Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 1049e1061

http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jas

Koan amphorae from Halasarna e investigations in a Hellenistic

amphora production centre
Anno Hein a,*, Victoria Georgopoulou b, Eleni Nodarou c, Vassilis Kilikoglou a
a
Institute of Materials Science, N.C.S.R. ‘‘Demokritos’’, 15310 Aghia Paraskevi, Attiki, Greece
b
Department of Archaeology and History of Art, University of Athens, 15784 Zografou, Athens, Greece
c
INSTAP Study Center for East Crete, Pacheia Ammos, 72200 Ierapetra, Crete, Greece
Received 22 March 2007; received in revised form 18 July 2007; accepted 25 July 2007

Abstract

Ceramic amphorae have been the most popular transport and storage containers for a large variety of liquid and solid products. The amphorae
of the present study were used as transport containers for wine from the island of Kos (East Aegean). Therefore, they had to fulfil certain re-
quirements in terms of mechanical strength and toughness but also in terms of standardization of vessel size and shape. An assemblage of am-
phora fragments from the excavation of ancient Halasarna, an amphora production centre, will be presented. The ceramics were studied by
means of their chemical and mineralogical composition and fabric. Furthermore, their material properties were measured and their mechanical
performance was simulated in computer models.
Ó 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Neutron activation analysis; Clay; Petrography; Finite element; Amphora; Mechanical properties

1. Introduction During the Hellenistic period the island of Kos, however,

The island of Kos is well known for its wine production from
the Classical Period. During Hellenistic times Koan wine was
traded in the entire Eastern Mediterranean (Finkielsztejn,
2000; Johnsson, 2004; Georgopoulou, 2005) in the Black Sea
and also in the Western Mediterranean (Georgopoulou, 2006).
For the transportation of wine, mostly locally produced Koan
amphorae were used, which according to Pliny the Elder, had
a high reputation for their quality (Tchernia, 1986). Usually,
the amphora production is assumed to have been related to
the town of Kos, the ancient and modern centre in the northeast
of the island (Fig. 1). Indeed, remains of two amphora work-
shops have been recently discovered in this area, dated to the
4th and 1st century BC (Kantzia, 1994). Although no kilns
have been found until now, the excavated stores and dumps
have provided clear evidence for local amphora production.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ30 21 06 503326; fax: þ30 21 06 519430.
E-mail address: hein@ims.demokritos.gr (A. Hein).
was divided into six ‘demos’ corresponding to the counties.
Apart from Kos-Meropis town the second important demo
was Halasarna, an ancient cult centre at the south coast of
Central Kos (Fig. 1). Apart from wine production Halasarna
is also considered as a possible production place for amphorae
(Whitbread, 1995; Georgopoulou, 2006). The rich extant raw
material sources and the presence of traditional pottery work-
shops in the area are further indications which support the hy-
pothesis of the production place. Up to less than 20 years ago,
the potters of Kardamaina, the modern village close to Hala-
sarna, were still supplying the islands of the south Aegean
with pottery utilizing local raw materials (Psaropoulou,
1984; Chatzipanagioti, 1993). Furthermore a Late Roman
kiln, discovered in the vicinity of the archaeological site, pro-
vided evidence for amphora production at least in this period
(Didioumi, 1999). The excavation of the Sanctuary of Apollo,
from which most of the ceramics analysed in the present study
come from, is situated in the area of the modern potters’ quar-
ter of Kardamaina (Tsoukalaria). Here, among other finds,
a large assemblage of fragments of Hellenistic Koan amphorae

0305-4403/$ - see front matter Ó 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jas.2007.07.009
1050 A. Hein et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 1049e1061
Fig. 1. Map of the Island of Kos.
was discovered, indicating that Halasarna had been at least
a consumption or trade centre. It is expected that the present
study will provide information on whether it could also have
been an amphora production place.
For this reason, 45 amphora fragments were selected for
chemical and mineralogical analyses. The analyses were per-
formed having two main goals in mind: to comprehend the
pottery tradition in Hellenistic amphora production and to in-
vestigate whether Halasarna was production centre. Therefore,
the chemical and mineralogical variation of the assemblage
was examined and the compositions were compared with those
of other ceramic materials. Furthermore, samples from a clay
deposit, which was exploited for traditional pottery produc-
tion, were collected and analysed in order to compare their
geochemical composition with the ceramics.
In the second part of the study, the performance character-
istics of the amphorae were investigated. Amphorae were pri-
marily functional ceramics and constituted the most important
transport containers since they were first used (Twede, 2002).
During transport and storage the vessels had to withstand con-
siderable mechanical loads, impacts and stresses. Failure or
disruption of an amphora could destroy not only the vessel
but also its valuable content. Therefore, a series of mechanical
tests was performed on the ceramics and the respective me-
chanical modules were determined. Based on typical vessel
shapes, digital models of Koan amphorae produced in different
periods were designed. Considering the measured mechanical
properties these models were tested with finite element analy-
sis for their mechanical performance under simulated loads.
2. Sample selection
The 45 amphora fragments (KOS 03eKOS 47) which were
selected for the present study, covered a time period from the
5th to the 1st century BC and included different amphora
types, such as Koan Type I and Type II from the 4th century
BC (Georgopoulou, 2006). Furthermore, the fragments repre-
sented different vessel parts, such as rims, handles, pointed ba-
ses and bodies. The majority of the Koan amphora fragments
from Kardamaina presented a very similar fine and porous ce-
ramic matrix with frequent visible mica inclusions. In general,
the colour of the ceramic body was reddish yellow to yellow-
ish red (Munsell: 5YR 7/8-6/8 reddish yellow, 5YR 6/6 red-
dish yellow, 5YR 5/8 yellowish red) with only a few
variations (Munsell: 10 YR 7/4 very pale brown, 5YR 7/4-6/
4 pink-light reddish brown). A typical feature for the Koan
amphorae was a white slip on the outer surface.
In addition, five amphorae, stored in museums, were sam-
pled, namely three Archaic amphorae from the Archaeological
museum in Kos, dated to the 6th century BC (KOS A1eKOS
A3) and two amphorae from Athens. The first amphora, which
was sampled in the Agora museum, belonged to the so-called
Nikandros group (NIKA), an amphora type which has been at-
tributed to Kos (Grace and Savvatianou-Petropoulakou, 1970;
Empereur and Hesnard, 1987) and recently to Ephesos (Law-
all, 2004). In the Archaeological museum of Athens another
amphora was sampled (AKYTH), which was recovered in
the Antikythera ship wreck (Grace, 1965). Also in this case
a possible origin from Kos was considered (Empereur and
Hesnard, 1987).
Apart from ceramics, a series of clays was collected from
a deposit c. 1.5 km north of the excavation site (KARD
1e3). The island of Kos belongs to the Aegean Volcanic Is-
land Arc and it is located quite close to the Asia Minor coast
and the Bodrum and Datça peninsulas in particular. Apart from
the Dikaios Mountains in the southern part of Eastern Kos the
geology of Kos is dominated by Late Cenozoic sediments (Be-
senecker and Otte, 1977; Whitbread, 1995): upper Miocene la-
custrine deposits, Pliocene lacustrine and marine deposits,
Pleistocene marine deposits, Upper Pleistocene pyroclastic
 A. Hein et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 1049e1061
deposits and alluvial deposits. The sampled clay deposit be-
longed to a Pliocene formation in Central Kos (Kardamena
Member), smaller outcrops of which can be found also in
East Kos (Psalidi Member) (Besenecker and Otte, 1977; Trian-
taphyllis, 1998). According to a local potter, this particular de-
posit has been used in the recent past for ceramic production in
Kardamaina. Within the deposit, a considerable variability of
the clay in texture and content of inclusions was visible. The
three clay samples which were collected, were powdered
and homogenized in a wooden mortar and kept for analyses.
For comparison with the ceramics, subsamples of two clays
were mixed with water and moulded to small briquettes. The
briquettes were fired in oxidizing conditions at temperatures
between 850 and 1050  C with a soaking time of 1 h.
3. Analytical approach
In order to determine trace element compositions, samples
of all amphora fragments and samples of the collected clays
were analysed by NAA. As for the ceramic fragments small
pieces were cut and ground in an agate mortar after removing
their surface. The raw clays were analysed without any special
treatment. The NAA followed a routine procedure which is de-
scribed in detail elsewhere (Hein et al., 2002).
The generated compositional patterns were further statisti-
cally evaluated, aiming to produce chemical groups of ce-
ramics with each member having similar composition. These
groups are assumed to have been produced from the same
clay paste and to represent therefore the same production
place. As a similarity measure the squared Euclidian distance,
weighted by the respective standard deviations, was used ap-
plying additionally a best relative fit (Kilikoglou et al., 2007):
X ðf  xi  yi Þ2
2
dx;y ¼
i
s2i
where xi is the concentration of element i in a particular
sample, f the best relative fit factor and yi the average concen-
tration in the tested group with the respective standard devia-
tion si.
A representative set of the ceramic samples, along with the
raw and fired clays, were analysed by XRD. All samples were
finely powdered and placed in sample holders which were
measured with a Siemens D 500 spectrometer bearing a Cu-
Ka source. The comparison of the mineralogical compositions
of ceramics and clays was expected to provide information
about the type of the clays used and the firing conditions.
From another representative set of samples, thin-sections
were prepared and studied under the polarising optical micro-
scope. The petrographic examination was focussed on charac-
terisation of ceramic texture and possible indications of clay
paste manipulation. In his pioneering study of Greek transport
amphorae Whitbread (1995) included a number of stamped
amphorae, of assumed Koan origin, mainly from the Athenian
Agora, as well as the Corinth Excavations and the British Mu-
seum. He defined five broad fabric groups, which he tenta-
tively associated with a wide distribution of production sites
1051
across different geological zones on Kos and the neighbouring
Asia Minor coast. The comparison with Whitbread’s fabrics
suggested here aims at integrating the data from the Halasarna
excavation with the largest so far published corpus of petro-
graphic data from Kos and not at presenting exact parallels
for this material.
In order to investigate the parameters which control the
reported high quality of the Koan amphorae as transport
containers, a series of mechanical tests were performed on two
body fragments, KOS B1 and KOS B2. Therefore, from each
of the fragments three rectangular bars (c. 10  10  40 mm)
were cut for determination of their flexural strength or trans-
verse rupture strength (TRS) in three-point bending tests by
using an INSTRON 1195 universal testing system (Kilikoglou
et al., 1998). The density of the ceramics was determined by
measuring dry weight and volume of each specimen. Apart
from the bending test also compression tests were performed
on two samples, in order to estimate the Young’s modulus. Al-
ternatively, Young’s modulus was estimated with regard to the
firing temperature determined by XRD and the average size
and volume fraction of inclusions determined in thin-sections
(Kilikoglou and Vekinis, 2002).
4. Finite element method (FEM)
In order to assess the impact of different vessel shapes on
the mechanical performance of the amphorae, three-dimen-
sional digital models of the studied amphora types were de-
signed and examined with finite element analysis. FEM,
commonly used in engineering sciences, is a numerical ap-
proach to solve complex problems, such as structural deforma-
tion and resulting mechanical stress of an object under defined
constraints and loads. Therefore, a model of the object is sub-
divided into small sections, so-called finite elements, which
are connected among each other at certain nodes. In this
way the particular problem, which is reduced to interactions
between the elements, can be solved with an equation system.
In the case of an amphora model with defined shape, different
types of loads can be examined, simulating possible usage of
the vessel assumed to be filled or empty (Hein and Kilikoglou,
in press). After specifying the density, Young’s modulus and
Poisson’s ratio of the respective ceramics, structural deforma-
tion of the amphora and resulting stress are determined. The
corresponding strain provides prediction of possible failure
of the vessel by comparison with values of fracture strain of
experimental test specimens (Kilikoglou and Vekinis, 2002).
In the present study FEM examination was focussed on the
shape development of Koan amphora types during the Helle-
nistic period and comparison between the respective vessel
shapes in terms of mechanical performance under typical
loads.
The first considered case was the simulation of strain when
the amphora was lifted by its handles. Therefore, the handles
of the model were fixed in terms of displacement and gravity
force was applied. In another simulation, the pointed base of
the amphora was fixed and the weight of the amphora full
of liquid, was applied as load. Finally, stowage and transport of
1052 A. Hein et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 1049e1061
Fig. 2. Schematic illustration of amphora layers piled up for transport or stor-
age: apart from the first and the last layers each amphora has four contact
points with amphorae of the layer above and four contact points with ampho-
rae of the layer below.
amphorae was simulated having in mind that for transport in
a cargo ship for instance, amphorae were piled up in layers
(Twede, 2002). Evidence from shipwrecks has revealed that
the amphorae were packed in such a way that the bases of an
overlying layer were fitted into the spaces between the shoul-
ders of the lower layer (Fig. 2). Thus, the points of load were
determined by the four contact points with the amphora bases
of the layer above and the four contact points with the amphora
shoulders below. Each layer would correspond to an additional
weight of one-fourth of an individual amphora at each point
of load. Only in the case of amphorae of the first layer the com-
plete load would have been concentrated in the amphora base.
These were, however, commonly secured with sand, pebbles or
brushwood dunnage (Twede, 2002). The weight forces were
increased when the amphora pile was exposed to sudden move-
ments such as during heavy sea conditions.
5. Results and discussion
5.1. Chemical composition of ceramics and clays
In general, the raw materials which were used for the pro-
duction of the studied ceramics appeared to have been calcar-
eous, apart from the three fragments of the Archaic amphorae
from the Kos Archaeological Museum and samples KOS 20
and 22. Furthermore, comparatively high K concentrations
were noticed, most probably correlated with the micaceous in-
clusions which were macroscopically visible in the majority of
the samples and characterize the clays which were typically
used in the amphora production in Kos. The statistical evalu-
ation of the NAA results revealed a large main group of 30
samples presenting a uniform chemical composition (Table
1). Indeed, Group A comprised the major part of the studied
ceramics, including fragments from the entire time period un-
der study and various types of Koan amphorae. The average
chemical composition was characterized by high trace element
concentrations compared to the other samples, especially for
Ce, La, Th and U.
Among the other samples, three smaller groups were
found with distinct geochemical compositions: Group B, con-
sisting of four samples, and Groups C and D, both consisting
of three samples each (Table 2). The average composition of
Group B showed particularly high values of Co, Cr and Ni.
This is usually an indication for a different, probably more
mafic, geological environment from which the raw materials
derived. The three samples of Group C presented a remark-
ably homogeneous composition clearly different from Group
A. The characteristic of this pattern is generally lower trace
element concentrations, apart from Ba and Sc concentrations,
which were significantly higher. Finally, Group D showed to
some extent compositional similarity to the main group A. It
differed only in some elements such as Cr, Ni, Sb, Th and U,
which were significantly lower. Nevertheless, elements re-
flecting the clay mineral component, as for instance the
rare earth elements and Sc, showed a rather similar pattern.
This can be interpreted from the fact that the clays which
were used for its production derived from a similar geologi-
cal environment as those, which were used for amphorae in
Group A.
Apart from the groups three pairs of samples were found,
each presenting similar chemical compositions (Table 2).
Samples KOS 7 and 19 presented generally low trace element
concentrations but like Group B high concentrations of Co, Cr
and Ni. Samples KOS 20 and 22 presented low Ca concentra-
tions but the highest concentrations of Sb and Sc in the studied
ceramics. The trace element concentrations in sample KOS 20,
however, were clearly lower than in sample KOS 22, except
for Ca, As and Sb. Therefore, chemical similarity to some ex-
tent became only clear by using best relative fit factors. Finally
samples KOS A1 and KOS A2, two of the three archaic am-
phorae, presented a distinct composition as well. These two
samples were low calcareous and they showed high concentra-
tions in Ba, K and Rb and in Lu, Th and Yb.
Four ceramic samples remained chemical loners and could
not be attributed to one of the groups. Among these four sam-
ples are the amphora of the Nikandros type and the amphora
from the Antikythera ship wreck. In both cases, a Koan origin
could not be verified since they were not similar to any of the
main groups or any group belonging to the databases the pres-
ent data were compared to.
The collected clay samples showed a rather homogeneous
chemical composition, which revealed a considerable chemi-
cal similarity with the main amphora group (Table 2). Chem-
ical similarities and dissimilarities among ceramics and clay
samples are demonstrated in the principal component analysis
(PCA) plot of Fig. 3. It can be seen that the three clay samples
group together and very close to members of Group A. This
was unexpected, since the loss of ignition of the raw clays
was in the range of 10e15% and the trace element concentra-
tions were expected to have been increased after firing. There-
fore, the only explanation for the chemical match between
clays and Group A is the mixing of the clay with material
rich in quartz as a form of tempering.
Table 1
Concentrations of the 30 samples of Group A and their average composition including standard deviation, absolute and in percent
Group A Fit As Ba Ca% Ce Co Cr Cs Eu Fe% Hf K% La Lu Na% Ni Rb Sb Sc Sm Ta Tb Th U Yb Zn Zr
KOS 03 1.06 25.1 609 6.0 105 22.5 261 9.7 1.44 4.10 6.40 2.8 51.7 0.30 1.0 211 135 1.58 12.4 7.40 1.49 0.92 25.6 5.48 2.85 94 208
KOS 04 0.95 18.4 690 5.5 118 22.7 289 13.2 1.55 4.52 6.69 3.3 58.7 0.38 1.2 195 173 2.00 14.2 8.41 1.72 0.86 29.8 6.57 3.45 103 251
KOS 08 0.97 13.5 690 6.1 115 24.5 261 12.5 1.64 4.54 6.70 2.8 57.3 0.36 1.2 244 157 2.00 13.9 7.85 1.71 0.79 28.2 6.35 3.26 99 274
KOS 09 1.01 15.2 653 6.8 110 23.1 252 11.9 1.56 4.32 6.46 3.0 54.2 0.41 1.1 240 155 1.88 13.2 7.48 1.59 0.74 26.8 6.16 2.96 99 263

A. Hein et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 1049e1061

KOS 10 0.96 22.7 624 6.1 114 22.3 224 13.3 1.60 4.68 6.71 2.9 58.2 0.42 1.1 207 166 2.02 14.0 8.06 1.83 0.76 29.4 6.65 3.06 96 247
KOS 11 1.00 16.0 620 7.4 105 26.4 313 11.4 1.52 4.52 6.47 2.5 53.0 0.40 1.1 298 145 1.85 13.2 7.46 1.74 0.76 25.5 5.93 3.19 89 262
KOS 12 0.94 12.0 653 5.4 117 22.6 262 13.5 1.64 4.63 6.93 3.2 58.6 0.41 1.2 210 156 1.93 14.1 8.16 1.86 0.71 29.6 6.56 3.32 104 250
KOS 13 0.99 16.6 590 6.9 108 22.2 299 11.7 1.59 4.44 6.93 2.4 53.8 0.41 1.1 229 153 1.76 13.3 7.72 1.67 0.80 26.0 6.29 3.34 101 272
KOS 16 0.96 14.6 683 5.9 116 23.1 300 12.6 1.63 4.34 7.46 3.0 57.1 0.38 1.3 162 1.94 13.1 8.24 1.65 0.83 26.7 6.55 3.13 97 296
KOS 17 1.00 21.8 630 7.4 110 21.7 234 12.6 1.49 4.42 7.11 3.0 55.8 0.36 1.1 163 1.80 13.6 7.87 1.63 0.61 27.6 6.68 3.11 95 238
KOS 18 1.06 15.8 593 6.9 103 19.6 312 11.6 1.42 3.73 6.99 2.9 52.0 0.33 1.4 153 1.80 11.1 7.43 1.54 0.73 24.6 6.37 3.27 85 285
KOS 21 0.99 15.5 516 6.6 112 21.4 256 13.5 1.56 4.16 7.29 2.8 55.7 0.38 1.2 155 1.94 13.1 7.96 1.55 0.72 26.9 6.32 3.42 94 236
KOS 25 0.94 14.7 615 6.1 120 25.9 236 16.0 1.61 4.25 6.65 3.1 59.5 0.38 0.9 268 169 2.15 14.3 8.62 1.89 0.84 30.2 6.44 3.21 103 278
KOS 26 1.04 13.1 742 6.3 102 24.7 231 11.6 1.46 4.20 5.71 2.8 48.8 0.37 0.9 220 150 1.81 13.5 7.55 1.57 0.91 23.2 5.89 3.19 100 241
KOS 27 1.09 15.9 618 5.8 101 17.4 251 10.8 1.50 3.75 6.59 3.0 50.6 0.33 1.2 201 142 1.80 11.4 7.33 1.61 0.74 23.8 5.66 2.78 86 266
KOS 29 0.99 9.2 654 6.3 110 21.3 250 12.6 1.47 4.30 6.54 3.4 55.8 0.35 1.2 249 157 1.89 13.1 8.04 1.89 0.75 28.2 6.85 3.27 95 260
KOS 30 0.96 9.9 600 7.7 116 23.7 305 12.4 1.55 4.43 6.34 3.2 56.5 0.41 1.2 203 157 1.73 13.7 8.00 1.73 0.83 26.9 6.50 3.46 101 261
KOS 31 1.03 15.1 569 8.8 109 23.0 302 11.3 1.46 4.19 5.96 2.8 53.7 0.41 1.1 201 147 1.73 12.6 7.67 1.55 0.81 25.6 6.13 2.71 95 240
KOS 32 0.99 3.4 585 7.1 113 23.7 340 12.3 1.48 4.27 7.36 2.8 55.0 0.40 1.4 249 140 1.36 12.7 7.94 1.80 0.83 26.3 5.80 3.07 84 304
KOS 33 1.18 10.5 486 8.1 94 20.6 263 10.6 1.28 3.75 5.43 2.2 46.1 0.35 1.3 192 78 1.52 11.6 6.42 1.41 0.73 22.5 5.57 2.60 84 208
KOS 34 1.03 18.3 658 8.7 108 22.1 323 9.5 1.42 4.18 6.50 2.6 52.2 0.40 1.1 238 120 1.83 12.2 7.74 1.67 0.79 25.1 6.67 2.80 81 275
KOS 36 1.02 4.1 666 7.7 110 23.6 326 10.6 1.52 4.31 6.44 2.0 54.3 0.39 1.8 192 96 1.28 13.0 7.45 1.53 0.83 24.6 5.68 3.34 88 322
KOS 37 0.97 10.2 582 9.2 117 28.7 326 11.8 1.60 4.43 6.15 2.5 57.9 0.42 1.1 199 140 1.76 13.3 7.94 1.66 0.91 25.2 5.09 3.17 90 231
KOS 41 1.07 13.8 560 8.1 101 21.9 289 9.6 1.46 4.02 6.18 2.3 49.6 0.40 1.1 228 129 1.56 11.8 7.10 1.62 0.77 24.0 5.63 3.11 86 272
KOS 42 0.99 14.7 540 8.4 107 23.8 288 12.3 1.55 4.40 6.77 3.0 53.2 0.41 1.1 258 132 1.99 13.5 7.84 1.78 0.77 26.5 6.39 3.48 96 262
KOS 43 0.93 7.2 551 6.2 113 22.3 255 14.6 1.58 4.58 7.40 3.0 57.0 0.43 1.2 219 172 2.09 14.2 8.14 1.92 0.88 30.0 6.79 3.49 107 317
KOS 44 1.05 17.4 595 7.9 102 21.8 301 10.6 1.43 4.00 6.30 2.7 50.8 0.40 1.1 251 144 1.65 11.8 7.61 1.68 0.80 25.3 6.34 3.05 94 244
KOS 45 0.93 19.9 637 8.4 114 24.3 315 12.2 1.61 4.58 7.03 3.0 57.4 0.44 1.2 307 152 2.37 13.7 8.80 2.00 0.87 29.4 7.14 3.30 97 311
KOS 46 0.91 13.8 6.1 125 23.8 248 14.7 1.67 4.75 6.99 2.9 61.1 0.43 1.1 150 2.05 14.9 8.64 1.93 1.00 31.3 6.64 3.25 104 275
KOS 47 0.98 15.3 7.3 113 23.4 315 11.3 1.55 4.34 7.03 2.9 55.2 0.43 1.2 135 1.87 13.2 8.11 1.68 0.94 26.0 6.11 3.12 93 276
Average 14.5 616 7.1 110 22.9 281 12.0 1.52 4.29 6.63 2.8 54.5 0.39 1.2 230 145 1.82 13.1 7.81 1.69 0.81 26.6 6.23 3.15 94 264
s 5.0 57 1.3 3 1.8 37 1.1 0.04 0.13 0.39 0.3 1.2 0.03 0.2 30 17 0.18 0.5 0.17 0.09 0.08 1.1 0.38 0.17 5 26
s [%] 34 9.2 18 2.3 8.0 13 8.9 2.8 3.1 5.8 9.6 2.3 7.3 16 13 12 9.6 3.6 2.2 5.1 9.6 4.3 6.1 5.5 5.2 9.8
In the second column the fit factors are presented based on the best relative fit to the average group composition. The concentrations are given in ppm except for those of Ca, Fe, K and Na which are given in wt %.

1053
 1054
Table 2
Concentrations of the remaining 20 ceramic samples and three clay samples, including average group compositions and standard deviations
Fit As Ba Ca% Ce Co Cr Cs Eu Fe% Hf K% La Lu Na% Ni Rb Sb Sc Sm Ta Tb Th U Yb Zn Zr
Group B
KOS 05 1.02 8.9 458 11.1 86 39.3 421 8.6 1.11 4.42 4.92 2.2 41.6 0.32 0.7 455 116 1.65 11.9 6.03 1.27 0.75 20.8 3.17 2.77 91
KOS 14 1.00 12.3 408 10.9 86 39.5 480 8.2 1.23 4.47 5.39 1.9 43.4 0.32 0.7 113 1.58 12.2 6.27 1.19 0.68 19.3 3.82 2.54 87 200
KOS 15 0.90 15.0 572 9.0 109 42.8 445 13.0 1.40 4.83 6.69 2.2 53.1 0.36 0.8 139 2.07 13.4 7.51 1.44 0.76 26.6 5.32 3.24 95 301
KOS 28 1.08 9.4 618 8.9 78 36.5 452 6.8 1.11 3.96 4.64 1.8 38.9 0.31 0.7 629 96 1.49 10.8 5.77 1.29 0.61 17.8 3.33 2.34 86 161
Average 11.3 515 10.0 89 39.4 450 9.0 1.21 4.40 5.37 2.0 44.0 0.33 0.7 571 115 1.69 12.0 6.36 1.30 0.70 20.9 3.86 2.71 90 215
s 2.0 110 1.5 6 0.6 42 1.9 0.06 0.11 0.49 0.1 2.7 0.00 0.0 152 9 0.13 0.3 0.28 0.08 0.05 2.2 0.67 0.20 4 51
s [%] 18 21 15 7.1 1.5 9.3 21 4.8 2.5 9.0 6.4 6.2 1.0 4.4 27 8.0 7.6 2.2 4.5 6.2 6.6 11 17.4 7.3 4.1 23
Group C

A. Hein et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 1049e1061

KOS 35 1.00 14.9 734 6.1 83 22.0 146 8.2 1.47 4.36 5.87 2.4 41.0 0.40 0.6 120 125 1.02 16.5 7.16 1.28 0.83 15.1 3.39 3.29 100 172
KOS 38 1.01 15.1 721 6.0 84 22.0 148 8.2 1.50 4.35 5.70 2.5 41.9 0.41 0.6 95 122 1.03 16.4 7.08 1.28 0.78 15.5 3.51 3.21 98 211
KOS 39 0.99 16.0 756 6.1 78 20.8 144 8.8 1.38 4.46 6.00 2.6 38.8 0.43 0.8 118 131 1.10 16.8 6.69 1.51 0.83 16.4 3.90 3.31 104 217
Average 15.3 737 6.1 82 21.6 146 8.4 1.45 4.39 5.85 2.5 40.6 0.41 0.7 111 126 1.05 16.6 6.98 1.36 0.81 15.7 3.60 3.27 101 200
s 0.5 13 0.1 4 0.8 3 0.3 0.07 0.03 0.11 0.1 1.9 0.01 0.1 13 4 0.04 0.1 0.30 0.12 0.02 0.6 0.24 0.04 2 24
s [%] 3.2 1.7 1.3 4.4 3.9 2.0 3.4 5.0 0.7 1.9 3.9 4.6 3.5 11 12 2.9 3.5 0.6 4.2 9.1 2.8 3.6 6.8 1.1 2.3 12
Group D
KOS 06 1.00 12.6 586 5.9 102 20.6 198 9.8 1.48 4.24 7.17 2.6 49.7 0.41 1.4 119 134 1.06 13.9 6.77 1.63 0.84 23.0 4.33 3.22 87 337
KOS 23 1.00 12.8 571 6.3 103 19.3 224 9.5 1.47 4.00 7.03 2.9 52.2 0.35 1.5 133 132 1.07 13.1 7.21 1.63 0.88 22.9 4.09 3.42 92 266
KOS 24 1.00 31.8 596 4.2 104 17.3 173 10.3 1.57 4.48 7.21 2.8 51.6 0.41 1.2 129 141 1.11 15.4 7.66 1.77 0.79 22.9 5.05 3.40 107 321
Average 19.1 584 5.5 103 19.1 198 9.9 1.51 4.24 7.14 2.7 51.2 0.39 1.4 127 136 1.08 14.1 7.21 1.68 0.84 22.9 4.49 3.35 95 308
s 11.0 12 1.1 1 1.7 26 0.4 0.05 0.23 0.08 0.1 1.4 0.04 0.1 7 5 0.03 1.2 0.45 0.08 0.04 0.0 0.49 0.11 10 37
s [%] 58 2.0 21 1.0 8.7 13 3.9 3.6 5.5 1.2 5.2 2.7 9.1 10 5.8 3.4 2.4 8.1 6.2 4.7 5.3 0.2 11 3.4 11 12
Pairs
KOS 07 0.99 9.1 457 7.3 75 34.5 389 10.1 1.13 4.97 4.47 2.1 35.6 0.36 0.8 306 120 1.01 17.7 5.64 1.14 0.68 12.3 3.05 2.92 120 163
KOS 19 1.01 10.1 343 8.0 72 32.9 360 9.7 1.10 4.71 4.69 2.2 34.6 0.39 0.8 123 0.99 17.1 5.58 1.08 0.67 11.8 3.33 2.85 101
KOS 20 1.08 34.9 492 3.8 79 23.9 199 10.9 1.21 4.28 6.11 2.7 36.5 0.39 0.9 138 3.71 18.5 6.43 1.29 0.73 14.2 3.13 3.47 104 235
KOS 22 0.93 21.5 694 2.2 103 29.2 235 14.7 1.78 5.05 6.81 3.1 46.9 0.45 0.8 208 160 2.97 21.4 8.70 1.56 0.99 16.8 4.53 3.94 112 270
KOS A1 1.00 89.7 1186 1.0 113 24.0 107 12.3 1.35 4.54 5.71 3.3 44.5 0.46 0.9 169 212 1.62 12.7 8.31 1.99 0.98 27.7 4.31 3.81 96 196
KOS A2 1.00 16.3 906 2.9 104 33.8 143 11.8 1.33 4.66 5.37 2.9 40.3 0.43 0.8 203 188 1.19 13.6 7.66 1.78 0.97 25.6 4.23 3.81 128 189
Loners
KOS 40 16.8 312 16.0 72.2 20.8 738 4.3 1.57 3.98 3.92 1.08 29.6 0.29 0.66 110 64 0.74 13.7 5.69 1.18 0.79 9.0 2.68 2.52 91 171
KOS A3 35.5 748 2.1 64.9 21.8 153 6.7 1.13 3.71 5.93 1.63 26.7 0.35 1.43 99 90 1.11 13.5 5.07 1.10 0.57 12.7 3.29 2.80 84
NIKA 68.1 842 8.6 64.6 48.8 378 1.7 1.13 4.03 5.92 0.67 30.3 0.33 0.87 200 24 1.98 15.7 5.22 1.07 0.43 11.0 4.38 2.54 173 299
AKYTH 41.6 511 10.3 61.9 21.0 222 4.2 1.06 3.71 4.00 2.32 28.2 0.34 0.55 146 83 2.27 14.6 5.34 1.02 0.61 11.2 3.04 2.59 96 157
Clays
KARD 1 0.99 21.0 538 5.6 109.0 19.7 197 13.1 1.51 3.99 5.94 2.83 56.2 0.44 1.18 133 162 1.95 12.9 7.98 1.58 0.78 28.0 7.68 2.73 87 202
KARD 2 1.00 24.4 596 6.0 110.0 20.1 203 13.2 1.45 4.10 6.21 3.04 56.7 0.45 1.04 121 153 2.1 12.6 7.90 1.55 0.86 28.7 7.80 2.70 94 253
KARD 3 1.01 12.4 430 7.2 95.0 20.9 225 11.4 1.31 3.81 5.27 2.53 49.0 0.38 0.99 137 145 1.76 12.5 7.17 1.38 0.83 22.9 5.42 2.77 85
Average 19.2 521 6.3 105 20.2 208 12.6 1.42 3.96 5.80 2.8 53.9 0.42 1.1 130 153 1.93 12.7 7.68 1.50 0.82 26.5 6.96 2.73 89 226
s 6.1 82 0.9 8 0.8 16 0.9 0.09 0.13 0.45 0.2 4.0 0.03 0.1 9 7 0.16 0.1 0.39 0.10 0.04 3.0 1.30 0.05 4 37
s [%] 32 16 14 7.4 3.7 7.8 7.4 6.5 3.2 7.8 8.7 7.4 8.0 8.8 6.7 4.9 8.3 1.1 5.1 6.5 5.2 11 19 1.9 5.0 16
As for the groups, in the second column the fit factors are presented based on the best relative fit to the average group composition. The concentrations are given in ppm except for those of Ca, Fe, K and Na which
are given in wt %.
 A. Hein et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 1049e1061 1055

Table 3
Average concentrations and standard deviations of two groups of Archaic
ceramics from Knidos (Mommsen et al., 2006)
EME-B (calibrated) 29 samples EME-C (calibrated) 12 samples
Average s s [%] Average s s [%]
As 5.6 1.6 24 9.0 4.0 37
Ba 513 72 14 502 49 10
Ca% 5.3 0.8 15 3.6 1.3 33
Ce 73.3 2.2 3.2 101.9 3.9 4.0
Co 41.1 3.1 8.0 31.7 1.9 6.4
Cr 334 10 2.5 274 22 7.0
Cs 7.69 0.77 9.9 12.57 1.16 9.1
Eu 1.15 0.03 2.4 1.37 0.07 5.5
Fe% 5.0 0.1 2.4 5.2 0.2 3.5
Hf 4.7 0.2 4.4 6.9 0.4 5.4
K% 2.1 0.2 7.9 3.2 0.3 9.3
La 34.1 0.9 2.7 46.5 2.7 5.9
Lu 0.44 0.03 7.3 0.52 0.02 4.0
Na% 0.61 0.08 13 0.77 0.16 21
Fig. 3. Principal component analysis of the chemical compositions of ceramics
Ni 273 44 11 188 38 13
and clays (first two components): The concentration data were logratio trans-
Rb 107 14 12 162 8 4.9
formed with the Sm concentration as common divisor. The concentrations of
Sb 0.74 0.16 22 0.78 0.13 17
As, Ba, Ca, Na, Ni, Zn and Zr were disregarded, because of their known nat-
Sc 16.7 0.5 2.9 19.2 0.4 2.0
ural inhomogeneity or high experimental error. The standard deviations for the
Sm 5.91 0.31 6.1 7.50 0.58 9.1
principal components are 0.554 (44.5% of the variance) for C1 and 0.348
Ta 1.18 0.05 4.9 1.56 0.06 4.3
(17.5%) for C2. The most contributing elements are Cr, Co, Sc, Cs, K and
Tb 0.68 0.05 7.2 0.79 0.07 9.0
Rb for C1 and Co, Sc, U, Th, Sb and La for C2.
Th 12.8 0.3 2.0 16.7 0.5 2.7
U 2.72 0.14 6.3 3.86 0.25 7.8
Yb 3.08 0.10 3.4 3.97 0.18 4.9
Whereas Halasarna as production place of the main chemi- Zn 110 17 17 122 20 18
cal group appeared to be reasonably clear on the basis of chem- Zr 111 22 16 171 31 14
istry, the origin of the smaller groups remained unclear. On the The values were calibrated according to inter-calibration between the two lab-
basis of typology, most of the fragments, however, were clearly oratories. The concentrations are given in ppm except for those of Ca, Fe, K
classified as Koan. Therefore, possible origin from another pro- and Na which are given in wt %.
duction place in Kos, such as Kos town, has to be considered,
particularly as in the cases of Group D the geochemical differ-
ences to the main group were small. On the basis of the present due to an inter-laboratory calibration (Hein et al., 2002).
data this could not be verified, but further analysis including Whereas samples KOS 7 and 19 presented a certain similarity
data from the northeast of the island may provide some answers to Group EME-B, which comprised mainly fine ceramics,
in the future. samples KOS 20 and 22 had close compositional similarities
Possible provenance from other production places was ex- to Group EME-C, which comprised Archaic amphorae from
amined, by comparison with available databases containing Knidos.
similar material. The comparison was restricted to NAA stud-
ies, even though a considerable amount of chemical data of
5.2. Petrographic examination
amphorae obtained by X-ray fluorescence analysis (XRF) ex-
ists (Empereur and Picon, 1986). But the elements measured
The results of the petrographic analysis came largely in ac-
by XRF were different from the elements measured by NAA
cordance with the geochemistry. Most samples seemed to have
and therefore the comparison was practically impossible. In
been manufactured from similar local raw materials and fired
an early NAA study of stamped amphora handles found in Per-
at relatively high temperatures. The main local group was clas-
gamon eight elements were measured: K, Ca, Sc, Fe, Co, La,
sified as fine micaceous, manufactured with calcareous clay,
Hf and Th (Slusallek et al., 1983). The results indicated some
with the main non-plastic components being small quartz frag-
clear differences among amphorae from Rhodes, Kos and Kni-
ments and mica laths evenly distributed in the base clay. How-
dos. Although the comparison was based on eight elements
ever, it could be subdivided into two smaller groups on
only, the Koan amphora handles of this study presented certain
textural and mineralogical grounds:
similarity to our Group A.
Therefore, the most compatible data that exist in the bibli-
ography, to which our groups could be compared, were the 5.2.1. Fabric I: KOS 6, 8, 9, 24, 44, B1 and B2
compositions of two groups of Archaic ceramics, which were In crossed polarisation these samples presented a yellowish
supposedly produced in Knidos (Table 3) (Mommsen et al., brown clay matrix. They contained rare fragments of plagio-
2006). These ceramics were measured by NAA at the Bonn clase, igneous rocks, metamorphic rocks and volcanic glass.
University and the comparison was rather straightforward In comparison with the amphora fabrics described by
1056 A. Hein et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 1049e1061

Fig. 4. Photomicrographs of six thin-sections: (a) KOS 06; (b) experimental briquette of clay KARD 2; (c) KOS 04; (d) KOS 14; (e) KOS A1; (f) KOS 22.

Whitbread (1995) this fabric group presented similarity to
Koan Fabric Class 3, lying between the phyllitic and volcanic
end members (Whitbread, 1995, p. 89) (Fig. 4a). The samples
allocated to this fabric group belonged to two chemical
groups, Group A and Group D. The chemical difference was
reflected in their mineralogical composition with the samples
of Group A being manufactured with a fossiliferous clay and
the samples of Group D not containing any fossils, as the
case with Whitbread’s Koan Fabric Class 3. Nevertheless,
the petrographic fabric indicated a similar geological environ-
ment of the raw materials used for the production of amphorae
of these two chemical groups.
The ceramic fabric resembled to some extent the fabric of
the fired clays (Fig. 4b), but it was not an exact match. One
reason could be that the raw materials were sieved and the
coarse inclusions removed before making the briquettes in or-
der to be used for chemical analysis. Therefore, the compari-
son with the archaeological samples refers to the base clay.
The dominant non-plastic component in the clays is biotite
mica laths, a few small quartz fragments and rare fragments
of phyllite and polycrystalline quartz. This composition brings
the clay samples closer to the phyllitic member of Whitbread’s
Koan Class 3. Moreover the fired clays presented a lesser
amount of quartz, which confirmed the above-mentioned as-
sumption concerning the trace element levels. The ceramic
fabric, however, showed no evidence for intentional tempering
with quartz. Therefore, the observed textural difference of the
amphora fabric and the sampled clays probably was related to
the selection of a naturally coarser variety of the respective
clay for amphora production.
 A. Hein et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 1049e1061
5.2.2. Fabric II: KOS 4, 12, 15 and 21
These samples presented in crossed polarisation a dark
brown clay matrix. They showed significantly larger amounts
of crystallitic b-fabric, i.e. small, birefringent crystallites. The
non-plastic inclusions comprised also a few fragments of fine
grained, brown phyllite (Fig. 4c). Furthermore, compared to
Fabric I, micas were less abundant and microfossils appeared
to be absent. Nevertheless, there was no fundamental differ-
ence and Fabric II could be compared with Whitbread’s
Koan Fabric Class 3 as well, in this case particularly the phyl-
litic end member (Whitbread, 1995, p. 90). The petrographic
context confirmed the geochemical allocation of the samples,
belonging to the main group A, except for KOS 15. The attri-
bution of the latter sample to Group B, however, was not ab-
solutely clear (Table 2). In the presented PCA plot the
sample’s composition lies rather between Group A and Group
B (Fig. 3).
5.2.3. Other fabrics
Of relatively different petrographic composition was sam-
ple KOS 14, which, in comparison with KOS 15, was a clear
member of the geochemical Group B. It was fine micaceous,
manufactured with calcareous but not fossiliferous clay and
characterized by the presence of small quartz fragments,
micas, a few fragments of phyllite and considerable amounts
of micritic limestone and crystallitic b-fabric (Fig. 4d). The
fabric, however, could be compared with Whitbread’s Koan
Fabric Class 4, in particular the fine subgroup (Whitbread,
1995, p. 91e92).
In terms of texture, the Archaic amphora fragment KOS A1
was different from the rest of the material examined, probably
related to the earlier production date of this vessel. In crossed
polarisation the groundmass was orange brown and optically
active, in contrast to all other samples. The non-plastic inclu-
sions were significantly coarser and consisted of angular
quartz fragments, white mica laths and rare fragments of pla-
gioclase (Fig. 4e). The clay striations in the matrix were indic-
ative of incomplete clay mixing. Nevertheless, the fabric
appeared to be possibly local and could be compared with
Whitbread’s Koan Fabric Class 4, the coarse subgroup in par-
ticular (Whitbread, 1995, p. 92).
In the case of thin-sections of fragments, which were chem-
ically clearly different from the main group, there was also no
similarity to known fabrics of Koan amphorae. Except for
sample KOS 22, further indications for provenance of particu-
lar samples were not observed. The fabric of KOS 22, how-
ever, could be compared to some extent with Whitbread’s
Knidian Fabric Class 1 (Whitbread, 1995, p. 73) supporting
the geochemical characterisation. In crossed polarisation the
matrix was dark brown and contained frequent vesicular voids
showing preferred orientation parallel to vessel margins, pos-
sibly vegetal temper (Fig. 4f). While the amount of micas
was rather small, the non-plastic inclusions consisted mainly
of frequent phyllite, quartzite and quartzite-schist fragments,
poly- and mono-crystalline quartz.
Concerning the ceramics’ provenance the petrographic ex-
amination completed the picture, which was already given by
1057
chemical analyses. The comparison with petrographic fabrics
of transport amphorae defined by Whitbread (1995) provided
further evidence that Halasarna was an important production
centre of Koan amphorae. Furthermore, there were apparently
only very few imports. However, not all the Koan fabrics,
which were described in the material from the Agora excava-
tion, were identified in Kardamaina. This suggests that further
analyses, presumably of material from the northeast of the is-
land, will be necessary for a more comprehensive study of
Koan amphorae.
5.3. Estimation of the firing conditions by XRD
The mineralogical composition of the unfired clay samples,
determined by XRD, showed apart from quartz the presence of
calcite, plagioclase and K-feldspar. As for the phyllosilicate
minerals the XRD spectra indicated mainly the presence of
micas and to a lesser amount chlorite. The mineralogical com-
position changed when the clays were fired. At 850  C, calcite
had almost completely decomposed. Furthermore the K-feld-
spar and chlorite peaks disappeared and the intensity of the
mica peaks was decreased. At the same time small amounts
of pyroxenes were apparent. The most significant change at
950  C was the increase of the intensity of the pyroxene peaks
and at the same time the disappearance of mica peaks. At the
same temperature the intensity of the plagioclase peaks in-
creased, apparently related to the formation of high tempera-
ture feldspar phases. No significant changes were found in
the mineralogical composition of the samples fired at
1050  C compared to the samples fired at 950  C.
The comparison of XRD spectra of amphora samples repre-
senting the main chemical group with the XRD spectra of the
fired clays indicated firing temperatures between 800 and
950  C, on the basis of presence or absence of calcite and
the intensity of the pyroxene peaks. This range of firing tem-
peratures was constant for all periods included in this study,
indicating consistency in the firing technology for at least
four centuries.
5.4. Mechanical properties of the ceramics
The three-point bending test indicated a relatively high flex-
ural strength of the examined ceramics, namely 27.5  5.0 MPa
for KOS B1 and 34.4  6.3 MPa for KOS B2. Both amphora
fragments exhibited a clearly brittle behaviour, with unstable
crack propagation and sharp load drop at the fracture point.
This means that the actual vessel was sufficient to withstand rel-
atively high loads without cracking, but when a load was equal to
the fracture strain, it would have failed catastrophically. Similar
behaviour has been estimated in other containers for liquids
which had been contrasted to containers constructed for solid
materials which presented lower strength but at the same time
would delay the failure due to the increased toughness of the ma-
terial (Vekinis and Kilikoglou, 1998). The density of the am-
phora ceramic material was measured 1700 kg/m3, which is
a considerably small value.
1058 A. Hein et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 1049e1061

Fig. 5. Digital models of the amphora types, which were examined with FEM.

The percentage of inclusions, which was estimated by im- indicate that the weight of an empty amphora, i.e. the amount
age processing of photomicrographs of thin-sections, was of clay paste used for the production, basically remained the
found between 9% and 12%. As described in the petrographic same (10.5  1.1 kg) with a certain uncertainty which might
analysis, the inclusions were of rather small size, most of them be due to real variations or due to the models or the drawings
clearly below 100 mm with an average size of approximately the models were based on. On the other hand there appears to
25 mm. On the basis of these observations and taking into ac- be a trend towards increasing the vessel’s content with Type II
count the calcareous nature of the clay along with a firing tem- from the 4th century BC as exception. This means that produc-
perature around 900  C, the Young’s modulus could be tion became more efficient in the sense that amphorae became
estimated at 18 GPa (Kilikoglou et al., 1998). The measure- lighter in relation to the weight of the liquid it can carry. The
ment of the Young’s modulus under compression provided re- models were meshed with SOILD45 elements, using a default
sults in the same range, even though the small wall thickness element size of 8e10 mm. These finite element models were
of the measured body sherds affected the precision. tested for their performance under the different types of simu-
lated loads. The material mechanical properties required for
5.5. Finite element analysis of the vessel shapes the FEM are Young’s modulus and the Poisson ratio, which ac-
cording to the previous section were estimated as 18 GPa and
According to the above-presented results, the clay paste 0.27, respectively (Kilikoglou and Vekinis, 2002). In this case,
preparation for the amphora production at Halasarna remained the critical strain, at which fracture of the vessel had to be ex-
unchanged during the whole period of 5the1st century BC. pected, was approximately 0.11%, according to the stresse
This observation, apart from the selection and manipulation strain curves for calcareous ceramics, which were investigated
of raw materials, applies also to the firing technology. As by Kilikoglou and Vekinis (2002). The first two simulated
a consequence, the mechanical properties and performance cases, lifting the filled amphora full of liquid from both han-
characteristics of the ceramic materials, as estimated in the dles and free standing on the pointed base, were apparently
previous section, remained assumedly consistent over the not critical (Table 5). As for the lifting, the highest strain
same period. On the other hand, considerable development emerged inside the handles. It has, however, to be considered
of vessel shapes was observed (Georgopoulou, 2006). Consid- that in the present simulation the model handles were
ering that material properties and shape are the two main pa-
rameters that control the performance of a whole vessel, the
above observation raised the question of the extent to which Table 4
gradual change of shape was related to technological improve- Mass and content of the examined amphora models
ment of the vessels. This in turn potentially introduces the es- Mass Content Mass Number of
timation of ‘‘quality’’ in the amphora production, taking into empty [l] filled elements
[kg] [kg]
account that this is a mass-produced vessel with specific
requirements. 4th BC I 9.5 32.6 42.1 16,888
4th BC II 9.2 41.0 50.2 20,340
In order to answer this question, three-dimensional digital
3rd BC 11.3 37.3 48.6 24,328
models of common Koan amphora types from the 4th and 2nd BC 11.8 38.0 49.8 21,672
the 1st century BC were designed (Fig. 5). All shapes were 1st BC 10.5 45.7 56.2 15,896
found in Kardamaina and they represent the gradual change For the estimation of the content it was assumed that the amphora was filled up
in the amphora design. As a first step the mass and the volume to the lower part of the neck. The last column list the numbers of elements
of the model vessels were calculated (Table 4). The results used for the respective amphora model.
 A. Hein et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 1049e1061 1059

Table 5
Stress and strain emerging in simulated cases of filled amphorae lifted by the handles or standing on the floor
Lifted by the handles Weight load on pointed base
Handle Body Foot
Stress total [Mpa] Strain [%] Stress total [Mpa] Strain [%] Stress total [Mpa] Strain [%]
4th BC I 1.14 0.008 0.31 0.002 0.37 0.003
4th BC II 2.21 0.019 0.75 0.006 0.54 0.005
3rd BC 1.30 0.009 0.54 0.004 0.35 0.003
2nd BC 0.79 0.006 0.50 0.004 0.61 0.004
1st BC 0.93 0.007 0.64 0.005 0.93 0.007

rectangular. Further simulations with more realistic handle the 4th century BC demonstrates a special case. The content
shapes will be interesting, particularly in view of the double of Type II was clearly larger than the content of Type I while
barrel handles, which were established in Koan amphora pro- disadvantages are indicated in terms of mechanical properties.
duction during the examined period. These simulations, how- Therefore, the content appears to have been reduced in the next
ever, require more complex three-dimensional models and two centuries in order to improve the mechanical properties.
were not implemented yet. The FEM provides clear evidence that in the case of Koan
Piling of the amphorae was clearly more critical in terms of transport amphorae the development of vessel shape over time
performance. For the simulation, loads of 1000 N were applied was related to technological improvements. While the vessel
at four positions on the shoulders. This load would correspond weight remained approximately the same and the content in-
to eight layers of amphorae with an individual weight of 50 kg. creased the stress particularly under loads on the amphora
Each load was distributed at two close points. Furthermore, shoulders and bases was reduced.
four positions close to the amphora base were fixed for dis-
placement, simulating the contact to the amphorae of the lower
6. Conclusions
layer. At the contact point of the base the weight of the filled
amphora was considered additional to the load on the shoul-
According to the presented study the major part of the ex-
ders (Fig. 6). The strain remained in all cases below 50% of
amined ceramic assemblage represented a particular amphora
the assumed critical strain, which means that the deformation
production place. The additional observation that these partic-
of the body was well below the critical one, even if they were
ular ceramics were produced during the entire period under
packed at eight layers. In ceramics, however, the strain at max-
study indicated that this production was most probably local.
imum load must be kept at very low level for the additional
This assumption was confirmed by the discovery of clays in
reason of the flaws and cracks which are usually abandoned
close vicinity of the archaeological site, which presented con-
in the material. All FEM calculations assume that the matrix
siderable similarity to the main amphora group from Hala-
is homogeneous and therefore one should be conservative
sarna. Based on these results it can be definitively assumed
when judging the strength limits. In practice, the probability
that Halasarna was one of the production places of Koan
for failure of a transport amphora would have been affected
by both the vessel shape and possible imperfections of the ma-
terial. Nevertheless, the effect of vessel shape should have
been apparent regarding the large numbers of transport am-
phorae used. In this context, the results of the simulations in-
dicate that the mechanical properties of the vessels apparently
improved with the development of the amphora shape. The
contemporary production of two different amphora types in

Table 6
Stress and strain emerging at the contact points on shoulder and base of an
individual vessel in a pile of amphorae
Shoulder Base
Stress total [Mpa] Strain [%] Stress total [Mpa] Strain [%]
4th BC I 4.96 0.035 3.57 0.025
4th BC II 6.18 0.044 8.41 0.059
3rd BC 7.28 0.051 6.57 0.046
2nd BC 3.90 0.028 7.81 0.055
1st BC 3.93 0.028 6.30 0.045
Apart from the weight of the vessel an additional load of 1000 N was assumed Fig. 6. Strain distribution in the body of an amphora model of the 1st century
for each of the contact points on the shoulder. BC with simulated loads on the shoulders and the base.
1060 A. Hein et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 1049e1061

amphorae. In order to assess its relevance in the entire Koan Appendix (continued )
wine export and the share of amphorae produced in Halasarna Sample Description NAA PET Type
in the entire Koan amphora production further chemical stud- KOS 18 Base, 1st c. BC A e 1st BC
ies have to be accomplished on Koan amphorae from Hellenis- KOS 19 Body sherd, 1st BC Pair 1 e
tic consumption centres. KOS 20 single handle, end Pair 2 e
Apart from three fragments of Archaic amphorae, consis- of 4thebegin of 3rd c. BC
KOS 21 Neck, 1st c. BC A Fabric II 1st BC
tent pottery production technology was observed over the en- KOS 22 Neck Pair 2 Loner
tire period examined in terms of raw material selection, clay KOS 23 Body sherd D e
paste processing and firing technology. Therefore, more or KOS 24 Neck with double barreled D Fabric I 1st BC
less constant mechanical properties were determined for the handle, 1st c. BC
ceramic material of the amphorae, which were most likely KOS 25 Body sherd, 1st c. BC A e 1st BC
KOS 26 Base, 1st c. BC A e 1st BC
produced in Halasarna. While there were apparently no at- KOS 27 Base, end of 4thebegin A e 3rd BC
tempts to improve the strength of the base material, which of 3rd c. BC
was, however, already on a high level, the standard vessel KOS 28 Double barreled handle, B e 1st BC
shapes were modified in time. One reason, if not the main rea- 1st c. BC
son, for this development of vessel shapes was apparently the KOS 29 Neck, end of 4thebegin A e 3rd BC
of 3rd c. BC
improvement of the mechanical performance of the amphorae KOS 30 Neck, end of 4thebegin A e 3rd BC
with the constraint of their content to weight ratio. According of 3rd c. BC
to the presented computer models the vessels were optimised KOS 31 Shoulder with double barreled A e 3rd BC
for the packaging during their use as transport containers. handle, end of 4thebegin
The results indicate that Koan amphorae consist an example of 3rd c. BC
KOS 32 Base, 1st c. BC A e 1st BC
of gradually developed functional design that took place KOS 33 Body sherd, end of 4thebegin A e 3rd BC
more than 2000 years ago. of 3rd c. BC
KOS 34 Double barreled handle, end A e 3rd BC
of 4thebegin of 3rd c. BC
Acknowledgements KOS 35 Double barreled handle C Loner
KOS 36 Double barreled handle A e
The authors thank F. Chrysopoulos for information about KOS 37 Neck with double barreled A e 1st BC
handle, 1st c. BC
pottery production in Kardamaina and particularly about the KOS 38 Double barreled handle, C Loner 1st BC
clays, which his forefathers were using. V.G. is grateful to 1st c. BC
Prof. G. Alevras and the University of Athens for financial KOS 39 Base, 1st c. BC C e 1st BC
support of the analytical work. KOS 40 Body sherd, 1st c. BC Loner e 1st BC
KOS 41 Base, end of 4thebegin A e 3rd BC
of 3rd c. BC
KOS 42 Base, end of 4thebegin of A e 3rd BC
3rd c. BC
Appendix KOS 43 Base, begin of 3rd c. BC A e
List of the examined ceramic samples
KOS 44 Base, end of 4thebegin of A Fabric I 3rd BC
3rd c. BC
Sample Description NAA PET Type KOS 45 Base, end of 4thebegin of A e 3rd BC
KOS 03 Rim, early 4th c. BC A e 4th BC I/II 3rd c. BC
KOS 04 Rim, mid 5th c. BC A Fabric II KOS 46 Base, end of 4thebegin of A e 3rd BC
KOS 05 Body sherd, end of 2nd c. BC B e 2nd BC 3rd c. BC
KOS 06 Neck with double barreled D Fabric I 2nd BC KOS 47 Base, end of 4thebegin of A e 3rd BC
handle, end of 2nd c. BC 3rd c. BC
KOS 07 Single handle of Koan Pair 1 e 4th BC II KOS A1 Sample of Archaic amphora Pair 3 Loner
amphora, early 4th c. BC KOS A2 Sample of Archaic amphora Pair 3 e
KOS 08 Neck with double barreled A Fabric I 2nd BC KOS A3 Sample of Archaic amphora Loner e
handle, end of 2nd c. BC NIKA Sample of amphora of Nikandros Loner e
KOS 09 Neck with double barreled A Fabric I group, Agora Museum (P3980)
handle, second half of 3rd c. BC AKYTH Sample of amphora from the Loner e
KOS 10 Base, end of 4th ebegin A e 3rd BC Anikythira ship wreck, National
of 3rd c. BC Museum
KOS 11 Base, first half of 4th c. BC A e 4th BC I/II KOS B1 Large body sherd of Koan e Fabric I
KOS 12 Base, end of 4thebegin A Fabric II 3rd BC amphora for mechanical tests
of 3rd c. BC KOS B2 Large body sherd of Koan e Fabric I
KOS 13 Base, end of 4thebegin A e 3rd BC amphora for mechanical tests
of 3rd c. BC A short description of the samples is given including dating, even though sev-
KOS 14 Base, 1st c. BC B Loner 1st BC eral rather undiagnostic sherds, particularly body sherds, remained undated.
KOS 15 Base, second half of 3rd c. BC B Fabric II All examined handles were unstamped. Furthermore, the results of NAA
KOS 16 Base, 1st c. BC A e 1st BC and petrographic examination are summarized. The last column lists identified
KOS 17 Base A e amphora types according to Fig. 5 and Tables 4e6.
 A. Hein et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 1049e1061 1061

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