.01 2.04 26 103 41 42 7 35 64 0.8 1 0.4 0 1.5 0.8 0.4
Group F Mean 58.41 21.30 6.74 0.16 1.98 2.85 2.74 4.62 0.85 0.36 7.66 2812 3004 501 106 17 46 106 9.3 265 3.1 0 12.0 60.3 10.5
n ¼ 11 Stdev 2.00 1.59 0.98 0.03 0.47 0.61 0.36 0.56 0.06 0.11 1.54 807 884 59 53 3 26 28 2.9 48 0.5 0 1.5 13.0 3.4
Group G Mean 50.79 13.11 6.78 0.15 5.45 18.95 1.42 2.37 0.77 0.25 18.18 805 922 190 315 20 175 70 3.5 64 1.8 0 4.2 14.7 3.2

B. Neyt et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 39 (2012) 1296e1305

n¼3 Stdev 0.52 0.26 0.17 0.00 0.05 0.99 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.21 11 25 0 35 1 7 0 0.1 0 0.1 0 0.2 0.1 0.5
Group I Mean 54.59 25.77 9.50 0.14 2.75 2.08 0.97 2.93 1.02 0.25 13.89 1393 785 450 121 19 103 150 9.1 227 3.5 1 10.5 60.9 6.0
n¼7 Stdev 3.11 5.66 1.03 0.05 2.08 0.35 0.57 0.84 0.13 0.12 1.62 647 584 154 50 6 57 30 2.6 137 1.5 0 3.5 29.2 2.4
Group K Mean 62.16 16.93 7.57 0.17 2.35 5.55 1.14 2.94 0.92 0.28 12.43 936 887 293 323 22 160 90 6.2 88 2.8 0 6.3 19.0 3.5
n¼5 Stdev 2.62 3.98 1.41 0.06 0.88 5.99 0.62 0.65 0.15 0.04 4.54 583 760 108 103 1 46 26 2.0 53 0.7 0 1.9 9.8 1.4

Table 7
Mineralogy of a selection of clay raw materials per group (%).

Sample Quartz Calcite Dolomite Aragonite Hematite Magnetite Pyroxene Amphibole Plagioclase K-feldspar Clay
Group A SA07BNS42 26.1 21.5 2.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.5 0.0 5.5 3.1 39.7
SA07BNS45 16.9 21.0 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.7 0.0 3.5 4.1 52.9
Group B SA07BNS12 13.6 23.4 6.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.8 3.8 4.2 46.8
SA07BNS58 9.9 21.6 7.1 1.1 0.4 0.0 1.8 0.7 2.5 3.1 51.9
Group C SA07BNS37 36.1 11.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.8 0.6 6.7 9.7 33.9
SA07BNS64 36.2 14.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.2 0.0 6.5 3.4 37.9
Group D SA07BNS67 15.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 7.5 2.0 8.1 9.4 57.1
SA07BNS68 18.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.9 0.0 1.8 0.8 8.0 6.9 63.2
Group F SA07BNS17 7.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.6 2.9 2.4 2.0 0.0 52.1 31.6
SA07BNS28 5.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.3 7.2 1.9 0.0 42.1 41.9
Group G SA07BNS21 20.0 23.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.9 1.2 7.3 7.6 33.6
SA07BNS22 15.9 26.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.7 1.1 7.2 8.6 35.5
Group I SA07BNS26 5.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.8 0.2 0.0 12.8 78.9
SA06HVH117 5.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 1.6 1.6 0.0 8.2 83.3
Group K SA07BNS03 20.2 17.1 0.0 0.0 0.4 0.0 1.3 0.0 2.3 5.0 53.7
SA07BNS05 26.8 0.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.6 1.8 6.0 25.0 36.9

1303
1304 B. Neyt et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 39 (2012) 1296e1305
clays from the valleys of Çanaklı, Seydiköy, Taşkapı or even the
Burdur plain seem to have been used for the production of the
studied Fabric 4 ceramics.
The comparison between the petrographical groups and main
element content proves unsuccessful. For example, for petro-
graphical group 2 (chert tempered ceramics) SiO2 values increase,
resulting in lower values for the rest of the main elements.
Therefore, trace element content is more useful. Purely on the basis
of Ba and Sr content, two candidate clay groups come into the
picture: the clays from the valley of Ag lasun and the deposits
around the sites of Sagalassos and Düzen Tepe (group F) and the
clays found at Düzen Tepe (group I). The fact that the clays from
group I were found at the bottom of rubbish pits can be an indi-
cation for their use, as these kaolinite-rich clay pockets may have
been exploited and later filled with rubbish. Both of these clay
groups show similar trace element content to the sherds studied
(for example, REE values are relatively high). Quantitative miner-
alogy of these clay samples (Table 7) shows that most abundant
(non-clay) minerals are K-feldspar, with minor amounts of clino-
pyroxene, quartz and amphibole. Clay mineralogy consists of
mostly illite, smectite and kaolinite. Again, the amount of K-feld-
spar is considerable, and this is in agreement with the results of the
electron microprobe analyses on the studied sherds, from which it
was observed that most of the feldspars are potassium-rich.
5. Conclusion
Technological development in craft activities in the area around
Sagalassos developed substantially from the Early Imperial period
onwards. Apart from the monumental building activities, a large
potter’s quarter was located just to the east of the city. In contrast,
only small workshop entities were discovered in the Classical
period. Over the whole timeframe, there was a difference in
production organisation (Poblome, 1999; Poblome et al., 2002;
Braekmans et al., 2011), but raw material exploitation seemed stable.
Considering the main provenance question, it is most likely that
different ophiolite clay sources were exploited for the production of
the ceramics studied, probably as multiple exploitation sites of
relatively heterogeneous ophiolite deposits within and around the
Aglasun valley. There is no straightforward evidence of actual clay
mixing in the thin sections. Preparation methods were probably
limited to the addition of temper material (basalt, chert, flysch) to
clay pastes, but it is very difficult to make the distinction between
real temper and fragments indigenous to the clay source itself. The
electron microprobe analysis proved it to be difficult to further
differentiate the attested petrographical groups with respect to
detailed provenancing in the local landscape. Differences in source
material as well as differences in production process can be the
reason for the petrographical variations attested in the sherds.
Based on these data, however, we argue that all studied sherds had
a common and local origin, and clay sources used for the Fabric 4
wares must have been exploited near Düzen Tepe, Sagalassos and
the central part of the Ag lasun valley.
Apart from providing a methodological example of regional
provenancing of ancient pottery, the combination of the archaeo-
metrical results with the general archaeological evolution of the
region, may have further implications. Considering that Düzen Tepe
was in Classical/Hellenistic times (5the2nd century BC) the main
centre of development within the wider study region, that ophio-
litic clays are not only attested on this extensive site, but were also
quarried in antiquity (Braekmans et al., 2011; Vanhaverbeke et al.,
2010), we would like to consider it logical that clay group I lay, at
least partly, at the basis of the production of the contemporary
‘black core, gritty cooking wares’. This was not the only (cooking)
ware present at Düzen Tepe, and together with these other wares,
the fabric is also represented at contemporary Sagalassos as well as
on various agricultural sites in the Ag lasun valley. In general, the
Classical/Hellenistic period represents the centuries during which
the settlement pattern in and around the Ag lasun valley for the first
time in history became fairly dense, providing future opportunities
to not only study the origins of Sagalassos, which would progres-
sively start to politically dominate the wider region especially from
the third century BC onwards, but also understand in more detail
the nature of the contemporary existence between Sagalassos and
Düzen Tepe, as well as develop a programme of rural archaeology in
the valley. Indeed, considering the restricted number of samples
analyzed for this period and the smallish differences between the
different relevant clay beds in and around the Ag lasun valley, we
should leave the option open that next to clay group I other raw
materials of clay group F could have been exploited for making this
type of cooking ware. If only or mostly clay group I was used, the
Classical/Hellenistic production model is tied to the proto-urban
development of Düzen Tepe. In case a given proportion of these
wares was also made with clay group F, different, possibly rural
partners could have been involved in this cooking ware production,
or these other raw materials could have been transported into
Düzen Tepe or any other manufacturing atelier, possibly Sagalassos.
After all, at the bottom of the central depression in eastern suburbia
of Sagalassos, ophiolitic clay quarrying activity was attested and
dated by C14 to the Classical/Hellenistic period (Six, 2004). In any
case, the typological and technological characteristics of the ware
are such that production organisation is reconstructed at the level
of workshops (Peacock, 1982), requiring a certain concentration of
demand, and this would remain to be the case at least into the Early
Byzantine period.
The next set of samples is related to the Roman imperial period,
and more specifically to the second half of the first and the first half
of the second centuries AD. Although, from a typological point of
view, different products were made compared to the previous
period, the selection strategy of clay raw materials seems not to
have been considered in other ways. This aspect should not be read
as indicative of the sometimes presumed stagnant nature of ancient
technology (Greene, 2000), but rather of the optimal nature of the
clay raw materials and potting technology to manufacture per-
forming quality products, which in the case of cooking wares
should not be considered as straightforward given the demands of
the life cycle of such pottery (Pena, 2009). As to provenancing, the
clay raw materials in the Potters’ Quarter of eastern suburbia of
Sagalassos could be an option, although, thus far the fairly exten-
sive multi-strategy research project in the quarter (Murphy and
Poblome, 2010) did not yet provide indications for the production
of cooking wares, nor any other product, except for Sagalassos red
slip ware and related products such as figurines and oil lamps in the
same fine fabric. As Düzen Tepe was abandoned by then, clay group
F present in the Ag lasun valley could also be an option, suggesting
a certain degree of professional rural potting activities. A link
between farmsteads and artisanal activity should most probably
also be presumed in the case of the many bricks, tiles and water
pipes used throughout the history of occupation of Sagalassos.
Absence of evidence from eastern suburbia combined with the
nature of the clay raw materials seems to suggest that at least
a portion of the cooking vessels, as well as jugs, jars, lekaneis and
storage vessels, were made in professional rural pottery production
units. The local production of the coated baking dishes, in the so-
called Pompeian red ware tradition, should also be mentioned, as
well as the possibility of import of these products forming part of
petrographical group 5. Further research is required into the details
of the introduction of this specific baking tool, which was not
endemic to the region. Clearly, there is no evidence available to
suggest a direct relation with the Italian matrix of origin of this
 B. Neyt et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 39 (2012) 1296e1305
specific baking technology, but the conclusion that a given
proportion of these wares were made in or in the neighbourhood of
imperial Sagalassos should trigger a more detailed examination
into the nature of the presence of these baking dishes.
The third chronological group covered in this paper belonged to
the Early Byzantine period. The fact that amphorae were being
produced with these fabrics, which traditionally are associated in
production with agricultural units where also the produce poured
into the amphorae was generated (Peacock and Williams, 1986),
combined with at least five compositional fabric variations, under
the general heading of clay provenance group F, and the continued
absence of production evidence for this fabric from eastern suburbia,
most probably indicates the involvement of a series of farmsteads in
rural artisanal production, which, apart from the amphorae, also
manufactured cooking and other storage vessels from the same
clays. The material presented in this paper, especially of the Early
Byzantine period, provides further proof that the symbiosis between
a prosperous and productive countryside and a busy town con-
nected to the wider world can be considered to be the conditio sine
qua non for providing a sustainable basis for the development of craft
production, both urban and rural, and how the artisanal world can be
considered to form an integral part of strategies of agricultural
exploitation (Poblome, 2004). In this sense, models of centralised
urban and decentralised rural production seem to be making less
sense for at least this part of the ancient world.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Herman Nijs for the preparation
of thin sections in Leuven. The text presents the results of a project
by the Research Fund of the K.U. Leuven (BOF-GOA07/2). The
research was also supported by the Belgian Programme on Inter-
universitary Poles of Attraction (IAP VI/22).
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