P R I N C I PL E S AND ME TH OD S

T E A C HI N G

A M AN U A L FO R NOR MAL S C H O O LS , R EA D I N G

C I R C LE S , A N D T H E T E A C H E RS O F E L E M E N
T A R Y, I N T E R M E D I A T E , A N D
H I G H ER S C H O O L S

BY,

5]
CHA RL ES C . B O YE R , PH D . .

P R OF E S S O R OF PE DG GA O I C S , KE YSTO N E S TA T E N O R MA L S CH O O L , R U TZ
TO WN , PA .
, A ND A U THOR OF
“
C O N C R E TE PS YC H O L O G Y ,
”

“
PS Y C HI C I N IT I A T IV E I N E DU CA T I O N ,
”
E TC .

PH I LA D EL PH I A
J . B . L I PPIN COTT COM PA N Y
 COP YR I GHT, 1 8 9 9 ,
BY

J . B . LI PP I NCOTT COMP A NY .

TVv O C OP IE S R E G

E LECTRO TYPED AND PRINTE D av J . B LIPPINCO TT C OMPA NY, PHILADE LPHIA , U S A

. . . .

5 m
m o fl
 PR E F A C E .

TH E art o f teachi n g should have i ts fou ndations i n science ;

for then and only then W ill te aching cease to be m echanical
”
obedience to authority . S uch obedience was the curse o f
” ” ”
the Old education . Tradition and p rescription deter
mined the methods no t only in oriental systems o f ed u cation ,

b ut also in the later ci v ilizations o f E u rope The principle o f

.

authority has not w holly di sappeared from m odern school

rooms R ational m ethods o f teaching indeed are the excep
.
, ,

tion rather than the rule i n the great mass o f A merican 0

teachers .

The individual teacher m us t have part in the construction

o f the science in which his a rt is to have its fou ndations .

Otherwise the new education will simply substitute o ne

”

tyrant fo r another In other words obedience to principles

.
,

o f philosop hy tho u gh it be the best philosophy is only slavery

, ,

as long as the teacher who submits to such laws cannot j u stify

these in his o wn consciousness .

The great mass of teachers is n o t equ al to the task o f co n

st ru ct i n
g the complex science o f educatio n independently .

This ta sk implies not on ly analytic knowled ge o f human

nature in its m anifold relations but also the power o f syn
,

thetic thou ght The great body o f teachers there fore need
.
, ,

supervision in constructin g their system o f ed ucational prin

ci l es It is hoped that the plan o f the present treatise may
p .

s upply at l east a portion o f the needed supervision .

” “ ”
In co m plexity o f thought and lan gu age the needs o f ,

the general reader as well as those of Normal S chools and COL .

3
4 PR E FACE
leges were kept in mind The psychological ana lyses a nd i n
.

ducti o n s and a ll derivatives have been adapted i n vocab u lary

, ,

and com position to the ordinary reader wh i le the systematic ,

thi n king required througho ut the book wi ll emp loy the best
o w ers o f readers o f higher atta i n m ents
p .

The cyclopedi c scope o f the treatise is j ustified by the cyclo

pedic courses o f study in o u r com mon schools E xperience .

shows that i t w i ll not suffi ce to train teachers in the princip les

and m ethods of a few branches with the hOpe that they wi ll
then kno w how to proceed i n the other branches This dis .

co v er
y should not surprise us for al t hou g h the ,
de v elopment
o f knowledge is generically the same in al l departments o f stu dy ,

the indiv id ual features o f the v arious studies requi re special

modifications i n the m ethods o f their dev elopment .

It is hoped that the p lan of this treatise m ay com m end

itself to the j udgment of teachers .

( )
1 The nature of man especially ,
the psychical proc e sses and
p r i nciples ,
is m ade the first sub j ect o f inquiry .

u cation should consist o f such de

( )
2 The conc l usion that ed
v eIOpm en t o f man s possibilities as best fit him for complete
’

li v ing seems un av oidable .

The essentia l features o f this ideal develop m en t o f man

( )
3
are exhibited in the chapter o n the nature of education and a ,

synthesis o f these views is found in the general principles o f

education .

( )
4 The principles of cult u re kno w ledge
,
and instruction
,

are deductions fro m the general pri nci ples o f education as ,

confirmed inductiv ely by the history o f education .

The proposed m etho ds o f culture and instruction are

( )
5
practical deductions confirmed by the experience of the best
teachers S pecial atten tion is called to the proposed science
.

method o f instruction i e the development o f all branches by

,
. .
,

observation ind uction and deduction the ideal succession of

, , ,

menta l activities It is believ ed that all other things equal

.
, ,
 PR E FACE 5

the tea cher who catches the spirit o f this method will work
the m ost intelligently and obtain the most satisfacto ry results .

The histo ry o f educatio n in Germany F rance and parts o f

, ,

A m erica cl earl y confirms this conclusion .

F o r extensive treatm ent o f the science o f education the

read er is respectfully referred to such standard works o n tea ch
”
ing as R osenk ra nz s Philosophy o f E ducat ion and Tom p
’
,
”
kin s P hilosophy o f Teaching to which this treatise is de
’
,

signed to be a steppin g stone and with whose theories A merican

‘
,

tea chers are happily becoming better acquainted G rate fu l .

acknowled gm ent is here m ade to the v arious inspir ing writers

consul ted a nd quoted by the author .

T his book is h u mbly dedicated to the teachers o f o ur cou n

try with the sincere ho pe that it may be o f se rvice to them
,

and their pupils and to the cau se o f education i n general

,
.

CHAR LE S C B O . YE R .
 C ONTENTS .

PR E FA CE

PA R T I .

PS YCH OL OGY .

CHAP TE R

I . ME NTAL ACTIV ITY

II . LA WS OF ME NTA L ACTIVITY

PA R T II .

PR I NCIPL E S OF TE ACH ING .

NAT U RE OE E DU CA TION : GE NE RA L PR I NCIPL ES

PR I N CIPL ES OF C U U
LT R E

NA T U RE OF W DG
K N O LE E
PR I N CIPLE S OF K NOWL E DG E

PR I NCIPL ES OF I NS TR U CTI ON

PAR T

ME TH OD S OF
‘
M E NTA L C U U LT R E

OB J E CT L ES S ONS
D G
R EA I N
WR ITI NG
G
S PE L L I N
COMP OS ITION
GR A MMA R
AR ITH ME TI C
GE OGR A PH Y
H IS TOR Y
8 CONTE NTS

CH AP TE R

XI . D RA WI N G
XI I . MAN U AL TR A I N I N G
XI I I . PHY S I O OG Y
L

XI V . PH YS I CA L CU L TUR E
XV . S IN G G
IN

R E F ER E N CE B OOK S F OR COL LA TE R A L R E A D G
IN

IN D EX
P R I N C I PL E S A N D M E TH OD S
O F TE A C H I N G .

PA R T I .

PS YC H O L O G Y .
 P R I N C I PL E S A ND M E TH OD S
OF TE A C H I N G .

IN TR OD U CTOR Y .

I N tea ching it is true we ha v e to do with the pu pil s body

, ,
’

as well as with the m ind O ur present purp ose forbids ex

.

tended reference to physiology with which we m ust therefore

,

assume that the reader is familiar P edagogics ho wever co n .

, ,

sists so largely o f psychology and teachers are so generally in

,

need o f a compact restatement o f the fundam ental truths of

psychology that a chapter o n this su bj ect is indispensable in a
,

treatise o n pedagogics The teacher of ped agogics should a c

.
,

co rd i n l
g y assure hi m self that his s tu dents u ndersta nd (1 ) The
,

Method o f P sychology (2) Mental A ctivity a nd (3) The L aws

, ,

o f Menta l A ctiv ity .

TH E M E TH O D O F P S YC H O L O G Y .

In psychology the student ( 1 ) obser v es his o wn mental ex

ri en ces or those o f other minds
p e
( ) g
2 re ards these experiences
,

as individuals of a gen u s and (3) confirms these hypotheses

,

by variations in numerous experiments In other words the .

,

process o f psychology consists o f ( 1 ) the Observ ation o f men

ta l pheno m ena and (2 ) the ascertainment o f their l a w s by i n
,

duction and ded uction The present chapter i s d esigned to

.

p ro m pt exercises in this method o f discovery The student .

m u st of co u rse be Wisely super v ised

, , .
12 PR I NCI PL E S AND M E TH OD S OF TE ACH I NG

CHA P TE R I .

M E N TAL ACTI V I TY .

TH E phenomena with which the self Obser v i ng mind meets -

are not a classified collection o f distinct elements but rather a ,

mass whose elements must be discov ered by analysis The .

mass as the self obser v in g mind discovers by analysis co n

,
-

sists o f a synth esis o f d i sti nct e l ements ; but the order in

which these elements become distinct depends o f cou rse o n , ,

the indi v idual observer the time o f his observ ations the pre , ,

dominance o f some e lements over others at the t ime o f observa

ti on etc If however these el ements becam e d i stinct to the
,
.
, ,

observ er in their necessary order o f dependence as appears ,

from subsequ ent inqui ry i nto the nat ure o f these elements ,

they would present themselves to the observer so m ewhat as

follows : (1 ) S ensation (2) Ideation (3) R elation a nd E m otion
, , ,

and (4) Vol ition .

I . I NTE LLE CT .

The phenomena o f sensation ideation and relation as will , , ,

a ppear in the sequel deserve our attention u nder the head o f

,

Intellect .

S e n s a t i o n The observin g mind discov ers variations i n its

.

phenomena corresponding to the v ariations in its physical en

v i ro n m en t These v ariations as physiological psychology
.
,
“ ” “ ”
teaches are the affects o f impresses o n the end organs
,
-

“ ”
o f the sensorium and are termed S ensations In other
,
.

w ord s ,
A n y men tal state upon the basis of w hich the m ind
obta ins a knowledge o f the world aroun d i t is t ermed a
”
,

S ensat ion .

Id e a t i o n Menta images o f the external or i nterna l

“
.
”

obj ects for which menta l d ata stand are termed I d ea s and
”
, ,

the process of forming ideas is termed I dea ti o n The process .

,
 M E NTA L A CTI VI TY 13

as further analysis w ill show begins in sense presentation ; ,

-

analysis and synthesis follo w I n all phases o f ideation the .

m in d on ly posi ts obj ects w ithout dwel ling on liken ess dif

”
,
”
ference necessity etc
,
In other words there is no copula
,
.
,
”
in ideation The copula as we shall see forms thou ghts
.
, ,

o u t o f ideas This disti nction since its description is so di ffi

.
,
”
cult should be illustrated by means o f logical propositions
, ,
” ”
in whi ch ideation and copula (relation ) are respectively
the initial and final necessities The various phases o f idea .

tion as already intimated are as foll ows

, ,

P er cep ti o n The mind observes repetition of sensatio ns in

.

the repeti tion o f external impresses and thus l earns to refer ,

sensations to su ch impacts as ca uses In th i s wa y sensations .

“ ”
become data by mean s o f which the m i nd i dentifies its
whereabou ts I n sp a ce and ti m e It is not only throu gh the .

special sense organs as the eye or ear that we Obtai n a knowl

, ,

edge o f physical envi ronment but also through all the other ,
'
species o f sen sati On Of which m a n is capable The complex .

phenomenon in question i s termed P erception In other words .

,

The p ro cess of r eferri ng sensa ti ons to p hysi ca l i m p a cts a s c a uses ,

i s term ed P er c ep ti on The term is deri v ed from the L atin

.

words p er by mea ns o f and cap i o I take hold o f The m ental

, , ,
.

results thus obtained are termed P ercepts .

Mem ory S ensations and as physiological psychology

.
, ,

teaches a ll mental experiences in asmuch as in the present

, ,

j u nction o f body and mind they are inseparable from simu l

t a n eo us sensations l eave association tracks o r paths in the
,

neural apparatus By m eans o f these associations the mind

.

revives and recognizes i ts experiences This compl ex phe .

n o m en o n is termed Memory
“ ”
the l ater editions o f mental
experiences thus obtain ed are term ed Memories In other .

words The p r o cess of r eta i ni ng r ev iv i ng a n d r ecogni zi ng

, , ,

m en ta l ex eri en ces i s term ed M em or y The te n dency o f d efi

p .

nite and frequent associations to persist is termed H abit o r , ,

14 P R I NCI PLE S A ND ME TH ODS OF TE ACH I NG
R etention . Voluntary memory is termed R ecollection The .

essential element o f memory as mental phenomenon is R ecog

n i t i o n i e the knowledge t hat what has come back is a later
,
. .
,

edition o f o ur o wn mental experiences .

I m a g i n a ti on In perception the mind co mes into actual con

.

tact with realities ; i n memory past real ities are represented

with great fidelity S in ce as physiological psychology teaches
.
, ,

the cortical tracts of perception and memory are the same any ,

stimulation o f these tracts whether the origin of the stimulus

,

be with i n the mind itse lf o r in the sensorium will produce a ,

semblance either o f perception o r o f memory (1 ) The pri .

mary phase o f imagination as in illusions and dreams resem , ,

bles perception and memory v ery closely I n the effort to .

constru ct historical and ficti tious events etc imagi nation b e ,

.
,

comes a m ental substitute for perception (2 ) In its second .

phase as in the mental proj ection o f l ines and the co nstru c

, ,

t ion o f wholes etc imagination i s mental emancipation from

,
.
,

the perception l i mits o f space and time a n d from the normal

-

correlation of parts epochs etc Thus imaginat ion becomes

, ,
.

a supplement of perception and the means of mental transi

tion from the real to the possible etc (3) In the third phase ,
.

o f imagination the mind in obedience to the stimu l us of r

,
es

thetic m oral or phi losophic abstractions forms n ew combi

, , ,
”
nations o ut o f materials furn ished by perception and mem
o ry but al ways i n terms Of perception as in the conceptions
, ,

o f artists mora l ists scientists and inventors

,
The process in
, ,
.

question i n a ll its reproducti v e and producti v e voluntary and

, ,

i n v oluntary phases is as appears really , ,

r epresen t a t i v e
, ,

although a s to its perfection the representation may v ary fro m

the faintest resemblance to perception or memory to infinite
extensions This process o f apprehending possibilities sug
.

gested by experienced real ities is te rmed Imagi nat ion from the ,

L atin word i m a g o co py or likeness

,
In short The a pp rehen
.
,

si on of ossi bi li ti es a s er ce ti o ns i s term ed I m a i na ti on
p p p g .
 ME NTAL A CTI VI TY 15

A bstr a cti on .
Qualities , as physiological psychology teaches,
first become the obj ect o f tho u ght in p erception and self con -

scio u sness O ur first ideas o f brittleness beauty right and

.
, , ,

truth for exampl e are formed in the perception o r conscious

, ,

ness o f things that suggest these ideas to the mind The ideas .

”
thus formed are term ed concrete from the fact that they ,

are formed withou t dissociating the qualities from the things

to which they belong It is however possible to make quali
.
, ,

ties the obj ect o f thou ght without reference to the things in
which they are found by perception and introspection It .

is thus that we may think of brittleness beauty right and , , ,

truth withou t reference to thin gs which su ggest these ideas to

,

the m ind The aesthetical ethical and phi losop hical d isti n c
.
, ,

tions i e those o f beauty m orality and truth gen erally a p

,
. .
, , , ,

ear later and mat u re more s l owly than the o t her distinctions
p
n o w u nder consideration The mental process i n q uestion is
.

te rmed A bstraction from the L atin words a bs fro m and tra ho

, , , ,

I draw In short Th e p r o cess of di sso ci a ti ng qu a li ti es a s o bjects

.
,

o
f thou ht i s term ed A bstr a cti on
g The peculiarities of several .

o f these abstract d istinctions especially their distance fro m ,

”
the concrete and their uni v ersality led the older psycho lo
, ,
“ ”
gists to classify them separa tely as intui tions from the ,
”
L atin words i n into a n d tu eor I see
,
The new cla ssi fi
, ,
.

cati on simplifies m atters without inj ustice to truth The .

power o f aesthetic abstraction is termed Taste and that o f ,

m oral abstraction is ter m ed Co n science The aesthetic and .

“ ” ”
moral d i stinctions i e those o f beau ty and right gen
,
. .
, ,

era lly appear somewhat later and mature more slowly than

other abstract distinctions .

Gen er a li za ti o n O ur first ideas o f things as apples horses

.
, , ,

g overnment etc are percepts as already shown

,
. Two species , .

o f synthesis follow :
(1 ) The mind disco v ers that some of the
individuals o f perception memory etc have common p roper , ,
.
,

ties. A ppreh end ing these common properties in successive

16 PR I NCI PL E S A ND ME TH ODS OF TE A CH I NG

abstra ctions and synthesizing the successi v e impressions into

,

mental wholes the mind forms Obj ect concepts as recorded i n

,
-

common nouns It is in this way that o ur idea o f a house

.
,

book o r bell dev elops w ith o u r exp erience (2 ) The mind

, , .

also discovers varieties o f the same qual ity as sweetn ess in , ,

other wise dissimilar individ uals as sugar apples dispositions , , , ,

etc A pprehendi ng these varieties o f the sam e qual ity i n suc

.

cessiv e abstr actions and synthesizing the s u ccessi v e im res

, p
sions into mental wholes the mind for m s quality concepts
,
-

as recorded in abstract nouns .

A co l lection o f similar individ u als (obj ects o r qual ities ) is

termed a Genus O bj ect concepts and quality concepts as
.
- -

recorded respecti v ely in common and abstract nouns may ,

therefore be termed General Id eas and the process o f synthe ,

sis i n which they originate may be termed Generalization .

T he great H erb art preferred the term A pperception from ,

the belief that all concepts are derived from perception I n .

short The syntheti c enla rg em ent of i dea s i s term ed Gen era liza
,

Co nscio usn es s . Of
its o wn sta tes and acts the m ind is
a ware some what in the sa m e sense as the world withou t u s a p
pears to the senses In the phenomenon in question the m ind
.

beco mes its o wn obj ect of thought very m u ch as a plan t is

”
,

m a de an obj ect o f perception This process o f introspection .

is termed Consciousness from the L atin words con at the

, ,

same ti me and sci o I know Children as experiments prove

, ,
.
, ,
“ ”
are fo r months only in definitely conscious o f the self o f
conscio u sness It is only by and by that the child learns to
.

d istin gu ish “ ”
self sharply from other ”
O rdinari ly the .

u nt u to red adu l t observes h i s own sta te s a nd ac ts a s l i ttle as

the nov ice in botany observes the flowers at his feet The .

tutored mind not only knows tha sel f is the obj ect o f
”

”
thou ght i n consciousness b u t observes its o wn acts and states
,

as the bo tanist Observes flowers i e , critical ly i n order to ,

. .
,
18 P R I NCI PLE S AND ME TH OD S OF TE ACH I NG

words syn together and ti them i I put (2 ) R egressive classifi

, , ,
.

cation i e the isolation o f indi v iduals that compose a class

,
. .
, ,

whole o r genus as in subtraction di v ision and the separating

, , , ,

o f a sente nce in to i ts component pa rt s is te rmed A n a l si s from

y , ,

the Greek words a na up and lu o I break , , ,

.

R ea soni ng The formation o fj u dgm ents i e the p roce ss o f

.
,
. .

”
relating ideas is termed Thinking o r Thought,
Thoughts , .

may in turn become the o bj ect o f tho ught i e the process

”
,
. .
,

o f relating ideas m a y be indirect as well as direct This .

process o f thinking is term ed R easoning In sho rt The .

,

p f
r ocess o i n di r ect u d m en t i s term ed R ea soni n
j g g The p rocess .

in qu estion resolves itself into two S pecies .

ul ar j udg m en t
( )
1 The process o f reason i ng from a
p artic ,

i e a j u dgment concerning indi v id u als to a general j udg

. .
, ,

ment i e a j udgment conce rning a genus is term ed Induction

,
. .
, , .

The following com bination o f thoughts illustrates i nduction

The sum of the angles o f this triangle is two right angles ; the
same thin g is true o f all o bserved triangles ; there fore the su m ,

o f the angles o f any triangle is two right angles .

( )
2 T he proc e ss o f reasoning from a general to a partic u lar

j udgment is termed D eduction The followin g combination .

o f j udgments ill u strates deduction : The su m o f the angles o f

any triangle is two right angles a bc is a triangle ; therefore ,

the su m o f its angles is two right angles .

The common idea o f two associated j udgm en ts is known in

logic as the middle te rm The word tri a ng le i n the first
“ ”
.

t wo j udgments o f the above illustrations names the mi ddle

term and is itself often called by that n ame Two j udgments
,
.

that hav e a middle te rm are known as related j udgmen ts

” ”
,

as in the i llustrations Two j udgments so related that a third

.

j udgm ent grows o ut o f their relation are termed P remises , ,

from the L atin words p r e before and m itto I send (S ee the , , ,

.

illustrations ) The consequence o f the relation o f two j udgments

.

is termed the Co nclusion from the L atin words co n together , , ,

 ME NTAL A CTI VI TY 19

and elu do I close (S ee ill u str ation s ) The derivation o f a

,
. .

j udgment fro m the relation o f two j udgments is termed S yl ,

logi sm from the Greek word syn together and log i z om a i , I

, , ,

reckon (S ee illustrations )
. .

The term u nderstand in g is com m only applied to the

”
thought proce sses in question Thought o r u n dersta nding .
, ,

as psychology teaches is always fundamental in ideation I n

,
.

the broadest sense any process o f forming ideas o r tho u ghts

, ,
” “ ”
whether the mind thus arrives at knowledge o r tru th , ,

i e i de as and thoughts w hich are tru e o r only at o p inion,

. .
, ,

i e ideas and thoughts which m a y o r may not be true is

. .
, ,

te rmed Thinki ng If the m ind th u s arrives a t knowledge

.
,

the process is termed Knowing T he m ind s po wer o f thi n k .

’

i ng and knowing is termed Intellect .

II . S E NS I B I LI TY .

The con sequ ences (see Total R eaction n e xt chapter) o f i n ,

te llectua l acti v ity are States and moods o f m e nta l pleasu re o r

,

pain These m ental states and moods are te rm ed F eeli ngs o r

.
,

S ensi bi li ti es o r E m o ti o ns and the fu n ction o f m ental feel in g is

, ,

termed S ens ibi li ty o r E m oti on The feelings are significan tly

,
.

te rmed E motions from the L ati n words e o ut and m oveo I

, , , ,

mov e becau se whether simple o r comple x they tend to re

, , ,

veal the m selves in the face eyes a nd carriage o f the perso n , ,

Si p l m e Em . There
is a species o f m ental pleasu re
o ti o ns

o r pain commonly termed g ladness o r sadness i n which the

, ,

e m otion is n o t a n attitude o r trend toward the causes o f the , ,

p lea sure o r pain but simply a sta te o r condition to which the

, , ,

person affected has been m o v ed by sensation ideas o r thoughts , ,

.

This species o f m ental feeling is therefore said to be S u bjecti v e

”
rather than Objecti v e i e S imple in its reference to self
,
. .
,

rather than to others A ccordingly F eeli ng s tha t a r e n ot a tti

.
,

tu des bu t o n ly sta tes a r e term ed S i m p le E na ti ons

, ,
O r F eel .
,
20 P R I NCI PL E S A ND M E TH OD S OF TE A CH I NG

ings that are only states of mental pleasu re o r pain and not ,

also attitudes o r dispositions toward the causes o f the mental

, ,

pleasure o r pain are termed S im p le E m oti o ns

, Cheerful .

” “ ” “ ” “ ”
ness ,
good mood mel ancholy mental distemper
, , ,

these are the famil i ar descriptions o f simpl e emotions .

A fi e ct i o n s That which giv es pleasure o r that which has

.
,

worth or that which has co m e intimately into o ur life read i ly

, ,

becomes an obj ect o f endearment o r sympathy o r respect or , , ,

esteem When somethin g has thus become dear to us the

.
”

feel ing is termed L o v e F riendship gratitude patriotism and

.
, , ,

piety are fam i liar species of L ove The absence as wel l as

,
.
,

the Opposite of lov e is technically term ed H a te Ingratitude

, ,
.
,

heartlessness and impiety are fam i liar species o f hate

, ,
.

In simpl e emotion there is no obj ect upon which the feeling

centres ; but in love and hate there is always an obj ect If .

the obj ect is self the emotional attitude is term ed E go isti c

”
,

if the obj ect is another the attitude is termed A ltru i sti c

”
, .

In other words love and hate are dispositions to ward or rela

, ,

tions to some person o r th i ng be it self o r other and they

,
' , ,

are significantly termed Afi ecti o ns from the L atin words a d , ,

to ward and fectio disposition A ccordingly F eeli ngs that

, ,
.
,

are not only states o f mental pleasure or pain but also atti ,

tudes of approbation o r disapprobation toward the causes o f

'
the pleasu re o r pai n are termed Afiecti o ns O r F eeli ngs tha t
,
.
,

a re n o t o nly sta tes bu t a ls o a tti tu des of a r o ba ti on or di sa

pp pp ro
'
,

ba ti on a re term ed Afiecti o ns
, .

D e s i r es P leasure sympathy respect este em etc often

.
, , , ,
.
,

become longi ngs o r demand s to possess or enj oy that w hich

, ,

g i v es pleasure or appears to deser v e respect or esteem

,
If ,
.

“ ”
that which the heart d emands is at a distance o r di fficu lt ,

to attain the de m a nd may become intense su ffering as in the

, ,

case of thirst o r personal attachments When this intense .

”
feeling becomes master it is termed P a ssi o n as in the case ,

o f ambition and avari ce .

 ME NTAL A CTI VI TY 21

The feelings n o w under consideration do not only centre

upon an obj ect but they also ins ist o n possessing and enj oying
,

that obj ect Th i s insistence ego i sti c or altruisti c to possess

.
, ,

and enj oy that wh i ch w e lon g to possess and enj oy is denote d , ,

for want of a better w ord by the term A ttr a cti v e in the sense
, ,

o f a demand These feelings of longing o r demand are there

.
, ,

fore not only obj ective b ut also att racti v e ,

.

To a ll species o f em otional demand positi v e and negative , ,

the term D esi re has been app l ied A ccordingly F eelings .

,

tha t a re n ot y a tti tu d es , b u t a ls o d em a n ds, a r e ter m ed

o nl

D esi r es . Or ,
F eel ings that are not on ly attitudes of appro
b a t io n ordisapprobation to w ard the causes of the mental
pleasure o r pain but also requests to possess the cau ses o f
,

plea sure o r to escape the causes o f p a in are termed D esi r e

, ,
s
.

A v arice ambition revenge etc are fami l iar speci es o f D e

, , , .

sire D esires whose obj ects as food or stimulants are de

.
, ,

m a n ded for phys i cal gratification are termed A eti tes those
'
pp ,

whose obj ects as k nOWledge o r power are demanded for

, ,

mental gratification are termed S enti m ents The desire to

,
.

”
k now is te rmed I nter est o r Curi osi ty (Interest is often an
,
.

affection ) .

E x p e cta ti o n s F aith in the possibility o f attainin g that

.

which is desired is termed E xp ecta n cy The union o f ex

,
.

p ecta n c
y and the lon in
g g to possess tha t which i s deemed .

capable o f gi v ing pleasure is termed H op e D eprived o f ,

.

this expectancy H ope becomes D esp a i r,

In other words .
,

D esire deprived o f expectancy is termed D esp a i r The .

u nion o f expectancy and the longin to escape that which is

g
deemed capable o f gi v in g pain is termed F ea r F ear ceases ,
.
,

o r e l se becomes H ope when expectancy is remov ed ,

Th u s .

it appears that hope and fear have the common element o f

expectancy A ccordingly D esi r es co up led wi th fa i th i n thei r
.
,

a tta i nm ent a r e term ed E x ecta ti o ns

, p .

The m anifesta tions o f sensibility are S imple E motions ,

22 PR I NCI PL E S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE ACH I NG
'
A flecti o n s D esires, a nd that m odification of D esires te rm ed
,

E x pectations .

III . WI L L .

”
We atte m pt to dete r m ine o ur trend whether it be o f ,

m ind or body In this attemp t we assu me o ur power to be

.

o ur o wn master and sovereign Within definable limits this .

assum ption is correct as experience goes to show I n other

, .

“ ”
words we can go v ern ourselves as well as thin k and feel
, ,
.

The a bi li ty to g overn o u rselv es however limited the do m ain ,

prove be i s term ed W i l hi bi li
m a
y to l, a nd a n
y exer cise o
f t s a
,
ty
i s term ed Wi lling o r Vo li ti on ,
.

M o ti v e s P ossible courses o f activity come to o ur view as

.

cross roads do o n a j o urney There is such a thing as m ental

-
.

p a use and,
it resembles the trave ll er s ha l ting at the cross ’

road s In this time o f mental poise we compare the merits

.
,

real o r s upposed of the alternati v es in V iew as fo r example

, , , ,
”
when we try to m ake up o u r mind on some point o f duty .

The considerations that influence this mental struggle a s in ,

te m pta tion may be either inte l lectu al o r emotional as in a

, ,

case of conscience and passion There may be either harm ony .

o r o pposition o f inte llect and sensib i l i ty as in Obed i ence to ,

law The infl uences in this mental poise whether they be i n

.
,

tellectu a l o r emotional are termed M o ti v es fro m the L atin

, ,

word m oveo I mo v e The mental stru ggle with motives may

,
.

be v ery great ; but normally it it possible to resist any m otive ,

and to act i n Opposition to it This possibility d istinguishes .

m otives from causes and j ustifies the pause to which we reso rt

,
.

A ccordingly The i nfl ,
u ences tha t en ter bu t d o n o t i rr esisti bly ,

d eter m i n e a v o lun ta r
y strugg le, a r e term ed Mo ti v es .

The stru ggle w ith m oti v es generally term inates

D e ci s i o n .

in the v ol untary selection o f some alternative This selection .

is termed a D eci si on o r Cho ice A ccordingly The v olunta ry

,
.
,

selecti o n of a n a ltern a ti v e after c om p a ri ng i t wi th o ther s is ,

term ed D ecisi on If there be only t wo alternatives i e if the

.
, . .
,
 ME NTAL ACTI VI TY 23

choice be limited to the selection and refusal o f a co u rse the ,

se lection is term ed F i a t a nd t he refusal Neget In other

, ,
.

words F iat is posi t ive an d Neget negati v e D ecision

, , ,
.

I ntenti on . The alte rnati ve selected m a y be something dis

ta nt in time or attainment as poli t ica l pre ferm ent ,
S uch a .

selection is termed Intention A ccordingly The v o lu nta ry se .

,

lecti o n of a n a lterna ti v e whose a tta i nm ent is p r osp ecti v e i s term ed ,

I ntenti on . It is in this sense that w e intend to be gradu ates ,

o r to become what we ha v e not yet become Vigoro us i nten .

tion is termed P u rp ose and undev iating in v inc i ble purpose

, , ,

i s termed R eso lu ti o n It is i n the latter sense that we resol v e

.

to be successful whatever it may cost and however e xhau st

, ,

ing the struggle may prove .

A ttenti o n . In a limited way it is possible to control o ur

mental activity i .e to determi ne its course its ste ad iness and
,
.
, , ,

its co ntinuance on the same track In other words we ca n .

, ,

u nder nor m al con di t ions determine o ur mental trend at any

,

consciou s m oment of tim e This exercise o f voluntary power

.

is o f several species ( 1 ) It may be a submission m ore o r

.
,

less u n flaggi ng to the d emands o f another w i ll as in listen i ng

, ,

o r read ing .
( )
2 It may be devotion more o r less undeviating , ,

to o ne interest or task as i n study or play (3) It m ay be a

, .

tra n sitive decision in thinking as in the d ismission o f o ne ,

thou gh t in order to admit o r co nt i nue another as in passing ,

from o ne study to another The p henomena j ust described are

.

termed A ttention from the L atin words a d to ward and tendo

, , , ,

I stretch A ccord i ngly Co ntinuity o f thought in one groove

.
, ,

especially voluntary contin u ity is termed A ttenti on O r the ,

.
,

voluntary process o f keeping the mind at work o n o ne th i ng

rather than o n others is termed A ttenti o n O r Thi nki ng of
, .
,

o n e a lter n a ti v e r a ther tha n of o ther s i s term ed A ttenti o n ,

.

Moti v es are present in v oluntary activity b ut vol u nta ry ,

acti v ity itself assu mes the phases o f decision in tention and , ,

attention .
24 PR I NCI PL E S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE A CH I NG

C o n cl u s i o n The purpose of the present chapte r has been

.

to observ e classify and define mental phenomena We have

, ,
.

thus arriv ed a t the conclusion that thinking feel ing a n d w i ll , ,

ing are the poss i ble mental phenomena and that there are no
, ,

other speci es .

Mi nd It must be evident enough to any one who observ es

.

himself in the concrete that think i ng feeli ng and will ing are
, , , ,

n o t physical phenomena i e phenomena o f matter In other

,
. .
,
.

words it is not our body that thinks feels and wi lls i t is o u r

, , ,
“ ”
sel f the min d o r soul or spirit Though i t be in m ost
, , ,
.

intimate j uncti on with the body in which it d we lls the m i nd ,

is not the function o f the body but a d i sti nct entity that
”
,

itself has functions This assu mption implies sev eral a ttri
.

butes o f mind (1 ) If m ind is not matter it is S pirit (2)

.
,
.

If mind is n o t matter it is indiv i sible or s i mple (3) If

, ,
.

mind is not matter it cannot lose its numerical identity (4)

,
.

If m ind is n o t a function it is an enti ty A ccord in gly The ,

.
,

s im
p le, s i r i tu a l
p enti t
y whi ch t hi nks, feels ,
a nd wi lls, i s term ed

P sycho logy To study mi nd in order to deal with i t is

.
,

the indispensa b le prerequisi te in pedagogy (S ee the method .

,

begi nning o f th i s ch apter ) The problems are numerous . .

The first proble m is to Obser v e the mental phenomena and to

, ,

ascerta i n the i r la ws Th i s sci ence i s termed P sycho logy from

.
,

the Greek words p syche soul and log os d i scourse A ccord , , ,

.

i ngly The o bserv a ti on of m en ta l p hen o m ena a nd the a scer ta i n

, ,

m ent o
f their la ws i s ter m ed P s cho lo
y, gy .
26 P R I NCI PLE S A ND ME THOD S OF TE ACH I NG

of such summation o f sti m uli In other words m enta l a cti vity .

,

i s su bject to su m m a ti on of sti m u li .

N eu ro si s ( III
. S ince p er ce ti o n 1 s simply the interpreta
p .

tion o f sensations neurosis i e neural activity m u st be the

, ,
. .
, ,

physical basis Ne u rosis as physiological p sychol ogy te aches

.
, ,

i s the indispensable cond i tion o f co nsci ou sn ess The phys ical .

basis o f m em ory as already shown is neurosis R ecent ex

, , .

eri m ents prove that illusion and hallucination can be brou ht

p g
about by drug s and electrical stimu lati on o f the sensory tracts .

This m ea ns that the n er v e tracks o f perception are also the -

tra cks o f i m a gi na ti on The fatigu e that fo llows sev ere mental

.

application howe v er abstract the thinki ng m ay be is suffi cient

, ,

proof that neurosis accompanies the higher i ntellectu a l p ro cesses .

A ll species o f em o ti on whether simple or complex are attended

, ,

by neurosis as palpitation o f the heart pallor trembling li mbs

, , , ,

etc clearly S ho w Vo li ti on is communicated to executi v e o r

.
, .

g a n i sm s through neurosis To be brief in the present

. j unc ,

tion o f body and mind n eurosi s a ccom p a ni es p sychosis i e

, ,
. .
,

m en tal activity .

Se n s a ti o n (I V ) In m any cases o f weak sensati on per

. .
,

cept i o n is correspondingly uncertain When for example the .

, ,

sensations o f sound or light are weak t he perception is com ,

mouly faulty and incomplete The same th i ng is true o f .

odors flavors aches etc When howev er the sensation b e

, , ,
.
, ,

comes m ore intense and definite the ful l meanin g becomes ,

e v ident The di rect v ariation in the proportion in question

.

conti nues up to a po int when as in the case of violent pain , ,

perception i s either partial o r impossible We infer from .

these facts that wi thi n certa i n li m i ts sensa ti on a nd p ercep ti o n

,

a re di rectly p r op o r ti o n a te This law o f inte raction harmonizes

.

with the law of summation of sti m u li .

C o n s ci o u s n e s s (V ) We hard ly feel the ring that is a l

. .

ways o n o u r finger We are hard ly conscious o f customary

.

m uscu lar sensation s The co nsciousness of sensations from

.
 L AWS OF ME NTA L ACTI VI TY 27

the speci al senses varies with the varying d efin iten ess o f these
sensation s The consciousness o f sensations of heat o r cold
.
,

hunger or thirst increases fro m extreme v agueness to extreme

,

d efin i teness There is however a limit to this d i rect propor

.
, ,

tion when sensations as physical pain become extremely i n , ,

tense consciousness breaks down completely The inference

,
.

fol lows that wi thi n certa i n li m i ts sensa ti on a nd co nsci ou sn ess a r e

,

di rectly p r op or ti ona te This law o f interaction also harmonizes

.

with the la w o f summation o f stimul i .

Me m o r y (V I ) M
. e m ory as physiologica
. l psycho l ogy ,

teaches is psychosis by m eans o f neurosis In this inter

,
.

action the body and mind as experience shows are mutual , ,

elements In other words memory is affected by fatigue ill

.
, ,

ness age interest exercise and such m ental reinforcements a s

, , , ,

imagination j udgment etc The quantity a n d qu ality o f these

, ,
.

various influences that enter into the for m a tion Of m em ory

associatio ns determines the quantity and qu ality o f m e m ory
reproductions In sh ort The cha r a cter of m em ory for m a ti ons
.
,
-

d eterm i nes the cha r a cter of the r ep ro du cti on s This interaction .

i s therefore al so subj ect to the l a w o f summation o f stimuli .

Im a gi n a t i o n (V I I ) D istress in the v ital organs pro

. .

vokes dreams su ggests illusions etc L atent disease i nflu

, ,
.

en ces o ur waking and slee ping w orld P hysical habits have .

their counterparts in imagination Mental experiences and .

,

habits o f thought give direction and impulse to i m agination

, .

The i m agination o f the Optimist is a beautiful world while ,

that o f the pessimist is Often a desert o r a hell Thus i t a p .

pears that i n these various in teractions imagination like per ,

ce t i o n and me m ory is subj ect to the law o f the su m mation

p ,

of st imuli In short The tr end of i m a gi n a ti on d ep en ds up on

.
,

h
p ysi ca l a nd m en ta l sugg esti o ns .

A b s tr a ct i o n(V III ) The powers of imagination defy

. .

descripti on and yet this function to o h as its abso lute l imits

, , ,
.

It is i m possible to escape the ideas of space a nd time in the

28 P R I NCI PLE S AND M E TH ODS OF TE A CH I NG

operations o f i magination S o to o the idea s o f number iden .

, , ,

tity cause truth beauty and right are always present some
, , , , , ,

or all of them in the operat ions o f imagination D reams for

, .
,

example abound in ficti t ious recognitions (identities ) uni t s

, ,

and combinations (number) causes and effects I llusion is ,

.

apparent truth and as such conforms with the cond iti ons of
,

truth The conceptions of A rt arise from the idea of beauty

.
,

and ev en dreams do not whol ly deny conscience In other .

w ords The u tm ost li m i ts of a bstr a cti on a r e a lso the li m i ts of

,

i m a g in a ti on Th is interaction like those al ready considered

.
, ,

is therefore subj ect to the la w of the summation o f stimu li .

Id e nt i t y (I X ) D irect j udgment as psychology show s

. .
, ,

presupposes the idea o f identity i e the disti nc ti on denoted ,

. .
,

by the words agreement and disagreement The same thing .

is true of i ndirect j udgment o r reasonin g as any o n e can , ,

pro v e for himself This i dea underlies a ll species o f general

.

i z a ti o n and cl assification as when we assert that a R ose must ,

either be o r no t be a plant but that it cannot both be and not ,

be a plant The second premise o f the i nducti v e sy llogis m

.

rests ent irely on the belief that N ature rev eals i ts genera in its
”
ind iv idual s This idea o f uniformity is the abstraction of
.

i d enti ty E v en i n aestheti c and moral j udgments where the

.
,

concrete is compared directly o r indirectly w i th the abstract ,

i e the real w i th the i deal the i d ea of i d enti ty is present i n

. .
, ,

the same ind i spensable wa y In logi c the idea in question is .

analyzed into the axioms o f thou ght In short The a bstr a ct .

,

disti ncti on of id en tity i s i n di sp ensa ble to di r ect a nd i n di r ect

j gu d m ent This inte

. ll ectua l interaction l ike others t herefore , ,

harmonizes wi th the la w o f summation o f stimu li .

To t a l I nt e r a ct i o n X
( ) E motion as psycho
. l ogy teaches
.
, ,

presupposes i d eas o r thoughts as w hen we think o f s u fferin g ,

frien d s and desire to allev iate these su fferings The i d eas o f .

utility beauty truth and duty seem to be the most potent to

, , , ,

awaken feeling Vol i tion as psycho logy also teaches pre

.
, ,
 L AWS OF ME NTA L A CTI VI TY 29

supposes emotion as when love p rompts deeds o f love J ust

, .

as the ideas o f u til ity beauty etc powerfully awaken feel

, ,
.

ing so the feel ings of uti l ity beau ty etc powerfu lly solicit
, , ,
.
,

volition Thus ideas and thoughts te nd to become deeds In

. .

short Thi nki ng feeli ng a nd wi lli ng form a na tu ra l seri es

, , , ,

m enta l a cti v i t This interaction o f the inte l lect sensi

o
f y .
,

b il ity and will constitutes the highest summation known to

, ,

p sychology and life .

S ta ge s o f D e v e l o pm en t (XL ) The natural order o f .

development as i nqu iry tends to p rove consists o f a series of

, ,

upheavals I n this series percept ion memory imagination

.
, , ,

j udgment (including abstraction generalization a nd reason , ,

ing) and consciousness seem to be the intellectual stages

, , ,

while emotion and v olition struggle w ith each other fo r

supremacy al ong a l i ne of instin ctive upheav al s and env iron
mental suggestions The series i n question is howev er as
.
, ,
“ ”
biology etc teaches a broken line o f de v elopment In
,
.
, ,
.

early life as L u ken S R icci and other scientists teach us

, , , ,

blind instincts and indi v idual impu lses tend to substi tute
themselv es fo r the logical order o f adult thinking S ur .

prisin g and apparently ev i l tendencies break the l ine of the

ch i ld s progress toward mat urity
’
Intellectual and moral .

aptitudes apparently safe from relapse suffer suspended ani

” ”
mation .A period o f physical and mental pause prob ,

ably for preparation as D r E l l i s show s precedes the m i ghty

,
.
,

adolescent upheaval which as D r S tanley H all a n d others

, ,
.

show is probably the g reat birthday o f maturity E ach n ew

,
.

”
tendency com es into the series of uphea v als as a m onopoly ,
”
and the rate of growth in d i fferent apti tudes is quite v ari
able as those w ho o b serv e children canno t help seein g A mi d
,
.

these irregularities o f de v elopment however th e series of , ,

m onopolies o r concentrations i n te n d encies and aptitudes is

, ,

fairly co n stant and may be regarded as a law

,
In short .
,

The m i nd m a tu res by sta g es .

30 PRI NCI PL E S AND ME TH OD S OF TE ACH I NG

Li m i t s of D ev el o p
t (X I I ) The m ost su rp risin g
m en . .

variations as in size and quali ty o f S keleton muscles brains

, , , ,

etc appear in the physical endowments o f m a n The differ

.
,
.

e m ees in menta l possibi lities as statisti cs plainl y S how are

, ,

e v en greater The genius for example sur passes co m m on

.
, ,

m inds j ust as m u ch as the tota l possibi lities o f the ad u lt ex

ceed those o f the infant The difference between the child

.

”
hood o f the race and its present maturity is probably the ,

m ost s u r rising thing i n science In spit e of these variatio n s

p .
,
”
however the specific identity o f the race has re m ain ed i n
,

tact for all epochs o f h uman history In sho rt The m a turing

.
,

m i nd enco u nters li m i ts i n s eci c c o nsti tu ti o n

p fi .
 PA R T II .

PR I N C I P L E S O F TE A C H ING .
34 P R I NCI PL E S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE ACH I NG

acqu ir e m omentu m and thi s feature in connection with its

,
”
reflex periodicity makes the form ation of habits at the
,

same ti m e the most hopeful and the most dangerous possi

b ili ty o f education The intimate interaction o f sensation and
.

”
emotion general ly con v erts habit i nto taste o r e m otional ,

trend which by reflex action reinforces habit The conv er

,
.

sion o f habit into taste is promoted by the disco v ery o f one s ’

”
ski ll in things which become hab it .

Sp e ci e s o f C a p a ci t y The i mprov ement o r cu ltu re o f

.
, ,

which m a n is capable as indicated are ( 1 ) P hysical Capacity

, , ,

a nd 2 Mental Capac i ty
( ) .

P hysi ca l Ca p a ci ty Within the l imits o f speci fic co n st itu

.

tion as statistics show the human body is capable o f amazing

, ,

increas e in strength executive ease and speed and artistic

, ,

skill The achie v ements o f athl etes manu factu rers and artists
. , , ,

are familiar illustrations .

Menta l Cap a ci ty Within the limits o f specific co n stitu

.

tion as histo ry shows o ur menta l possibilities are sublime

, ,
.

( )
1 Thro u gh i n tel l ectual apprehension o f truth u t i lity beauty , , ,

duty and D eity man becomes a scientist inv entor artist

, , , , ,

moralis t and religionist (2) E motion solici ts v olition (see

,
.

tenth law o f mental acti v ity) a nd thus con v erts theory into ,

practice (3) The possibilities o f volition as consciousness

.
,

and histo ry seem to affirm are coord i nate w ith our i ntellec ,

tual possibi l ities In the midst o f the real izations o f m odern

.
-

history the mind turns instincti v ely to w ard the attainment

,

o f ideals as yet only imperfectly realized .

B . TH E N A TU R E OF E D U C A TI O N .

Th e general characte r o f the atta inment o f o u r possibili ti es

is conveniently treated under the fo llo w ing h eads : (1 ) S elf
acti v ity ( 2 ) S ystem (3) E mancipation (4) The P upi l s L imits
, , ,
’
,

( )
5 The Ideal in E ducation and ( )
6 The D efinitio n of E duca ,

tion .
 TH E NATU R E OF E DU CATI ON 35

S lf A
e -
t i v i t y Conscious effo rt in the evol u tion o f possi
c .

b il iti es i s termed S elf—activity S elf acti v ity therefore pre .

-

supposes consciou sness ideal s i e abstract conceptions o f po s

, ,
. .
,

si b i li ti es and w i ll
,
Ma n as psychology teaches is such a self
.
, ,

active agent Man s capacity for se l f acti v ity as we m ust

.
’
-

infer from the eleventh la w of mental activity i s at the same ,

time both the guarantee and the genera l necessity in the ev o

”
l u t i o n o f his possibi lities i e in his education ,
A ccordin g
. .
, .

”
to the ele v enth l a w o f mental acti v ity play i e instincti v e , ,
. .
,
”
activ ity and w ork i e vol u nta ry acti v ity are the succes
, ,
. .
, ,

sive phases of self activity -

.

P la y . F roebel obser v ed that p lay i s the acti v ity o f func

tions instincti v ely clamoring fo r exercise and that we cannot ,

give a satis facto ry ac count o f such activity un less it be Nature s ’

pro v ision for the earlier de v elopment of the fun ctions o f body
and soul The Kindergarten is simply systematic play from
.

which caprice is gradually elim inated Inasmuch as play is .

the manifestation o f aptitudes it becomes the educational key ,

to the child s talent and destiny

’
.

Wor k A bsol ute abandonment to sponta neous and self

.

satisfyin g acti v ity i e play would in time develop i nto mon

,
. .
, ,

strous caprice and arbitrariness In that ev ent the aging i n .

di v idual would no t m ature into the po wers h ab i ts tastes and , , ,

wisdom needed fo r hi ghest happiness character and life , ,

.

Therefore the child must gradually o v ercome his caprices and

de v elop the power of useful and moral self subordination In -

this obed ience to imperativ es o f utility necessity or duty the , ,

pupil is no longer a creature o f impulse but a conscious and ,

intentional agent in his o wn destiny In sho rt I S elf a cti vi ty .

,
.
-

i s the ba si s of edu ca ti o n .

Su p e rv i s i o n The i m maturity o f the child (see the elev

.

en th l a w o f m ental acti v ity m akes authoritati v e supervision

)
ov er the pupil s acti v ity an absolute educational necessity
’
.

This necessary syste m o f authoritati v e su pervisio n over pu pils

36 PR I NCI PLE S A ND M E TH OD S OF TE A CH I NG

’
is termed Tea ching The teacher s work consists o f three
.

things (1 ) A dapta tion of Tasks (2) S ti m ulation and (3) D i , ,

rect ion .

A d ap ta ti o n f (
o 1 Ta sks
) In consequence .of the pupil s ’

relati v e weakness (see the e leventh law o f m ental act iv ity) ,

the p up il s tas ks m ust be a dapted to stages o f devel opment

’
.

The sta ges o f physical instincti v e acquisitive and prod u cti v e

, , ,
”
m onopoly must be respected in the pupil (2 ) The pupi l s
,
.
’

tasks m ust also be adapted to so m e extent to speci al tastes and

talents since these are generally correlati v es and in the main
, ,
’
constitute the pupi l s indi v idual ity God s creativ e impress
’
, ,

and m a n s inalienable gu arantee o f su ccess in somethi ng or

’

o ther .

S tim u la ti on In consequence of tardiness and inhibitions i n

.

the appearance o f aptitudes the pup i l needs a stimulus to self ,

“ ”
activity . The concrete as statistics sho w is the m ost , ,
”
effecti v e stimulus in earlier and the abstract i n later years ,
.

Ignorance i n these matters incapacita te s the teacher .

D i r ecti o n In ad d i tion to stimulus the pupil needs a

.
,

teacher s d i rection ( 1 ) The ordinary pupil wastes his ener

’
.

gies and loses his way In conflict w ith difficulties the pupil
.
,

needs suggestions hints illustrations questions etc ( 2) In

, , , ,
.

the crises along the broken l ine o f his development (see the
eleventh la w of m ental acti v ity ) the pupi l needs special ,

superv ision and sympathetic support The greatest perils

,
.

and at the same time the greatest opportunities belong to the

Kindergarten epoch to the period o f pause before ado lescence
, ,

and to the adolescent u pheaval (3) A mong the most impor .

’
tant things to the pupi l s wel fare is effective inte ract ion o f
bod y and m ind (S ee the second and third laws o f mental
.

activity ) It therefore de v ol v es o n the teacher to combine

.

the best physical conditions with the pup il s mental tasks ’

.

A ccordin gly II A u tho ri ta ti v e sup ervi si o n is the n ecessa ry sup

,
.

em en t of the p up il s self a cti vi ty

’
p l -
.
 TH E NATU R E OF E D U CATI ON 37

Em a n ci p
t i o n The trend o f the child s natur al develop
a .
’

m ent (see the eleventh law o f m ental activity ) and practical

necessity suggest and require gradual release fro m the te acher s

,
’

au thority It is along this line that teachers are likely to

.

m ake the most irreparable mistakes .

( I ) F o r a time the old bird feeds and tends and gu ards her
yo u ng with utmost attentiveness By and by ho wever the .
, ,

li ttle proteges being full fledged are m ade to shift for

,
” -

themselves and their tutelage ends

,
.

( )
2 S o t
,
o o there comes a ti m e when boys and girls a ttai n
,

to their maj ori ty a nd are said to be o f age

“ ”
,
”
U ntil then .

they remai n the p roteges of others their tutelage being pre ,

paratory Thencefo rward they are to shi ft for them selves

.
,

and taking their place among equals to work out a worthy

, ,

destiny i n their o wn way They may and will if they be .

, ,

wise still value and even seek the cou nsel of others but need
, ,

n o t abide by it fro m necessity They may if they see fit sub

.
, ,

m i t to a u tho ri t fro m without but cannot strictly as hitherto

y , , ,

be required to do so .

( )
3 The transition here described is the o n e to wa r d which

true education must te nd and fo r which it must prepare ,

.

O ther wise it fails to connect S chool with L i fe and to

“ ” “ ”
, ,

that serious extent fai ls in its function It is however only

, .
, ,

w hen boys and girls can real ly be expected to he l p themsel v es

and to go v ern themsel v es that they should attain to freedom
fro m necessary subj ection to others A ssuming that they can .

help themselves and go v ern themsel v es the world then cefo r ,

wa rd holds them accountable They sho ul d not be liberated t oo .

soon lest they go astray n o r too suddenly lest they be u nab le

, , ,

to preserve their bal ance nor too late lest i t be i m possibl e fo r

, ,

the m e v er to stand alone Their happiness v irtue and suc

.
, ,

cess are at stake A ccordingly III Gr a du a l r elea se fr o m

, .
,
.

a u tho ri ta ti ve su er vi si o n m ust e a r e the u il

p r
p p p p f or se
f
l ps u er -

vi swn .
38 PR I NCI PL E S AND M E TH ODS OF TE A CH I NG

Li m i t ti o n s
a .
( )
The o a k exists in smaller proportions in
1
the acorn and is nothing other than that for wh i ch prov i s ion
,

h a d been made in the acorn S o too it is i m p o Ssi b le to de .

, ,

v elo p powers habi ts tastes o r wisdom fo r w hich the Creator

, , , ,

has n o t made provision in the origi nal constitution o f a man

(eleven t h law) ( )2 M any cannot attain
. t o those powers ,

habits tastes and wisdom for which provision wa s mad e in

, , ,

their original constitution fo r se v eral reasons (a ) their health

, ,

does not allow it ; (6) their l eis u re i s limited by poverty busi ,

’
ness or some one s ad verse control ; and ( 0) their environ
,

ment for too long a period o f years does n o t inspire and

prompt to those effo rts wh ich as su ggested by the eleventh ,
’
la w of mental activity are essential to the pupil s pro gress ,
.

( )
3 O thers cannot attain to the bes t resu l t s in ed ucation b e ,

cause they become the proteges of super v isors a n d gov ernors

w h o do not un derstan d their function o r u nderstand i ng it , , ,

fail to m I n d their business A ccord in gly IV The p up il s .

,
.
’

li m i ta ti ons shou ld be r em oved a s m u c h as ossi ble

p .

Th e Id e a l The perfection of o u r Crea

i n E d u ca t i o n .
( )
1
to r s character ; the i mmortal ity o f essential humanity ; a n d
’

human capacity for happiness are assumptions j ustified by ,

reason and experience The capacity for happiness moreover .

, ,

is a persi stent endowment o f the h u man race Thinking o f .

th i s endo wment in connection w ith the perfect character o f our

M aker we cannot av oid the conclus i on that man is meant for
,

u lt i mate happiness This desti ny o f happ i ness ho we v er i s con

.
,
'
,

d i tio n a l i e there must be adequate preparati on for i t i n Ti me

,
. .
,
.

A ccordin gly u l t i mate happ i n es s is to be an i dea l ( pu rpose ) of

,

humanity (E le v en th and t welfth laws of menta l acti v ity )

. .

( )
2 T he u ni v ersal d i stinct i on of r ig ht and wron g in con ,

n ect i o n with ab il i ty t o w i ll the ri gh t a n d wron g ; the promo

tion of virtue and duty by Chr i sti ani ty the respons i bi li ty o f

human bein gs to t he i r Maker and to each other ; and the re
ui rem ent o f vi rtue fo r real happiness are assumptions j usti
q ,
 TH E NATU R E OF E DU CATI ON 39

fied by reason and experience These assu mption s lead to the .

u navoidable conclusio n that m a n is meant for a moral destiny .

A ccordingly v i r tu e is to be an ideal of humanity

, ( E lev .

en th a nd twelfth laws o f mental activity

) .

( )
3 R eason and experience j ustify the following additional
assumptions : (a ) The p resent powers o f m an are such as to
“ ”
fit hi m for complete l iv i ng in Time i e m a n is so co n ,
. .
,

stituted a j unction o f body and spirit as to make human

”
affairs a possibility a p leasure a duty, o r even a necessity ;
, ,

(b) the real ization o f this temporal destiny is condi tional ,

i e it depends o n adequate accommodation to the e n viron

. .
,

men t o f this l i fe as well as o n effi cient u se of this environ

ment Thinkin g of hu m an constitution and i ts fitness in tem
.

poral environ m ent we come to the unavoidable conclusio n

,

that man is meant also for a destiny in which the grea t prob
lems are those o f livelihood home education govern m ent , , , ,

and so forth i e a temporal desti ny A ccord i ngly co m

, . .
, .
,
”
l
p ete living in Ti m e I s to be an ideal o f humanity ( E lev .

en th and twel fth laws of menta l activity

) .

Th u s it follows that there are three great ends (goals) of

life three ideals (pu rposes) of humanity B ut education is es
, .

sen t i a lly pro g ression toward these ideals hopes o f hu m anity

( ) .

A ccordin gly V The u lti m a te o bjects of edu ca ti o n a re happ i

,
.

n ess v i r tu e a nd
p ete eq uip m ent fo r life
’
, ,
com l .

D e fi n i t i o n O f E d u ca t i o n F rom the foregoing considera

.

tions based almos t wholly on the l aws of menta l activity and

, ,

especial ly on the eleventh and twelfth laws we can construct ,

a n inductive definition of education Thus VI The r ea li za .

,
.

ti o n of m a n s p ossi bi li ti es thro ug h system a ti z ed self a cti vi ty fo r

’
-

, ,

co m
p lete li v i n
g i s term ed E d u ca ti on
,
The term is derived . from
the L atin words e o ut and du co I lea d and thus refers us to
, , , ,

the fundam ental fact i n education namely that exercise o r , , ,

self activity promotes development It serves o u r pedagogic

-

, .

ur oses to co n sider the s ecies o f ed u cation

p p p .
40 P R I NCI PL E S AND M E TH OD S OF TE ACH I NG

Sp eci es f E du ca ti on
The number f man s powers and ’
o . o

the ends to be kept i n view in the cu ltivation o f these powers ,

determine the possible species o f education .

( 1 ) P hysica l education has to do w i th the body and aims to ,

m ake it a fit abode and instrument of the S p i rit A s a mean s .

to these ends a traini ng in physi ology and physical culture are

indispensabl e .

( )
2 Int e llectual education has to do w ith the think i n g and
kn owing powers of the m i nd a n d a i ms to develop these p o w
,

ers into fit instruments o f l i fe A s a means to this end both

.
,

general and speci a l courses of study are necessary .

( )
3 M oral education has to do with charact e r —bui ld i ng A s .

a mean s to th i s end the pupi l s wi ll must be subordi nated to the

’

ideas o f util ity beauty duty and rel igi on The correspond
, , ,
.

i ng subordinate species o f moral education are termed pra cti

cal aesthetic social and rel ig ious The most effective stim
, , ,
.

lus in moral education is religion which cons ists o f faith i n,

Go d lo v e to Go d a nd man and obedience to Go d A ll speci es

, ,
.

o f m ora l education begin in the intellec t and the correspond ,

i ng emotions thus waked up solicit the w i ll A s means to the .

ends of moral educati on the pupil needs a training in the use

ful arts and sciences i n the fine arts and in personal social
, , , ,

and religio u s virtues .

42 PR I NCI PL E S AND ME TH OD S OF TE A CH I NG

tudes and tendencies which appear in this way . In sho rt ,

exer cise r o m o tes d ev elop m en t

p .

C o rr e l a ti o n II The interactions requ i red by the law

. .

o f summation as stated in the laws o f mental activity are

, ,

e v idently the primary requirement o f m ental exercise I n .

sho rt the n a tu ra l corr ela ti on of m en ta l a cti v i ti es i s the co ndi ti on

,

o
f su cces sfu l d ev elo m en t
p This g eneral . require m ent re s olve s

itself into the fol lowin g special requirements .

P er cep ti o n . D efin i ten ess o f sensation accordin g to the ,

fourth law of mental activity is the primary requirement in ,

the de v elopment of perception O bedience to this require .

ment wi ll stim u late interest and therefore quicken activity .

The ideal ends in view i e activity reliability and interest,

,
. .
, , ,

are thus attained .

Consci ousness Voluntary self observation accordi ng to

.
-

the fifth la w o f mental acti v ity is the pri m ary requirement in ,

the development of consciousness O bedience to this require .

“ ”
m ent wi l l e nable the pupi l i n due time to m ake self an
obj ect o f thou ght j ust as the external world is his obj ect o f
”
,

perception The ideal ends in vie w i e the p o wer and habit

.
,
. .
,

o f i ntrospect i on are thus developed

,
.

Mem ory E ffective interacti on of body and mind accord

.
,

i ng to the six th l a w of mental acti v i ty is the pr i mary re ,

u i rem en t in t he cultivation of memory In other words the

q .
,

desired quantity and qual i ty o f memory reproductions can be -

secured only by such reinforcements i n memory—associat ions

as physical V i gor interest and attention frequent repetition
, , ,

log ical suggestions imagination etc ,

O bed ience to these re
,
.

q u i re m en ts w i ll result i n definite persis ten t a nd sug estive

g , ,

associati o n t racks The ideal end s i n v ie w i e economic

.
, . .
,

memory associ ations and rel iable memory reproductions w il l

- -

be thus attained .

I m a g i na ti on . P hysical and mental su gges tion according to ,

the seventh and eighth laws of m enta l acti v ity is the speci a l ,
 CUL TU R E
!

PR I NCIPL E S OF 43

req u i re m ent i n the cu lti v ati on o f the imagination In other .

word s sensa tion perception and memory mu st be made effi

, , , ,

c i ent furnishing agents in the structur es o f imagination while ,

exercise in the ideas of space time beauty duty and truth , , , , ,

wi ll ser v e as mi ghty sti mul i The understandi ng to o should .

, ,

be call ed into the ser v ice of i m agination O bedience to these .

requiremen ts will stren gthe n a nd purify i m agi nati on The .

id eal ends in V ie w i e ser v i ce to a rt li terat ure science in v en

,
. .
, , , ,

t ion etc w i ll thus be attained

,
.
, .

Thoug ht Generalizat ion accord i ng to the first law o f

.
,

men tal activ ity beg ins in abs tra ction but presupposes the
, ,

other modes o f ideation and im pl i es the tw o modes of tho u ght ,

.

Without thought as psychology te a ches general i zation

“ ”
, ,

w ould be imposs i b le Idea t ion and relat ion therefore are

.
, ,

the co mp lementary requ i rements in the dev elopment o f these

processes In other words the cul ti v ation of percep t ion co n
.
, ,

sci o u sn ess memory imagination j ud gment a n d reas on ing

, , , , ,

promote the de v elopment of abstract i on and generali zation .

The ideas o f space t i me cause iden ti ty utility bea uty duty

, , , , , , ,

a n d truth des er v e specia l a t tenti on O b edi ence to these re .

ui r e m e n ts w i ll no t only s t imula te and strengt hen t he mind

q
in t hese hi her proces ses but also make it i ts o wn critic The
g
, .

ideal ends in Vi e w i e acti v i ty ability a n d self relian ce wi ll

,
. .
, , ,
-

thus be w ithin th e pupil s reach ’

.

S en si bility In the cul t i v at ion o f the heart it is d esi ra

.
“
,

b l e according t o the fifth general pr i ncip l e of educat ion to

, ,

de v elop r ight fee lings into moti v es o f con duc t and t o subdue ,

such fee l in gs as in te rfere with man s happiness usefu lness ’

, ,

and mora l it y These ends ca n be attained according to the

.
,

ten th la w o f men t al ac t iv i ty by exercis i ng t he feelin gs in ,

j unction with the in tellect and w i ll In o ther words the .

,

pupil s feel i ngs m us t b e subord inated to the idea s of u til ity

’
,

beauty duty and tru th The pupil m ust be mad e to see the
, ,
.

impo rtance o f such discipl ine L i ke F enelon a n d P esta lozzi .

,
44 PRI NCIPLE S AND M E TH ODS OF TE A CH I NG
the tea cher must inven t a nd ut ilize all so rts o f situations i n
the p upil s discipline E v en the physical conditions and en
’
.

v i ro n m en ts of the pupil m u st be utilized in the cultivation of

his feelings .

Wi ll S ubordination to the highest inte rests o f h um anity

.
,

is the right ideal in the cultivation o f the wil l This end .

m ust be att ained accordin g to the te nth la w of mental acti v ity

, ,

by exercising the wil l in j unction with the intellect and the feel
ings In other words the ideas o f uti lity beauty duty and
.
, , , ,

truth m ust be developed into ideals the corresponding feel

, ,

ings m u st become moti v es to right conduct and the habit o f ,

a u sing long enough to decide intel ligently between doubtful

p
alte rna tives must take the place o f impu l se and caprice When .

evil ideas and tendencies are present the will needs the mo ,

m entu m o f right habit and the stimulus o f good example .

The development of right intentions is probably the most

effective s t imul us to the important habit o f attention The .

physical conditions and en v ironmen ts of the pupil must also

be uti lized in the cul tivation of the wi ll .

C o n ce ntr a t i o n III A ccording to the fifth general pri n

. .

ci le o f education the best possib i l ities are the ends in view in

p ,

culture These ends according to the tenth la w o f menta l

.
,

acti v ity can be atta ined in part at least by exercisi ng a ll

,

functions i n their n atural j unction But accord ing to the .

,

e leventh la w o f mental acti v ity these poss ibil ities cannot a ll ,

be reali zed at once In other word s the seri es of r ip eni ng ten

.
,

d en ci es a n d a p ti tu d es sugg es t a s er i es of concen tra ti ons i nexer

ci se It is accord in gly o f utmos t importanc
.
,
e to m ake e v ery
, ,

p u p il a special study since the tend encies a nd apt i tud es i n

”
,

questio n do n o t ripen exactly i n the sa m e ord er a nd the same

way in a ll pupi ls .

Li m i t s IV A ccord ing to the twelfth la w o f mental a o

. .

’
t i v i ty the li m i ts of the p up il s d ev elop m ent a r e n o t o n ly r a ci a l
,

bu t i n di v idu a l The ideal teacher must therefore m ake each

.
 P RI NCIPLE S OF CU LT U RE 45

pupil his special study . This requirement m akes chi ld

”
stu dy the most i mport ant m o v ement i n the histo ry o f educa
“ ”
tion A part from such study the school wi ll crush ordi
.
,

nary indi v idualities under a load o f impossible tasks and i m

,
”
prison genius i n g rades made by hand In sho rt the p upil s
.
,
’

tasks m ust be adap ted to his individuality .

46 PRINCIPLE S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE AC HI NG

CH A P TE R III .

TH E N ATU RE OF K NOWL E D GE .

I D E AS and thou ghts that are true are termed Knowledge ,

.

Thoughts that are true o f some indi v i duals of a genus or of ,

instances are termed P articu lar Truths or F acts as Ma ny

, , , ,

eo le lov e m usi c Thou hts that are true o f a ll the indi

p p g .

v id u a ls o f a genus o r o f all instances are termed General

, ,

Truths or P rinciples as A ll horses a re v ertebr a tes Truths

, , ,
.

whose exceptions are few or unimportant though not a b so ,

l u tely u ni v ersal are also termed general truths

,
Ideas and .

thoughts (facts and principles) at which the mind arri v es w i th

o u t syste m in process o r prod u ct constitute Com m on Know ,

ledge F acts and principles at which the mind arri v es by

.

observ ation induction and deduction and which it organizes

, , ,

in to a system constitute S cientific Knowledge or S cience

, ,
.

The sciences that begin with perceptions are termed E m ,

p i ri ca l S ciences as Botany and Chemistry

,
T he sciences that .

start with consciousness are termed R ational S ciences as , ,

P sychology .

A . S PE C E S I OF K N OW L E D GE .

The two species o f Being known to man are Ma tter a nd ”

Mi nd Matter occupies sp a ce and exists in tim e R epetition

. .

i n matter and time gi v es rise to nu m ber ,

The science o f .

space and number o r the science o f quantity is termed

, , ,

Ma them a ti cs The presence o f v arious physical a nd v i tal

.

forces in matter gi v es r ise to P hysi ca l and B i o log i ca l S ci ences

,
.

The physical and b i ological sciences are together te rmed Na t

u r a l S ciences The presence of m i nd in livin g organized
.
,

beings gi v es rise to the P sychologi cal o r Men ta l S ciences ,

.

The precedin g catal ogue exhau s ts all possibil iti es o f logical

div is i o n Thu s it appears that all sciences can be classified
.
 TH E NATU RE OF KN OWLE DG E 47

into three o r four comprehensiv e species : ( 1 ) Mathem atical

S ciences ; (2 ) Nat u ral S ciences ; and (3) Mental S ciences .

The synthesis o f sciences i nto a system o f ultimate generaliza

tions is termed P hi losop hy .

Ma t h e m a t i cs There are several special depart m ents in

.

m athematics .
( ) The science of form and extension is termed
1
Geo m etry . Trigonometry is the practi cal appl ica tion of geom
et ry
.
( 2 ) The science o f numbers is te rmed A ri thm eti c
( )
3 .

The g en era l science of quantity is te rm ed A lgebr a Calcu l u s .

is a highly developed fo rm o f algebra .

N a t u r a l S ci e n ce s There are many special problems and

.
,

therefore m any special departments in the study o f physical ,

N ature .

P hysi ca l S ci enc es The p resence of various physical force s

.

giv es rise to the P hysical S ciences ( 1 ) The science o f m o lec .

u lar forces is termed P h si cs or Nat u ral P h i losophy P hysics

y ,
.

p resuppose s mathematics
( )
2 The science
. of atomic forces is
termed Chem i stry Chem is try presupposes m athematics and
.

physics (3) The sc i ence of the properties and formation o f

.

m i neral s is termed Mi ner a log y M ineralogy presupp oses

.

mathematics physics and chem istry (4) The science o f the

, ,
.

formation of the earth is termed Geo logy Geology presup .

poses mathemat ics physics chemistry and mineralogy ( 5 )

, , ,
.

The science o f the heav enly bod ies is termed A str o n o m y .

A stron omy presupposes mathematics physics chemistry etc , , ,

.

B i o logica l S ci en ces The presence o f v arious life forces in

.
-

organized beings gi v es rise to the Biological sciences ( 1 ) .

The science of plant life is termed B o ta ny Botany presu p

-
.

po ses m athematics a n d physical sciences (2 ) The sci ence of .

animal life is ter m ed Zo ology Zo ii lo gy presupposes mathe

-
.

m aties the physical sciences and bota ny

, ( )
3 ,
The science of .

the physical life of m a n is termed P hysi o log y Its depart .

m ents are very m any P hysiology presupposes mathematics

.
,

the physical sciences bota ny and z o ii lo gy

, ,
.
48 PR I NCIPLE S A ND M E TH ODS OF T E A CH I N G
Geograp hy The
science o f the earth a s m a n s ha bi ta t is
.
’

termed Geog rap hy Geography is to a v ery great extent an .

ec lectic science its subj ects o f study bein g found w i thin the
,

domain o f th e natural sciences a n d history .

M e n t a l S ci e n ce s The presence of mind in living organ

.
,

i z ed bein gs gi v es rise to the Menta l S ciences .

I ntellect The intellect is the subj ect o f se v eral sci en ces

. .

( )
1 The science o f the phenomena o f conscio u sness is termed
P sycho logy P sycho logy presupposes mathematics phys ics
.
, ,

chemistry phys i o logy etc Thus arise psychophysics pathol

, ,
.
,

o gy physio lo g ical psychology etc

, ( )
2 The science o f formal ,
.

reasoning is termed L o i c L ogic presupposes psychology etc

g .
,
.

”
F eeli ng As truth is the end of inte llect so is pro
.
,

priety th e heart s chief obj ect This relation gi v es rise to

” ’
.

E stheti cs t he science o f the Beautiful

, ( )
1 The science of d e .

lineation is termed D ra wi ng ( 2 ) The science of constructing .

build i ngs is termed A r chi tectu r e (3) The science of rep re .

sent ing i deals i n stone etc i s termed S cu lp tu r e (4) The ,

.
,
.

science o f representation by means o f form and co lor is termed

P a i n ti ng ( )
5 T.he science o f melody and harmony is terme d

M i si c These sciences generally follow wh i le common knowl

.
,

edge precedes the corresponding A rts ,

.

Wi ll The wi ll is the determin a ti v e element in several sci

.

en ces .
( )
1 T he science o f e v ents is termed H is tory The t w o .

departments o f history are Chro n o logy a nd the P hi losop hy o f

H istory ( )
2 . The science o f m ora l ity is termed E thi cs or ,

Moral P hilosophy .

L a ng u a g e L angu age is the product o f the wh ole m ind

.

rather than of intellect feel ing or w i ll The m ind expresses , ,

.

its ideas thoughts feelings and vol i tions by means o f wor ds

, , , ,

sen ten ces and d i scour se

, ( )
1 The history of w or d s.is termed
E tym o logy P hi lology i n a species o f E tymology
.
( ) The
2 .

science of the physical structure o f words i s te rmed Or thog

ra h
p y .O rthography presupposes etymolo g y etc (3 ) The ,
.
5 0 PRI N CIPL E S A ND M E TH ODS OF T E ACHI N G
u
p to that moment . If the ex p eriences in q u estion are p er

ce ti o n s a perce tion is external ; if they are experiences o f

p p p
consciousness apperception is internal A pperception i s m ore .

common ly termed Generalization though the terms do not ,

denote absolutely the same thing C lassification the group .

,

i n g o f ind ividual s o n the ground o f agreements fo l lo ws gen ,

era li z a t i o n . Complete general i zation i s the u ltimate stage o f

ideation The perfectio n o f the process depends upon the
.

’
perfection o f the m ind s experiences P er fect obser v atio n is .
,

there fore the first requis i te in the de v elopment o f a scien ce

, .

The necessary supplements are memory and imagination .

Th e D i r e c t R e l a t i o n o f I d e a s Comp arison o f ideas fol

.

lo ws ideation and i s termed J udgment as J a m es i s a p up i l , ,

.

In this example the ideas compared were J a m es and p up i l ,

a n d the rel at i on discovered was that o f Identity The Oppo .

site o r negati v e rel ation is termed D i fference The process

, ,
.

generally amounts to the synthes is or classification o f i ndi

v id ua ls o r the analysis of a genus
,
S ometimes however the
.
, ,

subj ect and the pred i cate of a j udg ment have the same extent as , ,

L o n do n is the cap i ta l of E ng la n d The perfection of j udgment

.
,

o r the direct relat ion of ideas de pends u pon the perfect ion o f
,

the ideas compared and the power o f comparison Perfect j udg .

ment is the second requisite in the de v elopment of a science .

S yl l o gi s m S yllogism the derivation o f a j udgment from

.
,

the relati o n o f t wo j udgme nts fol lows s i mple j udgment and

, ,

is the final pro cess of science (1 ) In th i s final process science

.

becomes a system of introductory and ul timate syllogisms .

The introductory syllogism o f science is i ndu cti v e ; the ult i

mate syllogism is dedu cti v e The former process is a transi
.

tion from indiv iduals to the genus ; the second is a passage

from the genus to its individuals S ometimes however the .
, ,

argum ent amounts only to Traduct ion the quantity o f the ,

conclusion bein g the same as that of the orig inal j udgment .

( )
2 The S y l lo g ist i c process o f sc i en ce presupposes certa i n fun
 TH E NA T U R E OF K N OW L E DGE 5 1

da m e nta l though inducti v e j udg m en ts te rmed L aws o f “

Tho u ght because a ll persons without exception are subj ect

,
”

to them in thei r inte llectual operations (3) The perfection o f

.

syllogism dep ends o f course u pon the perfection o f the p rem

, ,

i ses the perfect cognition o f their rel ati on and p erfect o b e

, ,

di ence t o the laws o f thought L ogical p erfection is there

.
,

fore the third req ui site in the development of a science (F o r

, .

a complete descr iption o f the syllogi sm and scienti fic method ,

the student is referred to some te xt book o n L o gic )

-
.

Sp ecific S yllogisti c F ea tu r es of the S ci ences The second p rem

.

i se o f inductions in Mathematics is much stronger than that o f

the natur al and m ental sciences .

( )
1 The second pre m ise in m athematics w ith a few exce , p
tions in a rithmetic p asses from several experienced indiv iduals
,

to the genus and leads to a un iversal co n

,
clusion that reaches
beyond all possible experience and yet the concl usion is ev i
,

den tly val i d because the in di v id u als in v ol v ed are abso l utely

sim ilar by hypo thesiS f When fo r example it has been found
'

, ,

that the sum of the angles o f o ne triangle is t wo ri ght an gles ,

the conclusion that the sum o f the angles of a ny triangle is tw o

right an gles follows ir res istibly because the second premise co n
tai ns the truth that the o n e triangle is a sample o f all trian gles .

( )
2 T he e xperienced indi v id ua ls from w hich the second prem

ise o f natural science inductions passes to the genus are not ,

”
al ways representative individua l s .It follow s that the un i
versal concl us ions at which natural sciences thus arri v e may
someti mes be fallacious The histo ry o f the n at u ral sciences is
.

in great part a record of such conclusions Great experience .

is therefore a requisite in the construction of a natu ral science

, ,
.

( )
3 In the inductions o f the mental sciences the gratu ito us

fa cto r is even m ore trou bleso m e than in the natural sciences ,

the tota ls being id ea ls rather than realities qualities rather ,

than quant ities .

( )
4 In the inductions o f P hilosophy this term being used
,
52 PRI NC IPLE S A ND M E TH ODS OF TE AC HI NG
in the sense of ultimate generalizations the gratui tous facto r ,

o f the s econd premise is the do m inant factor E ncyclopedic .

kno wledge and logical compete ncy are therefore the great , ,

necessities in the construction o f phi losophy .

No te The lines of thought j ust tracked in the description

.

o f the scie n ces are the l i nes o f thought which the nature o f the

m ind requires in their order and they exhaust the possibi lities
,

o f the mind The stupendo u s in ference fo llows that scientific

.
,

conclusions are ofte n rather probable than dem onstrative i e ,

. .
,

an ap eal to faith rather than sigh t

p .

C . C OU R S E S OF S T U D IE S .

The correlation o f the sciences (see S pecies of Knowledge)

and the menta l stages in the develo pment o f a scien ce ( see
the P sychology o f the S ciences) together with the demands ,

o f l ife m u st obviously determine the courses o f st u dies in o ur

,

school s .

”
C o rre l a ti o n In the section o n S pecies of Knowledge
.

the atten t ion o f the reader was called to t he interdependence

o f the sciences In other words it is i mpossible to develop
.
,

any science withou t calling into service many others In .

d eed all the sciences are re lated to each other some what like
,

the members o f the human body so that a ll parts serve all ,

other parts and contribute to the perfection of the whole “

This interesting and importa nt co m munion o f the species o f

knowledge is termed Co rrela ti on Cou rses o f study should .
,

o f course be so planned as to recogn i ze this correlation o f

,

branches .

C o n ce n tr a t i o n S ome branches can be studied to a d v a n

.

tage at earlier per iods i n the pupil s career and others at later ’
,

times a nd these branches as educators be lieve are also the

, , ,

best means of culture at the time Branches i n which imi .

ta tio n and associati on are the most im portan t factors as ,

 TH E N A T U RE OF K N OWLE DGE 5 3

spelling p ronunciation writing etc sho u ld therefore recei v e

, , ,
.

special attention i n the lower grades and those branches i n ,

which the discovery o f relations is the indispensable factor as ,

grammar hi story arithmetic etc sho u ld recei v e special atte n

, , ,
.

”
tion in higher grades The pu rp ose o f such co ncentration
.

o n some branch or group o f branches is obvious it is designed

to be to the advan tage o f the study whil e it catches e ach m en
ta l function at its high tide o f possibility ( E levent h law o f .

m enta l activity
) .

U ti li t y
” ”
A lthough
. correlation and concentration o f
stu d ies sho u ld al ways be the dominant ideas i n the co n
struction o f co u rses o f study the needs o f li fe requ ire that ,

program m es be som ewhat adj usted to m eet the demands o f

o u r times If o ne end in V ie w in ed ucation is equ ipment for
.

life the n ecessary m eans to this end must be in t roduced into

,

o ur schools .

C a t a l o gu e o f S tud i e s The catalogu e o f studies o n page

.

”
5 5 is designed to exhibit the correlation
”
concentration , ,

a nd rac t ical adaptabili t y o f stu dies fo r pupils o f three grad es

p ,

the grades arisi ng from the degrees o f comp lexi ty i n the stu dies
proposed for the respective grades .

E lem enta ry Cou rse The R ep ort o f the Com m ittee o f

.

”
F i fteen being in su bstantial agreement with o ur catalogue
, ,

distributes the branches o f the E lem enta ry Co urse over eight

years (S ee pages 5 6 and
.

E lem enta ry a nd S econ da ry Cou rses It is believed h ow .

,

ever that the Co m mittee fai l s to do j u stice to Nu mbers

,
“ ”
,

S pell in g Books Mental A rithmetic Geometry a nd Manual

, , ,

Training The R eport of the Committee o n S econdary

.

E d ucation i n P ennsyl vania contains a programme o f the

E lementary and the S econdary Courses both very much in ,

harm ony with the present chapter It wi ll ser v e to point out .

the rel ation o f these gra des and is there fore inserted opposite
,

p age 5 8 .
 P R I NCIPLE S A ND ME TH ODS OF TE ACHI NG
Pro gr a m m es . Dr E E
. . . White suggests the excellent pro
gramme g iven o n page 5 8 fo r schools o f three grades . It
satisfies the requ ir em ents o f the p resent chapter, a nd deserv es
thorough m astery .
 TH E NATU RE OF KN OWLE DGE 5 5

EE
E L M NTAR Y CO URS E (6 EO
S C ND A R Y CO URS E (14 U NI V E R S I TY .

Gr a d es .
High S h c oo l . C o ll eg e .

G r Gr
en e al a m m ar .

La ngu g a es .

Lan gu g a e Lesso ns .
P y h l gy
s c o o .

Gr am m a r E n li s g h Cl i ass cs .

h
.

i D i ct o na ry . T eo l o gy .

Arith ti m e c F o rei g n L a n gu g a es .

1 Wri tt. en . Phi l l g y o o .

2 . Men ta l . P y h l gy
s c o o .

g
B e inn e r Alg b r
s
’
e a .

a
N t ural T h l gy
eo o .

Obj ect Lesso ns . High r Ari th

e m e i
t c . p
S eci a l M t ah em a t cs i .

Ph il o so phy of Ma t h e

Ph y i l gys o o . Alg b ra
e .

C l ulu a c s .

G m t ry
eo e

Pl a ne , S oli d , S ph e ri ca l .

Tri g on o m try e .

D r awing . An lyt i l G a ca eo m try e

Phy i l C ltur
s ca u e . G gr ph y
eo a . l i
Na tu ra S c ences .

Ma l Tr ini ng
nu a a .

Bio gr ph y
a .

B i ol og y .

Me te o ro l gyo .

G e ne ral , Un iv e sa r l Phi l phy f Hi t ry

. oso o so .

Ci i v cs . E tc .

E con o m i cs .

E XPL ANA TI N — F or O i
tm e di s tri b tiu o n , se e n ex t pg
a e .
56 PRI NCIPLE S AND M E TH ODS OF T E A CH I NG
 PRINCIPLE S A ND M E TH ODS OF T E ACHI NG

TH RE E GR AD E PROG R AMM E
-
.

Cl
Ti m
osin g
e
Pri m a ry ( ) C . Seco n d a ry ( B ) . Ad v a n ced (A) .

Op en in g Ex r i e c ses .

at W r k
Se o .
! A ri thm eti c .

N mb r ( sl at G graph y
eo
w th b
u e on e or .

i o je cts) .

G graph y eo .

Fo rm Wo r kt k ( pap r G gr ph y
e eo a .

fo ld i n g ,
s ic la y
i ng ,

R e cess .

t a g
S il en R e d i n . Geog r p hy
a . Gr am m ar .

Fo rm W rk (m Gr r
R ea di ng a nd Sp elli ng .

d
m awi g
r' n
o ul d i n g ,
o
,
s a a
n g
am m a .

E xcuse d f r o m h sc oo l . ai
R e d ng .

Noo n I n term i ssi o n .

Fo rm W rk ( l ay m od R ea d i ng
c o
e ll i ng ,p a per cu in g , tt .

S il en t Re d ai n g . at W rk
Se o .
! R ea d i ng .

R ea d i ng a nd Sp el li ng A ma i l Pl a t U S isHy t ry Phy i
t y
. n o r n . . o or s
S ud . o l og .

Wri ti ng 2 or L a ngua ge a Writi ng 2 or L a ngu a ge . . Wri ti ng 2 or L a n gu a g e 8 .

2 50
. R e cess .

Nu m b r ( at sl p
S ell i n g
w th bj t )
i
e
o
on
ec s .
e or .

Dr u/wi n g ,2 S i ngi ng ,2 or or D r a wi ng ? S i ngi ng 2 o r

r
Mo a l I nst u cti o n 1 r . Mo r al I n stru cti m z .
1 r
Mo a l I nstr u cti o n )
,

E xcuse d f r o m h sc ool . Sp elli ng . S pelli n g .

Ari thm ti e c . Sp elli ng .

As pr v i d d f by th
may be o e or e tahre c e

mal l fig r at ri gh t i d i at th mb r aw k
.

N OTEs —
Th e s u es n c e e nu e of l e sso n s ee U ni ted
S t at Hi t ry may b t a g h t th fi r t hal f f th Ph y
.

y
.

es s o e u e s o e sessi o n , a n d si o l og th e se co n d

half ; a h bra h may hav t w l

or e c nc aw e o esso ns ee k On F i d r ay a t th e l s 25 m i n u es t
y b e d v t d t i tru t i i h ygi t mp r ph y i at l hi t ry
.

m a e o e o ns c on n ene , e e a n ce, s cs, n ur a s o , et c.

 EO
S C NDA R Y S CH OO H L — . I GH S CH OO L OR A CAD EMY .

1 3—1 4 .

j no w th e 5 p . a wk . 5 p . a wk . 5 p . a wk . 5 p . a wk .

'
5 p . a wk . 4 p . a wk . 4 p . a wk .

p a L i t e ra zu re , 3 p Li t rat r 3 p ia t ra t r 3 p a t ra t r p a
ar, 3 .

a w
C mp t
l
.

wk
t
e
C mp
u e, . Li
wk
e
C mp i
u e, . Li
wk e
C mp i
u e, 3 .

p a wk ti p a wk ti rammapr a pwka
. o os . o os . o o s
osi i o n , 2 i on , 2
p a wk Rh t r p a
o . . on , 1 . . on , 1 . .

e o i c, 1 G 1
. .

wk .
.

wk .
,
.

Th
b a a
l ng u g e
b w
e
el o
Th a m a wk
e s e l an Th e s am
a d a wk e l a n Th e s am e l a n
wk
g u ge , 4 g u a ge , 4 p
4pa wk
egun
.
,

. S
ll a g e , 4

a p a wk
eac o n
.

l an
.

S e co n
a p a wk
) .

l a n
.

S e co n d
a p
.

.
a

a wkl a n
.

g u ge , 4 . .
gu ge , 4 . .
gu g e , 4 . .

G m Alg r p Al g bra B k Al g bra B k r m

T igon o e try and
a wk b h h r a A g abtra
a , _5
pi g a d k pi g d
eo e . a e or oo e or oo
k ig e l e
C mm r i al C m i l
. ee n n ee n a n
fo r c nd i d
Ari thm ti 2/ Ari thm ti 2%
o e c o m et o a
t es
fo r s c i e n i fi c
p a wk G m p a wk G m h
e c, e c,
sc o o l s
t y 2 / p a wk t y 2% p a wk
. . eo . . eo .

e r , 2 . e r ,
. .

El e c i tv As tro n o my 5 p a Wk 12 Ch m i st ry 5 p a Ph y si cs, 5 p a wk
111 6 8 8 111 6
1 wk s .
e , . .

wk
e
.
, . . .

On e w h h yr
yr p ( ) ic n o t s e cifi e d 5 p ay wk hygb tafo r y a n d z o o lo g y H al f y
( at r ) a a t m y ph y a wk
o n r
p
-
. . . . .

l e in co u se ,
n o ,
si o l o g ,
a nd i en e , 5 . .

a nd
Hi t ry
Ro F r h Hi t ry
3 p a wk
en c s o h
E n gl i s
p a wk
Hi t ry s o , 3 Am ri a Hi t ry
3 p a wk
e c n s o , A
in
a
t v ypr p
s e ci
en si
l
el
e i od
a nd
wk C v v
s o
r
.
, . . . . .
,

1 Go
.

m t p a wk
1
en
1

, 3 .
e n
.

r ap h y g eol o g y m t r l g y a t m p a rt El ec i e t v Mth it yr alr E lec i tPhvy i Grapl hgyy

E
pgh h l r ; p i bl y m r th a
or e eo o o e eo o e eo o
ig , , so e
1
f o gy /
h r l ti a w t y ar
i sc oo co u se o ss o e n o ne o , s e or s og ,

t e e e ec on i s ll o ed .
) o r n ex . e .
 CH A P TE R IV .

P RINCIP L E S OF K N OW L E D G E .

TH E laws accordi ng to which knowledge develop s i n the

mind are termed P ri n cip les of Knowledg e These p ri nciples
,
.

are ascertained by inquiry into the consti tu ti on o f knowledge .

Id e a s a n d N a m e s (L ) The reader may no t know the

.

names o f some p arts o f the pai r o f scissors o n the table before

him an d yet be qui te fa m il iar with the qualities and u ses o f
,

those parts The difficulty of finding words to express certai n

.

ideas is a common experience In the natural co urse o f things .

names are qui te unnecessary in forming ideas and are su b se ,

quently added to ideas to record a nd co m m uni cate them The .

possibility o f writing, speaking and spell i ng words before

_
,

their meanings are known is only an apparent exception to ,

the law exhibited in the foregoing description in s u ch cases

o f spelling etc words are simply so man y sounds m arks
,
.
, , ,

etc and not really names o r si gns o r symbols o f ideas Thu s

.
, .

we infer that I d ea s p r eced e n a m es a nd signs In acco rdance .

with this principle new words should generally be introduced

in connection with the obj ects qu al ities actions and ideas o f , , ,

which they are the names The rule should be : The idea .

first a nd then the name The violation of this simpl e la w has

, .

many penalties .

Id e a s a n d Tru t hs (I L ) The reader had arriv ed at the

.

ideas of which R o se and p la nt are the names before he formed

the j udgment o r thought that a rose i s a plant This j udgment
, ,
.
,

indeed presupposes the formation of the i deas of which it i s

,

composed and was impossi ble prior to the formation o f su ch

,

ideas A ll thou ghts are form ed in the same way No w

. .
,

thoughts that are true are te rm ed Tr uths Th u s it is foun d .

60 P RI NCIPLE S A ND M E TH ODS OF T E A CH I NG
to be a law that The fo r m a ti on o
f fi d ea s p reced es the p r o cess o

a r ri ving a t tru ths A ccording to this principle those ideas

.

w hich mus t be presu pposed in the formati on o f any j udgment ,

o r tho u ght shoul d be develop ed before the atte mpt is m ade to

,

form the j udgm ent in question In other words the rule .

,

should be : Ideas first and then truths The violation o f thi s

,
.

almost se lf ev ident principle has bro u ght i nnum erable woes to

-

p upils o f arith m etic gra m m ar geometry etc

, , , .

C o n cr e t e a n d A b s tra c t I d e a s (III ) Ou r first idea o f . .

su ch qual ities as r edness hardness gratitude etc came to u s

, , ,
.
,

i n connection with beings that were red hard grate ful etc , , ,
.

S uch ideas are te rmed Concrete Ideas In time it becam e .

ossible fo r us to t hink o f redness hardness gratitu de etc

p , , , ,
.

withou t n ecessary reference to obj ects persons etc Ideas , ,

.

which the mind can think and u pon which for the t im e bein g
, , ,

it can dwell w itho u t necessary refere nce to obj ects o f sense ,

etc are te rmed A bstract Ideas The process of arriving at

.
,
.

abstract ide as is al ways the same The la w therefore is that .

, ,

Con cr ete id ea s p r ecede a bstra ct i dea s A ccording to this prin .

ciple abstract ideas resuppose corresponding co ncrete ideas

p
as stepping sto nes It is possible o f course to hav e approx
.
, ,

i m a te ly correct ideas o f qual i t ies that were ne v er experienced

in the concrete provided that these ideas are products of syn
,

thesis analysis etc o f other experiences In a ll such cas es

, ,
.
,
.
,

however the idea s at which the m i nd arrives are l ikely to be

,

v ague and e v en false The rule shou ld be F rom the concrete

.

to the abstract This rule means that it is the instructo r s

.
’

fi rs t duty to dev elo p concrete i d eas in the minds o f h is pup i ls .

The secon d d uty i s to transfor m concrete into abstract i deas .

In th i s proce ss the p u pi l sho u ld not be h urr i ed beyo nd his

ca pability nor should he be allo wed to remain to o lon g in the
,

concrete In the first case th e result is a lways confus ion in

.

the second the resu lt is intellectual sho rtage S in ce general

,
.

i z a t io n the u ltimate stage i n the formation of ideas p resu p

, ,
62 PRI NCIPLE S AND M E T ODS OFH T E ACH I NG
princi p les respectively ; A ccording to this principle o f knowl
ed ge the necessary stages i n the de v el opment o f a general
,

truth as Ma tter ha s weig ht are observati on and induction In

, ,
.

other words the ideas at w hich we arri v e by way o f the senses

,

o r consciousnes s m us t be un ited by di rect comparison into posi

tive o r negat i v e j udgments a s I r o n a i r , etc ha ve weight and

, ,
.
, ,

then the thought that I ron a i r etc ha v e weight must be, ,

.
, ,

taken as true o f all matte r which amoun ts to the conclusi on

,

that A ll m a tter ha s weight P u t i n the form o f a sy llogi s m

.

the argument in question may be stated as follows : Iron a ir , ,

etc . have weight ; Iron air etc are representati v e forms o f

, , ,
.
,

matter ; Therefore all matter has w eight O bservati on and .

induction are complementary processes in the de v elopment o f

general truths ; without the former the process o f general i za ,

tion is i m possible for want o f materials and without the latter ,

o u r thou ghts could not be organized into a system S ince sys .

tem is the end in V iew in the d evelopment o f kno wled ge o b e ,

diene s to the principle in question is o f fundamental im p or

ta nce to te aching F o r a complete explanation of this subj ect
.

Methods st udents must refer to logic

-
.

C a u s e s L a w s a n d C l a s s e s (VI ) The reader will re

, , . .

member that amon g the earliest interests o f his life was the
interest in ca u ses o r powers The questions which children
, .

ask along this line are legion L a ws o r the in v ariable b e.

, ,

hav ior o f causes is probably the most common subsequent i n

,

terest In other words adults as well as children do n o t only

.
,

des i re to know why a thing exists in the form in which it does

exist but also whether it w ill always be so Thus for exam .
,

ple they wish to know why the A utumn leav es fall and then
, ,

whether they will fall eve ry A utumn The desire to g r o up .

ind ividuals on the ground of essential resemblance s and di ffer

en ces generally follo w s in te rest in causes and law s It is true .

that the habi t of grou ping obj ects and e v ents o n the ground
o f sensible and practical resemblances and di fferences may be
 PRI NC IPLE S OF K NOWLE DGE 63

d eveloped very early in life b u t such con v eni ent classification

,

i gnores the essential resembl ances o f cause and la w That .

the natural order o f inqu i ry into causes l aws and sci entific , ,

classes is the o ne j ust presented is plainly confirmed by the

, ,

fact that the ancien ts early made inquir ies after the causes in
natural philosophy a nd as tronomy wh i le the attempt to a scer
,
”
ta in the laws is o f much m ore recent date and by the fact ,

that the scientific classifications o f N atural H istory are much

more recent t han those o f N atural P hi losophy A stronomy , ,

etc.
”
Thus w e find that Ca uses la ws a nd cla sses for m a
, , ,

n a tur a l seri es for the m i n d The relation o f causes law s and

.
, ,

classes makes the order j ust presented a logical order In

,
.

othe r words a knowledge o f law (inv ariabl e behavior o f a

,

cause) presupposes the study o f causes under many a n d vari

o u s cond i tions and this study requires t i me
,
M oreo v er sci en .
,

ti fic classes consist o f indi v iduals whose causes and la ws as

well as other properties are th e same in nature so that a ,

kno wledge o f causes and laws is presupposed F o r the com .

p l ete method o f proving cau ses laws and scientific classes see
, , ,

logic .

A ccordin g to the principle j ust stated the study o f causes ,

should gen eral ly precede that o f laws and the study of se ien ,

ti fic cl asses should come last There are cases how ever where
.
, ,

the la w wi ll present itself to the mind before the cause and ,

the class before the laws a nd causes Th i s is especially true .

” “
o f cause law and cl a ss o f positive and m ech a n ica
, , ,

ca ses . It is general ly best to dev elop causes and laws to

ether classes being taken up somewh a t later Th i s has b e
g ,
.

co m e the rule for example in taking up history and physics

, ,

before biology .

O r d e r o f F a c t s o f S ci e n c e s ( VII ) A
. l l sciences (P sy .

ch o lo
gy o f the S ciences ) are syllogistic processes The prem .

i ses howe v er do not have the same so u r ces

, , ( )
1 In t h e .

n atu ral sciences and mathematics observation is perceptiv e

, ,
64 PRI NCIPLE S A ND M E T H ODS OF TE ACH I NG
whereas i t is introspecti ve in the mental sci ences i e in those ,
. .
,

based upon consci ousness (2 ) The abstractions o f the natu

.

r al sciences and mathema t i cs i e the ideas o f space n umber

,
. .
, , ,

time equal ity etc are comparat i v ely near the concrete and
, ,
.
, ,

therefore read il y real ized ; but the abstracti ons of the men tal
sci ences especially o f ethics and aesthetics are idealities i e
, , ,
. .
,

they cannot be com plete ly realized (3) Moreo v er the ele .

,

mentary thoughts (prem ises) Of the mental sciences W hose ,

logical subj ect is some experience Of sense o r consciousness ,

and Whose logical predicate is some abstract concept are less ,

inevitable in t he m ental sc iences than in the natur al sciences

and mathematics Thus we conclude that The fa cts of the
.

n a tu ra l sci en ces a n d m a them a ti cs p r eced e those of the m enta l

sci en ces
. A ccordi ng to th i s pri nci ple the course o f e lementary
schools shou ld begin with Obj ect lessons and n u mbers together
w ith so much language art history etc as can be mastered
, , ,
.
,

by the ch i ld .

O r d e r o f P ri n c i pl e s o f S ci e n ces (VIII ) The great

. .

tr uths of mathematics were known to the ancients The na t .

ural sciences have only late ly begun to mature S ome Of the .

mental sciences are even now only in their in fancy Th i s .

order stand s o u t as the la w o f the science s which may be ,

stated as fo llows : The p r i ncip les of m a them a tics p recede those

o
f the na tu r a l a n d the m enta l sci en ces The rela tio n o f the
.

sciences (see chapte r o n The Nature o f Knowledge) m a kes the

order j ust state d a logical nece ssi ty ( 1 ) The natural sciences
cannot be completely de v eloped without mathematics a nd (2 ) ‘

The higher mental sciences presuppose a thorou gh kno wledge

o f mat hemat i cs a n d natura l sciences This concl usion is also
.

suppo rted by the fact that the second premise (see P sychology
o f the S ciences of the ma thematical sy llogi s m con tains noth
)
i ng gratuitous whereas t hat of the natural and the mental
,

sc iences does This gratu i to u s factor is most d iffi cult to deal

.

wi th in the m ental sciences A ccord ing to th i s principle of

.
 P RI NCIPL E S OF K N OWL E DGE 65

k nowledge m athematics should be m ade fundamental in higher

education L ogic should follow for althou gh it is a menta l
.
, ,

science it is the ind ispensable preparation for syste matic think

,

ing i n the natural sciences A course in physics chemistry .

, ,

biology etc should p recede systematic inquiry into the higher

,
.
,

m ental scien ces .

P hi l o s o ph y ( I X ) M as te r minds o f all ages have tried

. .

to arrive at the u ltimate principles o f the phys i cal and moral

un iv erse In these attempts it was often necessary to criticise
.

the methods and conclusions Of the science s Critical inquiry .

into th e possibility certa i nty and limits o f knowled ge was

, , ,

the task o f the sceptical Kant Modern philosophy inquires .

i nto the postulates o f the vari ous sciences as well as into the
principles at which these sciences arrive The truths at which .

the particular sci ences hav e admittedly arri v ed are then syn
thetically summ ed u p into ultimate principles the p u rpose ,

being to construct a system in which the phenomena Of matter

and mind are found td b eth e creative and regu lati v e m a n i fes
ta t io n s o f the O ne ne v er sel f contrad icting and F irst C ause
-

Go d This complex syl logistic method is termed P hi losop hy

. .

It is accordingly an abstract speculative task and o ne w hich , ,

presupposes cyclopedic kno wledge together with great logical

ability Thus we conclude that P hi losop hy p resupp oses the
.

sci en ces A ccording to this princip l e o f knowledge p h i lo so

.
,

phy shou ld come last i n a course o f studies In m ost cases a .

thorough college co u rse should constitute the preparatory train

m
g .

C o rr e l a ti o n o f S ci e n c e s (X ) The study Of a ny branch

. .

Of knowled ge both p resupposes and leads up to other branches ,

so that it seems absolutely impossible to isolate any S pecies o f

knowledge fro m any other (S ee Correlation . This genetic .
’

con tact o f the v ariou s species o f know ledge is ably discussed

by D r A rnold Tompkins in h i s P hilosophy o f Teaching
.
, ,
“ ”
and by The Committee o f F i fteen The great truth he re .

5
66 PRI NCIPLE S A ND M E TH ODS OF TE ACH I NG
in question is recognized in the group system Of studies as
”
offered by colleges in o u r days The eclectic cou rses offered
.

by several noted institutions are also based upon the partial

recogniti on of the principle which m ay be state d as follows
,

The v a ri o us sp eci es of knowledg e a re correla te .

A ccord i ng t o this p rin cipl e the daily p rogramme Of all

”

g rades Of schools sho u l d bring the

p up i l in contact with nat
ural sciences m athematics and mental sciences The prin
, , .

”
ci le o f
p correlati on (see P rinciples o f Culture) m ust o f ,

course determine lar gely what the branches S hall be This

, .

principle reaches its l i m i ts i n the uni v ersity where after a

, ,

general course the student may wish to make some field o f

,

kno wled ge a specialty (concentration) but even this speci a l

,

course cannot be pursued to the best advantage un less the

student has passed through a correlated general cou rse The .

principle also finds its l i m i ts in technical a nd p ro fessional

school s w here it m u st Often be abandoned for practical and
,

economical reasons‘

.
 P R INCIPLE S OF I NST RU CTI ON 67

CH A P TE R V .

P RI NCIP L E S OF N
I ST U TIO R C N .

TH INGS done fo r the pu pil s in crease o f k nowled ge are

,
’
,

termed Instruction from the L atin words i n into and stru o

, , , ,

I build The instru ctor accordingly is a b u ilder o f ideas

.
, ,

and tho u ght and his world is the p u pil s intellect A nd yet
s
,
’
.

he is a bu i lder only i n so fa r as he causes the pu pil him self to

bui ld (S ee prin ciple I N ature Of E ducation ) When in
. .
,
.
,

supervising the acti v ity o f learners the teacher becomes the ,

best stimulus and gu ide he is the i dea l instru ctor (S ee prin

,
.

ci ple II Nature o f E ducation ) A lthough instru ct ion sin ce

.
,
.
,

its ends are purely intellectual is not coextensi v e with cu lture

, ,

whose ends are emotional and voli tional as well as inte llectual ,

cu ltu re should ne v ertheless always be one resu lt o f instruction .

I n this work o f instr u ction as well as in that Of cu ltu re the

, ,

teacher m ust conform w ith ce rt ai n laws to which as we learn , ,

from the nat ure of cu lture and knowl edge the development Of ,

ideas and thoughts is subj ect The general truths in qu estion.

ar e ter m ed P ri n cip les of I nstr u cti o n .

A d a p ta ti o n o f Le s s o n s (I ) The p u pil who m ust over

. .

work himself again and again in learn ing lessons as happens ,

when promotions are premature is in d anger o f stu nting the ,

fu nctions used i n his efforts and m ay become a total dwarf .

The pupil who tries hard but fails agai n and agai n to maste r
,

lessons assi gned to h im is in danger Of losi ng faith in his

,

powers o r co m es to bel ieve that his tea cher lacks sense in

,

assigning lessons O ther bad results may follow Thus we

. .

conclude that the learn er sho u ld no t be tried beyond his present

p o w ers .

O n the other hand the pupil who is not requ ired to put
,
68 PR INCIPLE S A ND M E TH ODS OF TE ACHI N G
forth vigorou s effo rts in learn in g the lessons assigned to him ,

will soo n co m e to consider hi m self smart and waste his leisu re ,

time in misch ief o r else leave the school in disgust It fo l

, .

lows that the learn er sh oul d exert him self u p to his capacity
and in harm ony with the stage o f his development (S ee chap .

ter o n L aws o f Mental A cti v i ty ) A fter ascertaining as nearly

.

as possible what the pupil can learn the instru ctor should ,

assign s u ch lessons and make su ch promotion s as are exactly

suited to the present powers Of the learner I n short The .
,

i stru cti on o ug ht to be a dj usted to the

m a tter o
f n p r esent p owers
o
f the lea rn er .

In order to find o u t j u st what is to be expected o f the

learner inquiry must be made i nto his a ge tal ents habits
, , , ,

peculiarities previou s ad vantages etc and then he must be

, ,
.
,

tried o n tentativ e lessons If the pupil is responsi v e and suc

.

cessfu l when thus tried the instru ctor need n o t hes itate to
,

proceed .

S u c ce s s m n o f L e s s o n s ( )
II P erceptio
. n pres u pposes sen
.

sation and consciousness abstraction presupposes perception

, ,

generalization (conception) presu pposes abstraction j udgment ,

presu pposes ideation syl logism presupposes j udgment etc In

, ,
.

sho rt we see that the progressi ve route o f thou ght begins with
,

sensation and ends in syllogism (S ee the L aws Of Mental .

A cti v ity ) But the mind also tends to traverse a regressi v e

.

route the direct Opposite o f the progressive steps This regres

,
.

sive activity is necessary to assure the mind o f the gro u nds

upon which i ts ad v ances were based and i n order to give
greate r and better content to each progressi v e step .

It must therefore be inferred that concrete lessons should

, ,

precede abstract lessons and that abstract lessons should be

,

reinforced when necessary by reverse reference to the concrete ;

that whol es should be decomposed and parts composed into ,

wholes ; that particular truths should be fused into general

truths and that general truths should be realized in particular
, ,
70 P R I NC I P IJJ‘JS AND M ET HODS T E ACH I NG
’ ’

OF

of m ental activi ty) is subj ec t t o the la w o f summation o f

'
s timu li a nd a s may b e observed in all t he a lla i rs of li fe i n
, , ,

te re s t is the mos t powe r ful stimul us bot h to mental and

ph ys ical act i v i ty A n in te rest ing tas k is light ; i nteres ting
.

lines of though t a re alm o st i rresistib le That lesson is m ost .

l ik e ly to be stud ied which is m os t in te res ting to t he pu pi l .

In de ed it wi l l not only be commi tted to me m ory b u t also d e

, ,

v e lo ped i n the u n d e rstan d in g and absor b ed into the characte r .

It is al m os t im possible to study a lesson that i s not interest

i ng ; i n the abse n ce of interest the will o f t he lea rne r is wea k
and even rebellious and that to o a t times i n spite o f d u ty o r
, , , ,

ent reaty The pupil m ay be com pe ll ed to re peat t he wo rd s

.

un ti l he ca n reci te the lesso n b u t tha t is me chanical associ a

,

tion and the result exce p t where such associatio n is the essen
, ,

ti a l thin g as in s pe lling o r committing ext racts is o f l i ttle

, ,

valu e if no t an actual inj ury to the mind

,
.

Thus we see t he im portance o f en listing the pupil s inte rest ’

i n his lessons The lesson s mus t the re f ore be ad apte d as

.

exa ctly as possible to the learner s p resent powers a nd to ’

the lo gica l n ee d s o f h is p re sen t u nde rstan d ing ( F i rs t a nd

S econd Princi ples o f I nst ructio n) for a pa rt fro m such a da pta
tion s th e y a re not i nte restin g as a rule Wh en a ll thi s has .

been do ne i t may s til l be n ece ssa ry t o lead the lea rn e r to d is

,

e e rn som e d is tinct s o me ultima te wo rth i n the se le ssons which

, ,

i n s pi te o f a da pta ti o ns to his n ee d s d o no t ha v e any i ntrins ic ,

wo rth tb r h is p rese n t judg m ent a nd mood All these adj us t .

m ents and pre pa rati o n s should be made i n the ass ignment o f

l essons I n sh o rt The p o ssibi lity of i nteres ti ng the lea rner i s to
.
,

be co ns id er ed i n d eterm i ni ng wha t i nstru cti o n to g i v e .

N e e d s o f t h e W h o l e Pu il ( I V ) Th p
ree requ i rements
. .

a s to m a tte r o f inst ructi o n ha v e bee n noticed ( 1 ) The m a t

t he
te r o f in s truc tio n ou gh t to b e adj usted to the p resent powers
o f the pu il
p ( )
2 The le a rne r i s to be condu cted fro m
. his
p resen t knowle d g e to tha t which is i n lo g ical re la ti o n with it .
 PRI NCIPLE S OF I NSTR UCT I ON 71

(3) The po ssi bility of in te resting the pupi l is to b e co n sidered

in d e te rminin g what i ns t ructio n t o g i ve Bu t t he functiona l .

d eve lopment o f the pu pi l as we ll a s the lo g ica l j unct ion o f the

,

lessons t o be learn ed and t he in te res t take n i n these les sons ,

wi ll have ulte rio r co ns eq uence s of the m o st t rem endous s ig nifi

cance in re ligious moral p ra ctica l a sthe tic and phy sica l m a t
, , ,
e

te rs In o ther words the s uperio r and ul tima te p ros pe rity o f

.
,

the who le p upi l is a ffec ted by the ( p u rse o f s t udies u pon which
he occupies hi s mind Th is is the fu ndamen tal pres umptio n
.

o f educa t ion Thus we see the i m po rta nre of taki ng into ao

.

count all the need s o f the p upil in choosin g a c ourse of less ons
for him The p ro pe r questio ns for the i ns t ruc to r are there
.

fore as f l lows : (1 ) Wi th what Obj ects a re the sen ses o f the

o

p upil to be o ccup ied ? (2) With wha t conte nts is t he mem o ry

to be filled ? ( ) p
3 U o n what m a te ria l s shou ld i m a g ination

Operate ? (4) F ro m what m as s of expe rience s should the

mind cull its conce pts ? ( 5 ) Wi thi n wha t d omain practica l , ,

m ora l reli gi ous etc

,
sh o uld t he u nd e rstand ing try to m gn ize
,
.
,

rela tions ? I n sho rt The n eeds of the who le p up i l a r e to be

,

Ri gh t M et h o d of I n s tru ct i o n
) It is one thin g t
. o
(V .

settl e wha t instruction o u ght to be g iven and q u i t e an o th er ,

thin g to settle wha t the m etho d o f inst ruct io n ou ght t o be .

B ut i f it is t rue that the l earner ught to b e c on d u cte d fro m

o

his prese nt kno wled ge to that whic h is i n log ica l relati o n wi th

it (S ew nd P rinciple of Ins t ruct ion ) th en i t is e v i d e nt enough ,

that the log i cal j unct ion whate ve r it m a y be which exis ts

, ,

b e t ween that which is known and that which is t o be lea rna l ,

m us t be the trans i tion t o be required of t he learn er .

The logical trend (see the Seco nd P rinci ple of Inst ruction )
is from the whole to i ts pa rt s as in a s p ke n word and i ts
,
o

sounds or a se ntcnrx: and its eleme nts fro m the pa rts to the
,

whole a s in sente nce co nstruct ion or ad di tion

,
fro m the co n
crete to the abstrac t as in gce gra phy or ari th m etic ; from t he
,
72 P RI NCIPLE S AND ME TH ODS OF TE ACH I N G
abstract to the concrete as in readin g or algebra ; from the
,

simple to the complex as in generalization and classification

,

from the particu lar to the general as in learning causes laws , , ,

conditions etc throu gh obser v ation and hypothesis fro m the

,
.

general to the part icular as in working proble m s according to

,

rule o r in obedience to laws ; from pract ice to theory as in

, ,

explaining processes or j ustifyin g courses o f action from the

,

o ry to practice as in the app l icatio n o f philosophy o r science

,

to the tasks o f li fe A ccordin gly we conclude that analysis

.

and Synthesis inducti on and deduction are the essential form s

, ,

of instruction It is deemed o f the u tmost importance to

.

requ ire the pu pils to take these steps as the necessity of the
cas e may dictate and always with due inqu iry into the abil ity
,

and interest o f the learner (S ee F irst and Third P rinciples

.

of Instruction ) The m ind developed in accordance w ith this

.

law wil l a ttain not on ly to exte n sive knowled ge but to the ,

highest w isdom A ccordingly The logi ca l r ela ti on of tha t

.
,

whi ch i s kn own to tha t whi ch i s to be lea rned d eter m i nes the tru e
m etho d o f i nstru cti on .

R i gh t M e nt a l A c t i v i t y i n I n s tr u c ti o n (VI ) That which. .

is required o f pup i ls in preparing a lesson a nd reciting it, does ~

not general ly necessitate the employment o f these functions

which ought to be employed (1 ) Many teachers do n o t make
.

it necessary for their pup i ls to use their imagination and under

stand ing in studying and reciting a read ing lesson (2) To o .

much oral spel ling is al lowed see i ng that the eye a nd hand are
,

the better med ia of memory i n spelling S uch a thing as i n .

!

d uct i v e thinking in learn i ng to spel l is almost u nknown and ,

yet that is essential to highest attainments in S pelling (3) .

Writing is taught without strong appeal to the pupi l s sense ’

o f the appropriate and the beautifu l The will is s eldom re

.

quired to put forth its best efforts i n penmanship and yet that ,

is in nine cases o u t o f ten the s u rest road to success with the

pen (4) A parrot like repetition o f the text is ofte n a ll that
.
-
 PRIN CIPLE S OF INST RU CTI ON 73

is requ ired o f pu pils in geography whereas Observation i m ag

, ,

i na t io n and reasoning are of t he highest importance

, ( ) The
5 .

same folly is common in teachers o f h istory and comp osition .

( )
6 P u pi l s are allowed t o commit g rammar g eometry etc , ,
.
,

whereas observatio n j udgment and all the m odes o f reasoning

, ,

are essential .

The results inte llectual moral and practical are deplorable

, , , ,
.

The teacher that knows no be tter o r know ing bette r fail s to

, , ,

do bette r is e v idently ou t o f p l ace i n the school room In

,
-
.

order to improve the functions o f the pupil as a whole and ,

to instr u ct him in the hi ghest sense t he teacher must require ,

o f hi m that study and those te sts whic h necessitate the most

appropriate and the most essential mental activi ty In other .

words The m etho d of i nstru cti o n sho u ld necessi ta te i n lea rners

,

the em p loym ent of those m en ta l fu n cti ons whi ch o ught to be

em lo ed i n lea rni ng tha t whi ch i s to be lea rn ed
p y .

C u l t u r e o f In s tru ct i o n (VII ) In learni n g anything

. .
“

there are t wo points t o be considered ; 1 st the ad v antage we ,

shall find from knowing that subj ect or hav ing that S kill and ,

2 d the e ffect w hi ch the study o f that s u bj ect o r practising for

,
”
that skill will hav e o n the m i nd o r body The latter co nsid .

cration is regarded o f p rimary i m po rtance in edu cation But .

it does not fo llow that a course o f instruction even if it em ,

ploys the functions which ought to be e m ployed improves ,

those fu ncti ons to the utmost limit A nd this fail u re is due .

to improper employment o f the functions in ques tion When .

,

for example the senses are not required to be used with i n

,

t erest and attention o r the m emory is only mechan ical associa

,

tion or j u dgm ent goes unchallenged o r reasoning is deductive

, ,

when it should be i nductive and v i ce v ersa the results will of ,

co u rse be disappointin g In such cases the pu pil w ill not

.

g ain stren g th nor bette

,
r his habits and inte res t s and his ,

grandest possibilities m a y be destroyed o r go un u sed It is .

on ly when functions are employed in acco rdance wi th the la ws

74 P RI NCIPLE S A ND M E TH ODS OF TE A CH IN G
o n Methods o f C ultur e
of p sych i c acti v ity ( see the chapter )
that they impro v e as they can an d should improve A cco rd .

i ngly The m etho ds of i ns tructi o n sho u ld necessi ta te such em p lo y

,

m en t of fu n cti o ns a s d u ly i m p r ov es them .

E m a nc i p a t i o n i n I n s tru c t i o n ( VIII ) A time

. sho ul d .

come when a learner may be safely put i n charge o f hi mself ,

a tim e when he ought to ta ke h i s o wn destiny in to h is o wn

han d a time when he may become at least o n e o f his teachers
, ,

and t hat a most effecti v e one (S ee the Third General P rin

.

ci ple of E duca tion

) In
. order that this po int in th e dev e l op

ment of the pup i l may be reached he mus t be required to ,

study as he shou ld study until it becomes h is establ ished habit

to s tudy i n that way and unt i l h is in t erests as we l l as his
,

po wer are such as to w arrant his emanc ipati on from an in

,

stru cto r s authorita tive tutelage I n other words The m etho d

’
.
,

o
f i nstru cti on shou ld tend to free the lea rner fr om the necessi ty

o
f p su erv i si o n But w h.at are the hab i ts and methods and
moods of study that sho uld be c ul tiv ated in the pup i l in order
that he may attain freedom from an i nstructor s authori ty and ’

super v ision ? These hab its etc hav e been indicated i n the
,
.
,

chapters on Methods o f Cu lture and P rinciples of Instru o

t ion To these chapters the re ader is expected to refer F o re
. .

most among other things it should be required of l earners to

be observant earnest accur ate i nd us trious reflect ive and
, , , , ,

syste mati c .

Sp e ci fi c M e tho d s o f In s tru ct i o n (I X ) The public . .

schools dare not forget that in general at least their mi ssion

is practical as well as cu ltural b u t i t is no t to be required
,

Of them nor to any gr eat exten t o f the co lleges to train

, , ,

d irectly for special professions arts or d esti nies ,

The latter ,
.

training is the professed an d essential mission o f technical

schoo ls .

In tec hnica l schools i t is a duty to do whatev er can be do ne

to fit the pup i l for specific vocati ons A ccordingly, the co u rse
.
 P RI N CIPLE S or I N S T RU CT IO N 75

of stu dy a nd the methods o f instruction as well as those o f ,

culture are to be adapte d to the ends in view The m ethods

, .

o f instruction in part i cu l ar ou ht to necessitate in learners the

g
formation of those hab it s and moods which w ill be o f m ost
ser v i ce i n specific v ocations In some v oca ti ons the g reat need
.

is skill in analyzin g ; i n others it is ski ll in synthesi s o r in ,

d uc t ion o r deduc ti on o r a number of these p erhaps all o f

, , ,

them In many occupations the work is concrete ; in others

.

it is more abstract In some art s earnestness o r ind u stry is

.

m ost necessary in o thers syste m o r acc u racy Thu s Sp ecific

, .
,

metho ds of i n str ucti o n a re to be em p loyed i n fitti ng p up i ls for

s eci c v o ca ti o ns
p fi .

I d e a l I n s tru c t i o n (X ) Ideation as psychology teaches

. .
, ,

begins in pe rception if things as p l an ts b i rds etc are the

, , , ,
.
,

obj ects of thought and in co nsciousness if self is the obj ect

,
”
,

i n question In abstract ion external and in terna l qu al ities as

.
,

solidity con scientious ness etc become the obj ects o f thou ght
, ,
.
, .

A bstraction accordingly is the second stage o f ideation

, ,
The .

third and final stage o f i d eat ion is the cumulative process ,

commonly term ed general ization by w hich the mind builds ,

obj ect concepts as v ertebrate s emotions etc and quality

-

, , ,
.
,

concepts as transparency intensity etc If the mass o f ex

, , ,
.

p e ri en ces o u t o f which obj ect concepts and q u ality co ncepts

- -

are for m ed is acqui red through perception together w ith mem

or
y generalization is te r m ed ex ternal appe rception b u t if the
, ,

origin o f the experiences in quest ion is consci ousness general ,

i z a ti o n may be te rmed i nternal apperception In this com .

p le te process of ideation memory preser v es and

,
imagination
enlarges experience D irect compari son o r j udgment i s essen
.
, ,

tial to abstractio n o r analytic atte ntion while indirect com

, ,

parison o r rea son i ng although apparently absent i n m any

, ,

cases is al ways essential to generaliza tion o r synthetic atten

, ,

tion .

By direct relation o r j udgment ideas become the su bj ects

, ,
 6 P RI NC IPLE S A ND M E T H ODS OF TE ACH I NG
and predicates o f logical j udgm ents and j udgments conta ini ng
,
”
midd le terms become premises of syllogism o r indirec t re ,

lation the inductive syllogism end ing in opinion o r t ruth tha t

,

m ust in turn become the po i nt of departure for many practical

deductions as r ules and method s No science o r philosophy
,
.

has ever bee n de v eloped in any other way no r given bi rth to ,

any art by any other process .

The series to whi ch attention has been called exhausts as , ,

p sycholo g y shows ,
the possib i l ities o f the human intel lect To .

complete the series shou ld therefore be the end in v iew in i n

struction This requirement harmonizes with the principles
.

o f correlation concentration and know l edge and it cannot be

, , ,

inconsistent with the demands o f l ife unless l ife and mind be ,

contradictions In this treatise the t erm observat ion will be

.

u sed to desi nate ideat i on in connect i on with d i rect relation o f

g
ideas Induction and deduction according to the fi fth prin
.
,

ci l e o f knowledge are the successive phases o f indirect rela

p ,

ti on o f ideas A ccordingly The su ccessi ve r equ i r em ents of

.
,

i dea l i nstru cti on a r e o bserv a ti o n i ndu cti on a nd d edu cti o n

, ,
This .

m ethod o f instruction is someti m es cal led s ch o lo i ca

p y g
”
because it satisfies m ental requ irements and scientific b e , ,

cause the end i n V iew is compl ete knowledge .

 ME TH OD S OF M E N TA L C U LT U R E 79

CH A P TE R I .

M E TH OD S o r M E NTA L CU L TU R E .

I N o ur inquiry into the nature o f education and the pri nci

ples o f culture it was fou nd that S E L F A CTIV ITY was the
,
-

basis o f education but that S TI MU L U S and RE IN F ORCE ME NTS

,

were necessary supplements o f self activity Ideal methods -

o f culture m us t satisfy these requirements It is proposed .

,

therefore to poi nt out i n this chapter the requ ired means in

,

the cultivatio n o f the intellect sensibility and wil l and to , , ,

show how these m ean s m a y be made most effective .

P e r ce p t i o n The appropriate mean s in cu ltivating percep

.

ti v e power and right perceptive habits are as follows

1 Ther e m ust be g en er a l a nd ha bi tua l observ a ti o n
. Me ntal .

acti v ity begins in th e sen ses The little o nes are all ear and
'
.

eye and hand This fervent inqu isitiv eness of childhood alas
.
, ,

to o often ceases when childhood ceases There i s to o much .

ca price i n o u r u se o f the senses M ost peopl e see and hear .

only what they cannot avoid E ducation shou ld lead u s to .

look all around over head and under foot into cre v ices
, , ,

everyw here except where looki n g would be sin o r e v il This .

is what is meant when it is said that observation sho u ld be

general Then too obser v ing should become a habit with u s
.
, , ,

i e we ought to make observing a business rather than a m a t

. .
,

ter o f fits and sta rts It is in this business wa y that the min d
.
-

m u st get its necessary stock o f concrete ideas .

2 . There m ust be frequ ent a nd well p la n ned

-
o bserv a ti on les
son s There are daily Opportunities for these lessons thou gh
.
,

they m a y be given less ofte n according to circ u mstances ,

.

They should be lessons o n F orm Color P arts Qu alities and , , , ,

o n the E lements of M ineralogy Botan y Zo ology and P hysi , , ,

30 PRI NC IPL E S AN D M ETHOD S OF TE A CHI NG
ology S ome lesson s o n Chemi stry a n d Natur al P hilosophy
.

are very m uch in place These lessons sho u ld always be

.

suite d to the sta ges of the child s dev elop ment Moreo v er ’
.
,

they should by all m eans be interesting in structive and ben , ,

e fici a l lessons .

3 The o bjects stu di ed shou ld be descri bed a nd sketched ifp o s

.

si ble . If at first ch i ldren happen to be timid they S hould be ,

assisted in describing and sketching In a sho rt time pupils .

will take cou rage and e nj oy these exercises It i s only whe n .

chi ldren are required to describe and sketch obj ects that exact
and industrious Observ ation w i l l become a sol i d habit .

M e m o r y In order to de v elop me m ory in p upils the

.
,

teacher sho uld observe the fo llowing suggestions :

1 D ev elop r ea l i nterest i n tha t whi ch i s to be c om m i tted
. .

The men t al excitement denoted by the te rm interest is at the

same time a nervous excitement and fo r that rea son results in ,

definite neurosis This explains why i nteresting facts are so

.

easily retained and so completely recalled at pleasure A o .

co rd i ngly if that w hich is to be committed happens not to be

,

inte resting in itself as in the case of the m u l tiplication tabl e

,

o r spelling it is the teacher s b u siness to put interest into it

’
, ,

as when he points o u t to pupils the convenience of the m u lti

plication table o r the necessi ty of o rthography The teacher .

wi ll be able to m ake many u ninviting lessons interesting ,

sometimes through ill u stration som etimes by argu ment or ex ,

planation and sometimes by personal enthusiasm o r moral

,

influence .

2 D ev elop tru e a ttenti o n

. When the work to be d one by
.

m emory is inte restin g the mind becomes att enti v e o f i ts o wn

,

accord But in m any cases pupils must be required to co m

.

m i t and reproduce facts that are far from bein inte resting
g .

Then to o e v en interesting facts do not adhere to m emory

, ,

when they come i n too g reat numbers or too rapidly In su ch .

cases voluntary effort must be put forth in commit ti ng an d

 M ET HOD S OF M E N TA L C U L TU R E 81

recal li ng The stro ngest effo rt usually results i n the m ost

.

definite neu rosis and thus in the best m e m ory A ccordi ngly
,
.
,
’
it becomes the teacher s business to cultivate concentration in
his pupils n o t its semblance but the v ery thing itself H e
, ,
.

can do this in v ario u s ways but especial ly through his o wn

,

example as well as through tasks i n which such concentration

,

is essential .

3 R equi re frequ ent r ep eti ti o n

. Words and facts co m
.

”
m i t ted to m emory do not by this committal beco m e posses
sions o r contents o f which the mind continues to be conscious
in an unbroken stream from the moment o f their co m mit
ment but the act of committing affects more o r less perma
,

n en tly the nervous apparatus which is in the employ o f

m emory . It is through rev i v al of these former neu ral a cti v i

ti es that the mind i n its present j unction with the body m u st
“ ”
arri v e at second ed i tion s o f i ts former contents i e at a ,
. .
,

repetition of its former acti v ities This psychic repetitio n is

.

” ”
either simple remembrance o r recollection the former ,

bei n g a rev i v al without voluntary effort the latter a v o lu n ,

tary o ne F o r the degree o f its success this mental repe

.

tition m u st obviously depend o n t wo conditions : (1 ) H o w

thoroughly was the nervous apparatus affected in com mitting ?
and (2 ) H o w sec u rely hav e these imprints o n the nervou s
apparatus been retained
Thus it appears that words and facts which are n o t to be
forgotte n must be repeated again and again with most faithful
persev erance first at short inter v als of time and then at longer
, ,

inte rv als Indeed these repetitions o r rev iews o u ght to be

.
, , ,

so frequent as to result i n neural ownership or habit i e a , ,

. .
,

pers i stent possession in the nerv ou s apparatus through which

alone in the present j unction o f body and mind memory is
, ,

possible In that event reco llection and recogni tion will be

.

an easy revi v al in conscio u sness through the medium o f easy

n eu rosis . Thus for students who will put fo rt h v igorous and
,

6
82 PRI N CIPLE S AND M E TH ODS OF TE A CH I NG

p ersevering e fforts it i s possible to master vocabul ari es de

, ,

clen s io n s i nflections i d i oms extracts rules pri ncipl es etc

, , , , , , .

A ccordingly i n the cultiv ation of memory it is o f the utmost

,

importa n ce to requ i re frequent repet ition .

4 H a v e p up i ls co m m i t m a ny extr a cts of p rose a n d p o etr

y
.
.

It is imposs ible to name a function o f body or m i nd that does

not improve through appropriate exerci se It cannot be .

prov e d that memory is an exception to this ru le Indeed .

,

obser v ation and experience go to sho w that among the func

tions o f the m i n d none is more capable o f i m provement
th rough exercise than m emory Inasmuch then as exercise .
, ,

is to be g i v en to memory it is well for obv ious reasons to

,

select such tasks as m a y indirectly promote practical moral , ,

and aesthetic un d erstand i ng and language as w el l as m emory

, , .

This wi ll be h i tting t wo bi rd s with one stone A ccordingly .

,

pupi ls should be requi red to commit m any extracts o f prose

a n d poetry These extracts shou ld be ad apted to the chi ld s ’
.

stage o f development— especially to his understand ing— a n d

they ought to be such as w i ll serv e no t only to fix l inguistic
moulds fo r the ch i ld but al so true v ie ws of life and destiny
,

5 H elp the chi ld find the b est co hesi ons i n co m m i tti ng

. It is .

o f the highest importance to understand that w hich is to be

committed In that case words and facts wi ll cohere more

.

effectually i n consciousness and thei r impri nts in the nerv ous

,

apparatus wi ll be more directly connected and hence m ore

readi ly restored Moreov er throu gh the interest and atten
.
,

tion that usually attach to what the mind u nderstands the ,

nervous imprints w i ll be more defin i te and therefore more en

d uring Therefore the cohesions in comm i tti ng shou ld be evi
.
,

dent and natural i e not forced ; and logi cal i e connected

, ,
. .
, ,
. .
,

a s cause and e f fect In additi o n to this the mind shou ld be

.
,

in a responsi v e moo d and the body ready for serv ice to th e

mind Thus ap pears the propriety of studying certain lessons
.
,

with a m ind that i s free from preoccupation o r worry and at ,

 M E TH ODS OF M E N TA L C U LT U R E 83

those ti m es of the day when the n ervous system is more vigor

ous . In other words the best cohesions i n committi ng res ul t
,
“ ”
from the completest obed i ence to the laws of association .

ee text book on P sycho logy )

( S -
.

Im a gi n a t i o n The I mportance o f cultiv ating imagination

.

until i t becomes what it ought to be in quantity p ropensity , ,

and qual ity is too ofte n forgotten by teachers In th i s work

,
.

it i s well for tea cher and pup i l to heed the fol lowing sugges
ti ons
1 . Observ e tha t whi ch i s lov ely a nd i n sp iri ng ever
ywh ere i n

Na tu re . S ensati on
stimulates imagination it is an indis
pensable stimu lati on ; its q uant ity and q u ality hav e much to
d o w ith the quanti ty and qual i ty o f imaginati on Thus arises .

the importance of choos ing o u r sensations if we wou ld improv e ,

o u r imagi nation In most people there is enou gh imagina

.

t i on but so often it is o f a poor qual ity Th i s ought to be

,
.

remedied A ccordingly it is i mperat i v e to obser v e the lo v ely

.
,

a n d i nspirin e v eryw h ere in N a t u re Those w h o hope to live

g .

in a world o f the i r o wn construction subl i me and beautiful , ,

must be much in conta ct w i th the sights and forms and sounds

o f the w orl d which G o d has mad e In other w ords it ou ght .
,

to be a habit o f ours t o seek the quiet val ley and the murmur
i ng stream sweet birds and flo w ers starl i gh t and the azure
, ,

sky A n d again w e ou ght to know maj estic mountains mi ghty

.
,

rivers foaming cataracts the sto rm the sea

, , ,
.

2 Obser v e tha t whi ch i s lo vely a n d i nsp i ri ng i n A rt

. The .

works o f A rt though far inferi or to the w orks of Go d are

, ,

v ery lovely and i nspirin g A rch i tecture scu l pture paint i ng

.
, , ,

music poetry and ficti on ha v e created for the eye and t he ear
, , ,

and the han d what these need in order to stimu late imagina
tio n Those w ho would expand the i r l ittle w orld beyond i ts
.

narrow real limits m a y do so in the presence of maj estic tem

pl es graceful statuary the paint i n gs of the M asters te nder o r
, , ,

maj estic music poetry and fiction The figures of the poet,
, , .
84 PR I NCIPLE S AND M E TH ODS OF TE ACH I N G
the characters and ev ents o f fiction etc all tend to sti m u late
,
.
,

a n d refine imag i nation in those wh o re ad and see a nd hear .

3 E nri ch the m i nd wi th lovely a n d i nsp i ri ng m em ori es of

.

Na ture a nd A r t The same nervous apparatu s is active i n

.

sensations and their reprodu ction i e the neural proce ss o f

,
. .
,

memory is s imply a reproduction — however faint it b e— o f

past sensations It is obvious therefore that if sensations
.
, , ,

stimu late imagination their reproduction in memory will do

,

so too I ndeed the psychic phase of memory (the second

.
,
“

editions proper) is itself a species o f reproducti v e imagina

tion F ro m this reproductive phase of imag ination to its pro
.

d uct i v e phase the transi tion is spontaneous Thus arises the .

great importance of stimulating and p urifying and ennobl ing

imaginati on thro ugh restoring m emories o f those th i ngs
“ ”

which are lov ely and inspiring in Nature a nd A rt This .

habi t o f recalling what was seen and heard in field and forest ,

among birds and flowers as well as in galleries o f A rt o r in

, ,

books is not on ly a d el ightful habit but o n e that tends to de

, ,

v elo p imagination into an inner w orld o f bea u ty and s u bli m ity ,

loveliness and splendor g race and maj esty

,
.

4 Ma ke a sso ci a tes of i m a gi n a ti o n a n d thought

. In many .

branches o f study it is possible to employ the imagination i n

helpful connection (see the S econd P rinciple of C ulture) with
“
th o u ght ”
. This is especially the case with geography his ,

to ry geometry physica l science and literatur e In all these

, , ,
.

connections thought becomes the reinforcement o f imagination .

Th o u gh t A ccordin g to the first principle o f cu lture the

.
,
”
fundamental thing in the cul ti v ation of thought is p r a ctice ,

i n ju dg i ng a nd r ea so ni ng In the earlier sta ges o f thought

.
,

the concrete and particul ar are the m ost e ffect i v e sti m u lus ; in
the l ater stages the abstract a nd general S hould be gradually
substituted In these transitions the teacher must be guided
.

by the me asure of the pupil s interest and ability Ind ucti v e

’
.

a n d deducti v e thou ht should enerally be c orr ela ted The

g g .
86 P RI NCIPLE S A ND M E TH ODS OF TE A CHI NG
!
3 . S et the p up i l worthy contact with a
exa m
p les . D irect
noble hearted teacher is worth more to the fee l ings of pupil s
-

than a ll precepts put together P up i ls so to say absorb the .

, ,

feelin g s o f the teache r and dri ft i nto h i s curren t It must

,
.

there fore be i mportant that the teacher cultivate propri ety and
V igor o f feeling i n himself not on ly for h is o wn sake but also
, ,

for absorption by his pup i ls The study o f appropriate biog .

ra p hy wi l l ha v e a simi lar e ffect Boys Wh o Became Great .

Men is a most exce llent book for this purpose The teacher
”
,
.

should also see to it whene v er possible that none of his pupi l s

, ,

are spoi led by evil examp les in school mates -

.

4 R equ i re the p up i l to m a ster hi s ev i l i m p u lses

. To maste r .

one s feel ings absolutely is simply i mpossible ; and yet i t is

’
,

quite possible to concentrate one s thoughts more o r less o n ’

worthy obj ects thus b reakin g the tyrannou s s way o f one s i m

,
’

pu lses P up i ls should be inc ited i n every possi bl e w a y to

.

thin k o f duty j ustice mercy truth etc and to d islo dge a l l

, , , ,
.
,

feelings that are o u t of harmony with better sense o r sober

reason The boy that w ill make honest efforts to obey these
.

h igher ideas wil l i n time dev elop in himself the po wer to

subordinate his i mpulses to reason and the power to master ,

himsel f in most trying s ituations .

W i ll A part fro m i ntel li gent vigor o f w ill th e m ind can

.
,

not develop ad equately nor d o its work in the world ( S ee .

“
N ature o f E ducati o n ) The fo llo w in g sugges tions based
”
,

o n the relation o f w il l to intell ect and e m o t ion Total In ter ~

”
action page ,
are good ru les in the cu lti v ation o f wi ll .

1 D ev elop n o ble con cep ti o ns a n d em o ti o ns

. It is the nature .

Of the mind not to wi ll except when there are moti v es or ,

s ti mul i These sti m ul i are o f t wo k i nds namely intellectual

.
, ,

and emotional In other words noble i deas and the feelings

.
,

arising from these ideas ten d to ennoble the wi ll but ignoble

, ,

ideas and the feel i ngs arisin g from these i deas tend to vi ti a te ,

the will The most effective motives as we know by inquiry

.
,
 M E TH ODS OF M E N TA L CU LT U R E 87

into human interests are the ideas o f u t i lity truth beauty

, , , ,

a n d duty These ideas should t herefore be de v eloped i nto

.
, ,

in tenti ons o r i deals i n the character o f pupils The love

, ,
“ ”
.

throu gh which the ideas in question become i d eal s i s the strong ,

est stimulus in l i fe ( 1 ) To accomplish these ends the teacher

.
,

should find o r create co ncrete situat ions for his pup i ls and t hen ,

add su ch instruction as may ser v e h is pur poses This was the .

method o f P estalozzi an d F en elo n O lder pupils should stud y .

economics physical and mathemati cal sc i en ce aesthetics and

, , ,

ethics (2) The motiv es career and des t iny o f historical per
.
, ,

sons should be s tud i ed i n the l ight o f mental sciences O lder

, .

students should also study comedy and tragedy ; for thus they
w ill bui ld up fo r themselves types o f character with which
they may compare themsel v es and thus take warnin g from ,

the fate o f others (3) When instr u ct ion fails as i n The

.
,

E v olution o f D odd ”
penalties must be inflicted for these
,

will often imp ress lessons otherwise despised and disobeyed .

This is a special S phere o f school manage m ent .

2 R equ i r e vig o r o us a cti v i ty i n a ll ta sks

. A ttentio n and i n .

tention a s wa s pointed o u t in the chapte r o n mental activ ity

, ,

are the characteristi c phases o f volition o r decision P unctual ,

.

and regular atte nt i on together constitu te i n du stry P ersistent .

attention is kno w n as p ersevera nce When any o ne is master .

o f himself as in try i ng circumstan ces o r amid ad v erse forces

, ,

the voluntary self maste ry is term ed S el f Control P urp ose

- -
.

and resol ution are stro ng intenti ons .

It wi l l be noti ced that i n a ll these forms o f self determina -

tion the invariable element is effort assert ion v igor In short

, , ,
.
,

vi g or is the o n e th i n t o be cult i vated in the c ul ti vation o f the

g
will It should therefore be required of pup i l s to be attentive
.
,

industrious persevering and self possessed The ordi nary

, ,
-
.

duties o f study and exercise a s found in the present curri cu

,

lum o f school s afford ample Opportun i ty for the culti v ation

,

of wi l l in pup i ls The teacher should see to it that pupils try

.
88 PRI NCIPLE S AND M E TH ODS OF T E ACH I NG
to m aste r practical d i fficu lties overcome obstacles and pu t
, ,

fo rth i n tell igent courageous e ffo rt in a ll ta sk s Gy m nast ic

, .

exerc ises a re especial ly v aluable in cu lti v at ing atte ntion ,

d ec i s ion courage p crse v era n w and se lf contro l

, , ,
-

In t he get ti ng o f a n ed ucation attent ion is n early every

thing The same ho ld s true o f success i n the various d epa rt
.

m ents o f life .It is therefore o f th e very greatest i m portance

to cu lti v ate at tention in o u r pupi ls .

The fo llo wi ng suggest ions will aid t he te acher in cul tivating

attention i n pu pils :
1 The te ach er m ust show in his face and voice and m anners
.

th at h e is himsel f i nterested in the subj ect u nder co n sideration .

The e ffect wi ll be electric .

2 The teach er must use the best meth ods o f inst ruction and
.

the greate st possible sk i ll in speech P ro f ssional tra ining is

.
e

simply indispe nsable .

3 The te acher m ust ass ign such tasks in recita t i on and o ut

.

o f rec i tation as w ill require close observation a n d v i gorous

‘

thinkin g .

4 The te acher must stu dy eve ry p u pil i n p articu lar in

.
,

order to wi n and hold his atte ntion .

 OB J E C I
’ ‘
LE S S ONS 89

CH A P TE R II .

OBJ E CT L E SSO NS .

AA CORR E CT con ceptio n of obj ect the greates t less ons is of

i m po rta nce in de ter m i n ing right metho ds o f i ns truction (S ee .

the P ri ncipl es o f Instr uct ion ) Two probl ems therefore d c

.
, ,

se rve o ur atte ntion in this cha pter : ( 1 ) The Nature of O bj ect

L esso ns ; and (2) The Meth o d of In st r uctio n i n O bj ect

'
L
'
IH E NA TU R E O F O B J E C T L E S S O N S .

Wha t obj ect les son s real ly are is most co n v eniently set ,

forth under the follo wing h ea ds : ( 1 ) The S ubj ects of S t udy ;

The E n d s i n Vie w ; ( 3) Th e M et hod o f S t udy ; and (4)
( )
2
Th e H is to ry of O bj ect Lesso ns .

Th e S u b j e c t s o f S tu d y O bj ect Lesso ns as i nd ica tu l

”
,

by the na me are l esso ns o n o bject s B ut t o av o id m isco nce p

,
.
,

tions it m ust b e a dd ed that obj ect l esso n s are c n ce rn ed on ly

,
o

wit h sensib le obj ects A n y obj ect of t he pupil s e n viro n m ent

’
.

m a y b e s tu di ed .Th e obj ect may b e a pro d uct of Nature or

m a nu fac t u r e . O bj ect less ns i n wh i ch th e th in s w ith which
o g

the phy sic a l s cie nces are c n ce rn e d are th e s ubj ects o f st udy
o
, ,
”
ha v e bee n m o st approp riate ly t rm e l Nature S t udi es e .

Th e E n d s i n V i e w i n O b j e ct L e ss o ns Th e en d s i n .

vi ew as i n all studi es which des e rve a plaxe i n o ur s cho ls

, o
,

are t wo na me ly ( 1 ) Cu lt u re and (2 ) I n tructi o n

, ,
s
.

G/Jt u r e i n Obi rt L ess m s

/ O bj ect less n s are d esigntxl t o
/ . o

e xerc ise t he pup il s mi n d in s u ch a wa y as t o utili z e a nd i m

’

pro v e a ll it s funct i o ns b ut es p ecia l ly t he pe rce p ti v e funct i o n

,

in co nnect io n w i th me m o ry j udg me nt a nd a ttenti o n The

, ,
.

pro p rie ty of o bj ect l esso n s a s a m ea ns o f cu lt ure will b e co n

sid ered und er the i m p o rta nce of o bj ect l es so ns .
90 PRI NCIPLE S A ND ME TH ODS o r T E A C HI NG
I ns tru cti on i n Object L essons lessons are also de . O bj ect
signed to equi p pupils with such kno wledge of their en v iron
m ent as wi l l serve the practical mora l and aesthetic ends o f , ,

life In order to accomplish this end the form s co lors p a r ts

.
, , ,

ua li ti es o wers etc o f obj ects are mad e spec i al subj ects o f

q p , ,
.
,

study The propriety of obj ect lessons as a means o f i n

.

struction will be considered un der the i m p o rta nce o f obj ect

lessons .

Th e M e t h o d o f S t u d y In '
the study o f obj ects the whole
.

pupil can be at work but a ll the acti v iti es into which he enters
,

m us t b e i n i n the senses
g This is the characteristic feature o f
.

the stud y of obj ects Conceptive and reflecti v e attention must

.
,

however be added to perceptiv eattention as necessary co m

,

p l e m en ts and reinforcements (S ee R osenkranz

) In the
. .

case o f younger pupils the study o f obj ects may amount ,

on ly to o bserv a ti on i e to inquiry into facts but older pup il s

,
. .
, ,

w i l l seek after the general truths of phenomena and make

these truths rules of conduct i e they wi ll study no t on ly ,
. .
,

by obser v ation but also by induct ion and deduction The

,
.

experiments o f the physical sciences are obj ect l essons in this

higher sense .

Th e H i s t o r y o f O b j e c t L e s s o n s P erhaps there never .

wa s a t i me in the his tory of education w hen obj ect lessons

were no t regarded as an essential part of pr i mary inst ruction .

In practice teachers hav e di ffered considerably S ome teach .

ers i ntroduced such instruction as a dju ncts o f vari ous s tudies .

A lthou gh L ocke Comen i us and o t hers ad v ocated obj ect les

, , ,

sons the cre d it o f introduc in g them as a d ist inct me thod o f

,

e lementary instructi on is usually gi v en to Pestalozz i In o ur .

days the systems introduced by educators o f former cen t uries

ha v e bee n expanded and perfected Modern education lays .

reat stress on N ature S tudies ”

and corre lates these wi t h
g ,

li terature The Normal school s pro v ide S pec ial courses o f

.

training in obj ect lesson s and m any wri ters o u tline systematic
,
 OB J E CT L E SSO N S 91

courses of work for o u r schools A mong other suggestive a u

.

th ors are S heldon C alkins P rince W alker and R icks Th e

, , , ,
.

probabilities are that obj ect lessons though sometimes em ,

ployed am iss have come to stay in our schools (S ee Impor

,
.

tance o f Object L essons ) .

IN S TR U C TI O N IN OB J E C T LE S SON S .

Th e following topics deserve t he teacher s attention at ’

this point : (1 ) Th e C ourses o f Object L essons (2) The

Method of Instruction ; and (3) Th e Importa nce of Object
L essons .

COU R S E S OF OB J E CT L E S S ONS .

L essons o n obj ects should begin when the child enters

school ; they sh ould continue through all the yea rs o f school ,

the most interesting obj ects and the simplest phases coming
up for study at first the harder obj ect co m ing later and the
,

method developing i nto complete experiment (S ee first three .

principles o f instruction ) In order to systema tize object les

'
.

sons the schools should o fi er courses in F orm Color P arts

, , , ,

Qualities F acts etc

, ,
.

I F OR M . .

Three things deserve o u r present attention : ( 1 ) E m b odi

ments o f F orm s ; (2) The Method o f Teaching F orms ; and
T e I m por t ance o f Teaching F orms
( )
3 h .

Th e E m b o di m e nt o f F o r m s
’
The objects o f the child s
.

environment are e m bodi m ents o f ele m entary forms into which

see chapter o n D rawing) these objects can be analyzed
( .

E very school room should be supplied w ith a box o f geo m et

-

r i ca l forms and such objects as resemble these form s If the .

teacher cannot construc t the geo m etrical form s he can proba ,

bly induce his directors to pay for the necessary supply The .

M il ton B radley Co m pan y S pringfield Massachusetts is read y

, , ,

to supply all the special materials for object lessons S upple .

92 P R I NCI PL E S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE A CH I NG

mentary objects should be collected by the pupils under the

’
teacher s supervision .

E lem enta ry F orm s The following catalogue of forms will .

serve as an outline o f the course of lessons on F orm P upils .

should know these forms at the age of fourteen .

l
E em ents o f F o r m . i
L n es . An gl es .

1 L n es i r
1 S t a ig h t 1 R gh t i
gl r d
. . . . . .

2 An es 2 Cu v e 2 A cu te
rf Br
. . . . . .

3 Su a ces 3 o k en 3 Obtuse
V lu
. . . . . .

4. o m es . 4 Pa ra
. ll l
e .

5 . Ob i q u e l .

7 N o na
. g
o ns .

Tri gl
an es . Qua d il r l
r a te a s . C rc ei l .

gl
1 An es 1 Para ll l gr e o am s ir r
1 C cum fe en ce

g r r
. . . . . .

(1) R i h t 1 Sq u a e
( ) 2 Di a m et e

gl d
. . . .

( 2) Obtuse . 2 R ecta n
( ) e . 3 R a i us
. .

(3) A cu t e ( 3) R h om bus 4 A rc
d d rd
. . . .

2 Si es ( 4) R h om boi 5 Ch o
rl rp d g
. . . .

l
.

(1 ) E q ui a te a 2 T a ezoi 6 Se m en t .

rp i r
. . . .

( 2 ) I sosce es l 3 T a ez um 7 Se ct o
g
. . . . .

(3) S ca ene l . 8 Ta n
. en t .

9 Se ca n t
r
. .

1 0Q . ua d a nt .

l
1 1 S e m i ci rc e
i ir u f r
-
. .

12 Sem .
-
c c m e
en ce .

l
P o yh e r ons d . R ou n dB o di es .

1 P . ri sm . 1 Cy n e
. li d r .

( 1 ) Cu b e 2 Co ne
r l l pp d r
. . .

(2 ) P a a l e o i e on 3 F ustu m o f Cone
i g l pri p
. . .

( 3) Tr a n u ar sm et c 4 S h ere
id ph r
.
, . .

2 Pyra m 5 Hem i s e e
r id d
. . . .

3 F ustu m o f Pyr a m 6 Ov o i
i ll pd
. . . .

4 P l nt h 7 E i so i

r l r li
. . . .

8 Ci . cu a P n th .

Th e M e th o d first thing to of Te a c h i n g F o r m s .
( )
1 Th e

do i n teaching a fo rm is to require the pupil to o bserv e it It ,

.

is no t enough to show the pupil o ne example others must be

added to stimulate com parison thus pro m pting abstraction ,

and conception (2) S ince the fla m es o f for m s cannot be dis .

’
covered by the pupil s unaided e ffort these must be given by ,
94 P R I NCI PLE S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE A CH I NG
in the S choolroom by the M ilton B radley Company S pring
,
”
,

field Massachusetts This little book should be i n the hands

,
.

o f every teacher .

Th e S o l a r S p e c t ru m A ccording to this theory all

.

color in Nature is contained i n sunligh t w hich is practically ,

white ligh t When a beam of sunlight ad m itted into a dark

.
,

ened roo m passes through a glass pris m i t is spread o u t like

,

a fan into a band of beautiful colors beginning at o ne end ,

with a d ark red gradually changing to a brighter red w hich

, ,

runs i nto an orange and then through yello w green and blue , ,
”
to violet which gradually fades aw ay into darkness
, This .

band o f colors is termed the S o la r Sp ectru m The beam o f .

sunlight is com posed o f a great number o f di fferent kinds o f

rays w hich in p a ssing through the prism are refracted o r bent
,

from their direct course and some are bent m ore than others
,

the red least of all and the V iolet m ost It is supposed that
,
.

light is propagated by waves o r undulations in an extrem ely ,

rare substance termed ether which is supposed to occupy all ,

space and transparent bodies These w aves are thought to be .

similar to sound waves in the air o r the ripples on the smooth ,

”
surface o f a pond w hen a pebble is throw n into it .

S ta nd a r d Co lors The standards must o f course be chosen

.
, ,

fro m the solar spectrum The amount that rays of light are
.

refracted from a straight line in passing through a prism is in

proportion to the number o f waves o r un dulat ions per second ,

and in inverse proportion to the length o f the w aves The red .

waves are refracted the least and are the longest while the ,

violet rays are refracted the most and are the shortest The .

follow ing wave lengths are assu m ed as standard colors 6 6 00

-

R ed 6 1 0 0 Orange ; 5 8 00 Yellow ; 5 2 00 G reen 47 00 B lue ;

, , , ,

42 0 0 V iolet (The figures represent ten millionths o f a

,
.

millimetre ) .

“
S ca les of Co lo r ( )1 A n
y
. pure o r full color mixed with

white o r reduced by s trong light is termed a Ti nt (2) A

,
”
,
.
 J
OB E CT L E S S ONS 95

full color in shade i e with a lo w degree of illumination is

,
. .
, ,
“
te rmed a S ha de ( 3) A S ca le is a series o f colors consisting
.

o f a pure or full color at the centre and graduated by a succes

sion o f steps to a light ti nt o n o ne side and a deep sha d e o n the

”
other .
( )
4 A color mixed with a smaller quantity of an
”
other color is called a H u e Th u s a scale o f color is any
.

spectrum transition from tint through hue into shade (5 ) .

A ccordingly there may be as many S ca les of Co lor as there are

hues o r standards or tones i n the spectru m .

S y n th e s i s o f C o l o r s “
If having a prism atic spectrum
.

thrown o n a screen in a dark room we hold t wo small mirrors

in the path o f the light o ne so placed as to receive for exam
, ,

ple the red rays and the other the V iolet rays the mirrors may
, ,

be so moved as to reflect the red and the V iolet rays o n o n e

spot o n another s cree n Th e resul t o f this arrange m ent will
.

be a mingling o f the t wo colors to produce a co lor between the

violet and the red usually called purple A nd so we may .

select any other t wo colors and thus determine W hat color is

produced by the mingling o f any t wo or more spectrum colors .

B u t it is very inconvenient to m ake such tests even with the ,

”
best apparatus and most favorable conditions It is possible .
,

h owever to produce practically the same eifects by means of

,

the Co lor Wheel and the Ma xwell D isks ( S ee the B radley .

books ) If graduate d disks are used the exact proportions

.
,

entering into composition may be observed and recorded .

A n a ly s is o f C o m p o u n d s The colors found in N atur e

.

and A rt are generally co m posite colors as in leaves flo wers , , ,

ribbons etc B y c o m bi ni ng and a djusting graduated Maxwell

,
.

disks it is possible to i m i ta te the colo r o f leaves ribbons etc

, , ,
.
,

and thus to ascer t ain the exact analysis o f such color com -

pounds .

C o m pl e m e n t s “
.A s white light is the sum o f all color ,

if we take from white light a given color the re m aining color ,

is the Co m p lem ent o f the given color When the eye has been .
96 P R I NCI P L E S A ND M E TH ODS o r TE A CH I NG

fatig ued by looking in tently f r a few secon d s at a red s po t o n o

a white wall and is then slightly turned t o the w all a faint ,

tint of a bluish gr a m is seen and this is ( a lled t he axxzid en ta l ,

m lo r of t he red which is supposed to b e identical w ith its

,

co m plementa ry colo r Theo retically the m m plem enta ry o f

.

yello w i s a very slight violet blue and o f blu e an orange ,

yello w The m m plem enta ry of g rm n is violet red and of

.

violet a yello w gree n or gree n yello w The c omplementa ry .

o f red is bl uc g rw n and of orange a green blue

,
.

H a rm o n i e s “ '
Two CO lOI S a re said t o b e in harmony o r to
.

c om bine harm onio usly i t the e ff ect is pleas ing when they a re i n
j u xtaposi tion or are u sed in co m position There are about .

fi ve s pw i es o f colo r har m ony C om p le m en tary c olors are har

.

m e nions f or the other species t he stud ent i s referra l to the

Bra dley sys t em .

B r o k e n C o l or s “
In a dd ition to th e S pe ct ru m sta ndards
.

a nd inte rme dia t e h u es a n d their tints and shad es there is a n ,

othe r clas s o f co lors which in general t erm s m a y be ca llm l

3 r o lcen C olo rs A broken m lo r a s a broken re d f or exam
.
,

l c is a standard re d m ixed w ith n eutral gray that is w ith

p , ,

black and wh i te In still oth er words a bro k en color is a

.
,

ti n t of that colo r in sh ad o w I n Natu re nearly al l colors are

.

broken ”
The sa m e thing m a y b e said o f ta pes t ries hangings
.
, ,
“ ”
ca rpets la di es d ress goo d s et c
,
’
E cru f or exa m ple is a
,
.
, ,

broken orange ye llo w who s e proport ions in te rms of 1 00are

,

o r a ng e 1 2 ello w 1 5 w hi te 1 7 and b la ck 5 6
y , , ,
.

b I nstr u cti o n i n C lor

. o .

Three things d ese rve the at ten t ion of teac hers of m lo r : ( 1 )

Course of L essons ; (2 ) The Me thod of Instruc tion and (3)
The Im po rtan ce of C olor L essons -
.

C o ur s e o f L e s s o n s To satis fy the d e m an d s of culture

.

and li f e the co u rse o f m lo r lessons should e m brace t he follow

,
-

ing subjects : ( 1 ) The S ola r S pe ctru m ; (2 ) S tandard Colors ;

98 PR I NCI PL E S A ND M E TH OD S OF TE ACHI NG

p ected . habit o f looking for that which will always

The
happen in mixing colors in complements in harmonies etc
, , ,
.
,

should be ea rly developed .

( )
3 D ed u cti o n should follow induction W hen the pupil .

has found some general truth he should be led to make it a ,

li fe rule It is thus that science becomes art

-
. .

( )
4 A l l the technic a l terms needed in color lessons should be -

introduced in strict association with that which they signify .

L anguage lessons should follow .

T e teacher should strive to make color lessons a s i n

( )
5 h -

t erest i ng and useful as possible thus enlisting the heart the , ,

imagination and the will ,

.

o r special directions in lessons o n complementary col

( )
6 F
o rs harmony o f colors la ngu a ge o f colors and fo r methods o f
, , ,

testing children for color blindnes s see Color in the S chool

-

R oom
”
o r Calki n s
,
“
Manual o f Object Teaching
’ ”
.

I m p o rt a n ce o f C o l o r L e s s o n s To appreciate the i m
-
.

portance o f lessons o n color the reader must understand their,

e fficiency as a means in culture and instruction .

( 1 ) T here is a general agreement among educators that

color lessons when properly given utilize and improve all the
-

functions of the mind (L et the Metho ds S tu dent show this

.

tru th in detail ) .

( )
2 T h e knowledge o f color is interesting for its o w n sake
'

and a means in the aesthetic and practical i nterpreta tio n o f the

universe .

T e culture and knowledge acquired in color lessons

( )
3 h -

serve many o f the ends o f life and cannot be omitted in o u r ,

ti m es without serious disadvantage to millions o f people .

( )
4 A l l teachers shoul d therefore be able,
to give such les
,

sons The evidence o f such ability S hould be as much in

.

demand by those who license and e m ploy teachers as the

evidence o f ability in the other branches o f o u r curriculu m .

Nor m al schools should o ffer the most thorough course in co lors

 OB J E CT LE SS ONS 99

and the method Of teaching colors The task Of thus equip .

ping te achers must fall partly o n the department Of n atu ral

philosophy and manual training a nd partly o n that o f peda
o
g gy T h e most remarkable progress along these lines is
.

visi b le everywhere and the prospects are decidedly en cou r ,

aging .

III P A R TS O F O BJ E CTS . .

Three things deserve o u r atte ntion in lessons o n the p a r ts

T e M ethod o f
o f Objects :
( 1 ) Th e C ourse o f L essons ; ( 2 ) h
Instruction ; and (3) The Importance Of L essons o n the P arts
O f O bjects .

Th e C o u r s e o f L e s s o n s The following catalogue o f .

Objects and their parts will serve as an illustrative outline o f

the work to be done and the domains o f Nature and A rt from

which to choose the Objects to be studied
1 Cen t 2 S ci ssors 3 Key
f f
. . . . . .

(1 ) S ur a ce (1 ) S h a t (1 ) Sh a ft
ig
. . .

(2 ) F a ce s (2H3o ws ( 2) R n
dg i B rr l
. . .

(3) E es (3) L m bs (3) a e

( ) Mill i g Bl d
. . .

4 n (4) a es (4) L i p
pr i dg W rd
. . .

( )
5 Im ess o n ( 5 ) E es (5 ) a s
g r
. . .

( )
6 Im a e B
( 6) a ck ( 6 ) G oov es
p r rip i i
. . .

( )
7 Su e sc t on ( 7) Po n t
i
. .

(8) D a te .
( 8 ) R v et s .

5 B lle 6 S h oe 8 Kn ife

dl pp r dl
. . . . . .

( 1 ) Ha n e (1) U e (1 ) Ha n e
Bi di g
. . .

1 ) Nu t (2 ) n n 1 ) F ra m e
i
. . .

2) Ca tch (3) Se a m s 2 ) R v ets

f ig
. . .

3) S h a t (4) L i n n 3) Hee l
rl ri g
. . .

4) F e u e (5 ) St n s 4) a ck B
r pi g
. . .

5 ) Nu m be B
6) u t to n s 5) S rn

id
. . .

( 2 ) Cu p l
( 7 ) E ye ets 6) S es

dr p
. .

B
.

1) or e (8 ) Va m s 7) P l a te

r
. .

Wl
.

2) R i m (9) e t 8) G oov es

g
. . .

3 ) Ed e ( 10) S h a n k (2) J o i nt
g r i
. . .

(3) To n ue ( 1 1 ) Cou n te 1) P v ot

p g
. . .

1 ) L oo ( 1 2 ) Ton u e (3) B la d e
l pp r d
. .

l
.

2) C a e .
( 13) S o e . 1) Si es .

( 1 4) I nso e l . 2 ) No t ch .

( 1 5 ) Ti p 3) B a ck

g
. .

(16 ) Hee l 4) Ed e

i
. .

5) P o nt
r
.

6) Ma k e Na m
’
s e .
100 PRI NCI PLE S A ND ME TH ODS OF TE ACH I NG

Wh lee .

( 1 ) Na v e .

(2 ) B o x
p
.

( 3) S o k es
r
.

(4) A rm Of A x et ee l
i pi
.

(5 ) L n ch n .

(6 ) R i m .

ll
1 ) F e oes
r
.

(7 ) Ti e .

( 8) R i v ets
r
.

( 9 ) Cen t e
fr
.

(10 ) Ci r cum e en ce .

Th e M e t h o d of L e ss o ns on bj
O ec t -
P a rts . Th e bjects
O

in question should be Observed a n a lyti ca lly The na m es o f .

the parts studied S hould be introduced in the closest connec

tion with the Observation Of the pa rts The pupil should be .

led to inqui re into the us es and history o f the parts Of Objects

“
in their surroundings Th e Young F olks Cyclop aedia o f
.
’

”
Co m mon Things published by H enry H olt ,
CO is a m ost .
,

S heldon s ’
excellent reference book for teachers Object .

”
L essons published by S cribner A rmstrong CO should be
, ,
.
,

in the hands Of every teacher .

I m p o rt a n ce o f L e s s o n s o n O bj e ct P a rt s ( )
1 There is -
.

probably no better m eans o f cultivating the habit o f a na lyti c

Observation and p ra cti ca l thoughtfulness than these lessons o n

the parts Of objects These lessons also develop the habit Of.

associating wo r ds and senten ces with the realities for which

they stand This is an ideal result . .
1 02 P R I NCI PL E S A ND ME TH ODS OF TE ACH I NG
Objects havin g such qualities can be put j u st beca use they have
”
these qualities S heldon s L essons o n Obj ects is the te ach
.
’

er S indispensable compani on
’
.

I m p o rt a n ce o f L e s s o n s o n Q u a l i t i e s Th e study O f .

qualities is the study o f the forces o f the physical universe and ,

is probably the most practical menta l employment .

V . NA T R E U U
ST D I ES .

The in form al study Of plants animals min erals etc just , , ,

.
,

as we come upon them in Nature i s termed Na tur e S tu dy ,

.

S uch lessons will be the only opportunity o f many pupils to

gai n an i nsight into o u r great and wonderful world Three .

things deserve o ur attention ( 1 ) Th e Course o f S tudies (2 )

The M ethod Of Ins t ruct ion ; a nd (3) The Importance Of
Nat u re S tudies .

Th e C o u r s e o f N a t u r e S tu d i e s Th e course o f lessons .

in nature studies must be left in great part to the teacher his ,

selection Of studies depending upon his surroundings Never .

theless teachers o f nature studies should select subjects as much

as possible within some system TO succeed in this atte m p t
.

teachers need a training in the natural sciences .

B o ta ny The habit Of Observ i ng plants should be culti

.

v a te d in the pupils Of o ur schools The teacher S hould stri v e .

to r euse great interest in these observations leading the chil ,

dren to think for the m selves and to co m e into close touch ,

with N ature Ou r pupils should know the names Of the co m

.

mon plants flowers trees etc in their neighborhood in co n

, , ,
.
, ,

n ecti o n with so m e o f the mos t interesting and useful facts per

taining to such plants M iss Youmans F irst B ook o f

.
’

”
B otany ,
published by A ppleto n Co is a very excellent .
,

companion for the teacher in this work .

Zo ology The habit of Observing the i nsects birds mam

.
, ,

mals etc in the neighborhood should be developed in Ou r

,
.
, ,
‘
 OB J E CT L E S S ONS 1 03

pupi ls The teacher should strive to rouse great interest in

.

these stu d ies leading the pupils to think fo r themselves and

,

to come into touch with the heart o f N ature Ou r pupils .

should know the nam es Of common anima ls their hom es to , ,

gether with some Of their ha bits uses etc N atur al H isto ry

, ,
.

”
O bj ect L esso ns publi shed by H eath
, CO i s a convenient .
,

compan ion fo r tea chers .

Note Cour ses similar to those j ust suggeste d fo r plan ts

.

and animals shoul d be planned in mineralogy physiology

, , ,

etc . B ut although in the teacher s mind there should be some

,
’

system Of selecti ng subjects o f study great care must be taken ,

to keep the lessons from becoming stiff and formal .

Th e L e s s o n M e t h o d o f N a t u r e S tu d i e s
-
Th e most Op .

portune time o f the da y should be devoted to the study Of

some i nteresting plant i nsect etc found by the pupils o r the
, , .
,

tea cher These lessons need n o t come every day nor at the
.
,

same hour and should never be longer than ten o r fifteen

,

minutes The greatest freedom o f inquiry should be allowed

.

to pupils and the teacher should meet these inquiries with

,

such help as seems best The pupils should be encour aged to

.

find o u t as much as possible by their o wn e fforts The teacher .

must supervise inquiry by m eans o f skilful questions Th e .

teacher should be prepared to lead the pupils without seeming

to do so formally .

Th e I m p o rt a n c e o f N a t u r e S t u d i e s In o ur days very .

”
great stress is laid o n natur e stu dy E ducators insist o n .

it that natur e study is an invaluable means o f cul t ure and a

,

necessary preparation fo r the understandin g and appreciation

Of li t erature etc ,
.

The Cultur e Va lu e of Na tu re S tu di es In these informal .

inquiries in to the phenomena Of Nat ure as it presents itself to

experience the first aim i s to di scover facts B u t i nquiry
,
.

does not end with the ascer tai nment Of facts ; the pupil is
stimula ted to form Opi nions Thus it appears that the per.
104 P R I NCI PLE S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE ACH I NG

ce
p t i v e and reflective faculties come into service but they ,

come into service in such a way as to require the most faithful

employment Of memory imagination taste and w ill , , ,
.

The I nstru cti o n Va lu e of Na tu r e S tu di es The knowledge .

acquired in nature studies is char m ingly i nteresting i n itself

a veritable revelation o f mysteries— a gli m pse into the great

thoughts o f Go d of which objects are simply the embodiment

,
.

M oreover the ideas and facts thus gathered are the proper
,

data fo r later scientific conclusions .

The P r a cti ca l Va lu e of Na tu r e S tu di es The habit o f Ob .

serving plants animals stones etc together with the know

, , ,
.

ledge thus acquired will help to fit o ur pupils for various i n

,

d u stri es such as farming gardening care o f animals etc The

, , , ,
.

practical results o f natur e study are alone worth the time they
r equire .

Th e M e th o d o f O bj e ct L e s s o n s Th e disti nctive feature .

o f Obj ect lessons is the requirement that al l i nqu i ry must begin

with sensible Observation This requirement m a kes it u sees .

sary to procure a suitable supply Of materials with which the ,

teacher must become thoroughly familiar The recitation .

should generally be conducted according to some definite plan

thought o ut by the teacher in preparing for the recitation .

Generally no formal preparation is to be required o n the part

Of pupils F o r details see the method of lessons o n form
.
,

color parts qualities and nature studies

, , , .

Th e I m p o rt a n ce o f O bj e ct L e s s o n s The importance of .

Object lessons is generally admitted to be very great

( )
1 A s .

pointed o ut under form color parts qu alities and nature , , , ,

studies Object lessons although designed primarily for the

, ,

cultivation Of the senses in connection with memory judgment)

, , ,

and attention really call the whole pupil into service (2)
, .

“
Then too the kno wledge acquired in Object lessons is
, ,
first
”
hand and therefore war m with interest for learners S uch
, .

knowledge becomes the mi ghtiest incentive to subsequent scien

106 PR I NCI PL E S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE A CH I NG

C H A P TE R III .

RE AD I N G .

TH E pedagogics O f reading is concerned with two problems

e Natu re o f R e ad ing ;
( )
1 Th and (2) Instruction in R ea d i ng .

A . TH E N A TU R E OF R E A D IN G .

It serves o u r present purpose to study the nature o f rea ding

“ ”
under three heads : (1 ) The S ubject o f R eading ; (2 ) The
P sychology Of R ead i ng and (3) Th e H istory Of R ead ing ~
.

I . TH E S U B J E CT OF R E ADI NG .

The logical ph a ses Of reading are pronunciation co m prehen ,

sion and expression

, .

P r o n u n ci a t i o n R eading presupposes visible records o f

.

thought and sentiment R eading consists o f interpreting these

.

records and expressing their content I t is necessary there .

fore to kno w the mental value o f w

,

,
ords and to acquire the
power to p r onou n ce words Th e mental value Of words is .

learned in the process Of learning to pronou nce It is evident .

(F irst P rinciple o f Instruction ) that pronunciation begins

with imitation a n d ends in synthesis A nalysis intervenes .

when pronu nciation begins with whole w ords P ronuncia .

tion i e the complete utterance Of a word whole implies

,
. .
,
-

enunciation articulation and accentuation Th e distinct utte r

, ,
.

ance Of the sounds o f a word is termed E nu nci a ti on The .

“ ”
utterance Of a word whole as control is somewhat inter
-

, ,

ru ted by oral rests o r pauses

p ,
Th e resulting parts o f words
.

are term ed S ylla bles Th e synthesis of syllables into word

.

wholes is termed A rti cula ti on V ocal stress o n syllables is .

termed A ccent .
 RE ADI NG 107

Laws of tendencies i n pronuncia

P r o n u n ci a t i o n . Th e
tion are probably phonetic la ws though arbitrary usage has ,

introduced many exceptions into the E nglish language .

L a ws of E nu n ci a ti o n ( )
1 V owels are generally . short in
two o r three letter words except such as end with r ; before ,

t wo o r more consonants the first of which is n o t r ; and i n nu

accented syllables except when followed by w o r r (2) When
,
.

a vowel is separated by a single consonant fro m final e that ,

vowel is generally long and the e silent When two vowels ,

.
,

not proper dip hthongs come together t he former is generally

, ,

long and the latte r S ilent (3) When it follows w a nd is not

,
.

followed by r a is generally equivalent to short 0 (4) Whe n

, .

r separates a from final e a is ci rcu m fl exed and e silent ; as

, , , ,

hare A is also circu m flexed before i r and the i silent (5 )

.
, ,
.

B efore r and r with another co nsonant a is generally Italian ;

, ,

as car barn S uch words as war carry and parallel are ex

, , .
, , ,

cep t io n s
( )
6 .A is S hort Italian before ss sh s
p s t 17,f t n t , , , , , ,

and no except whe n u precedes a (7 ) A is broad before w

“

, .
,

ll llc ld lt u b u l and ug ht and when w precedes a r

, , , , , , ( )
8 ,
B efore .

ign and ig h e is generally equivalent to long a is gen

, ( )
9 E .

e ra ll
y waved before r as her ( )
1 0 W hen the liquids are
,
fol .

lowed by en final in an un accented syllable e is short ; but ,

when it follows d h p s t v 90 sh and th e is generally S ilent

, , , , , , , , ,
.

( ) When el final follows 6 c d n 38 p and u o r ew long

1 1 , , , , , , ,

e is generally S hort
( ) When it o r i n final is fo u nd in a n
1 2 .

unaccented syllable i is generally short (1 3) A fter w and

, .

before k 00 is generally shor ; as wood took When w does

, t
, , .

not precede or r follow 00 is generally long ; as mood soothe

, , ,
.

( ) 0 is generally ci rcu m flexed before r and ught as for

1 4 , , ,

thought (1 5 ) O is generally silent in final or without an

.

accent a fter 0 ch 3 or t (1 6) When r sh and y separate u

, , , .
, , ,

fro m final e u is eq uivalent to co and e is silent ( 1 7 ) U i s

, , .

l en era ll equivalent to consonantal w in words and syllables

g y
beginning with gu in dissyllables and trisyllables where u i
108 P R I NCI PL E S A ND M E TH OD S OF TE A CH I NG

o r ue follows g; in words beginning with cu followed b y i

and in unaccented syllables begi nning w ith 9 where u is followed
by a i o r o (1 6 ) Obscur e vowels occu r only in unaccented
, ,
.

syllables (1 7 ) C and 9 are generally soft before e i and y

.
, ,

and hard before a o u k l r and t ( 1 8 ) H is generally

, , , , , ,
.

silent after 9 and r ; afte r a vowel in the same syllable ; and

before so m e vowels ( 1 9 ) L is generally silent between a and
.

f, a and k a and m a and o (2 0) N is generally equival ent

, ,
.

to ng hard before It and g and before 0 g and a: hard , ( 1)

2 , ,
.

S is generally hard after vowels and all consonants except f, ,

h p and t
, ,
In si on and su r e it is soft afte r all consonants
.
, .

2 2 T
( ) is generally silent before ch also after 8 in d i ssyllables ,

ending in en and lo (2 3) Th is breathed before r i r and some

.
, ,

vowels also as final consonants except in verbs and generally ,

in pl u ral nouns (24) Th is generally voiced as first letters of

.

personal relative and de m onstrative pronouns and adverbs

, , ,

in plurals Of words ending in th; in verbs ending in th and the;

and i n the p rep ositi o n wi th o r its derivatives (2 5 ) B efore any .

vowel except 0 wh is generally equivalent to hw (2 6) W is

,
.

generally silent in words and syllables beginning with wr aft er

a and in the improper diphthong o w
, ( )
2 7 X is generally hard .

before an accented syllable beginning w ith a vowel o r S ilent ,

h but so ft before syllables beginning with a consonant

, ( )
2 8 .

There are many less i m porta nt rules Of enunciation and a rti cu

lation ; bu t S pace does not permit us to record them here
’

Teachers should study the principles o f pronunciation m ore

fully in Worcester s U nabridged D ictionary or in some goo d
’
,

book o n Orthoepy .

L a ws of A rti cu la ti on ( )
1 T h e natural rests O f.the vocal
organs in pronunciation generally determine the syllables as ,

in Observation (2) P refixes and su ffi xes generally constitute

.

new syllables as in improper conte ntmen t expulsion (3)

, , ,
.

In articulation the etymological composi t ion Of a word is

generally less attended to tha n ease of utterance though the ,
1 10 P RI NCI PLE S AND M E TH ODS OF TE ACH I NG

a l l,
and sometimes he repea ts the syllable involuntari ly ; as ,

st st s ta n d
, ,
Th e causes and remedies Of lisping and stam
.

mering will be discussed by and by .

B up ha si s A ny impressive way o f uttering words o r

.

phrases in reading is termed E m p ha si s There are four , .

S pecies Of emphasis ; namely S tress P ause I n flect io n a n d , , , ,

Time ( )
1.T h e extra force with which so m e word o r phrase

is utte red in reading is termed S tress S tress may be co m , .

pound intermittent median radical Or vanishing (S ee

, , , ,
.

E locution ) (2) When after uttering so m e w ord in a sen

.
,

tence the reader stops o r allows an interval o f time before he

, , ,

proceeds the emphasis is term ed P a u se (3) A scent and de

,
.

scent Of pitch in the utterance Of a word in reading is termed ,

S lO W utterance Of a word
I nfiecti o n ( )
4 Q uick ordinary
. and , ,

in read ing is termed Ti m e ,

.

The L a ws of E m p ha si s ( ) Words expressing new ideas

1 .

are emphasized (2) Words expressing i m portan t ideas are.

emphasized (3) Words expressing contrasted ideas are em

.

h a si z ed
p .

Mov em ent E very variety o f pace in read i ng a sentence is

.
,

termed Mov em en t It is the function Of movement to express .

the reader s feelings ’

.

P i tch The degree of elevation o f the voice i n reading is

.
,

ter m ed P i tch Pitch is high medium lo w monotonous o r

.
, , , ,

varied It is the function Of pitch to express sentiments

. .

F o r ce D egree o f stress in reading a sentence is termed

.
,

F or c e F orce is eith er loud or intense

. Th e degrees o f force .

are subdued moderate and loud It is the function o f force

, ,
.

to aid the ear o f the b ea rer, and to express strong feeling .

Qu a li ty of Voi ce Tone Of voice i n reading is term ed Qua l

.

i ty . The qualities o f voice are pure aspirated guttural , , ,

“ ”
nasal and orotund It is the function Of quality Of voice
,
.

to express the various feelings a nd shades o f feelings in

readers .
 RE ADI NG l 11

II . TH E PS YCH OL OGY OF R E A DI NG .

In view Of the subject o f reading (see pages 1 06 to

“ ”

we conclude that the mental acts in reading are those involved

in pronunciation comprehension and expression
, , .

”
P r o n u n ci a t i o n ( )
1 T h
. e fact s Of pronunciation whether ,

they be the facts Of imitation analysis o r synthesis are learned , , , ,

as in other studies by o bserv a ti o n i e

,
by the use Of the j udg ,
. .
,

ment in connection with the senses This connection implies .

atte ntion memory and ima gination

, ,
.

”
( 2 ) T h e principles ( laws ) Of pronunciation whether they ,

be those o f imitatio n analysis o r synthesi s a re learned as in

, , , ,

o ther studies by i n ducti on

,
.

( ) y
3 B deductive application o f principles pronunciation ,

becomes practical skill .

C o m preh e n si o n ( )
1 W hich . functions O f the intellect must
be employed in reading depends o n the contents Of the page,

in question (2) The emotional sequences (see the tenth la w

.

o f menta l activity) in re ad ing depend o n the characte r Of the ,

intellectual activity (3) The read er must use his will both in
.

getting the mental contents o f a page and as we shall see in , ,

expressing these contents .

E x pre s si o n
”
o f expression in reading
( )
1 .T h e fact s ,

whether they be those Of fluency time force pitch emphasis , , , , ,

o r quality o f voice must be learned by o bserv a ti o n

, ( )
2 T h e .

laws o f ex pression like other laws are learned by induction

, , ,

and (3) applied by deducti on .

III . H I S TOR Y OF R E ADI NG .

The history o f reading is co nveniently studied under t wo

head s : ( 1 ) The H istory Of Methods Of Instruction ; and (2)
R ead ing i n the C urriculum Of S chools .

H i st o r y o f M e t h o d s ( S ee pages 1 2 1 to 1 24 a nd also
.
,

Painter s H istory of E ducation )

’
.
112 PR I NCI PL E S A ND M E TH ODS OF TE A CH I NG

R ea di ng in S l R eading
was a subject o f study in
ch o o s .

oriental countries The classical n ations began to lay great

.

stress o n reading The darkness Of the M iddle A ges obscured

.

the i m portance Of the subject but could not drive reading o ut ,

Of t he schools
”
R ea ding has become the great study in all
.

modern nations .

B . I N S TR U C TI O N I N R E A D I N G .

The special features o f instruction in reading come to vie w

under the following heads : (1 ) The order Of the teacher s ’

tasks ; (2 ) The methods O f instruction ; (3) The courses o f in

struction and (4) Th e importance of read ing .

O r d e r o f th e Te a ch e r s Ta s k s In teaching reading the

’
.
,

tasks as we know from the nature of the subject and the prin
,

cip les o f instruction are as follows : ,( )

1 T ransition from oral
to visible language (2) The pupil s emancipation in pro nu n
,
’

( ( )
cia ti o n ; 3) F luency in expression ; and 4 A dequate mental

development .

Th e M e t h o d o f I n s tru cti o n In reading as in other .

,

branches the pupil S hould be re quired to observe individuals

,

o f a genus infer the genus by analogy and assume the genus

, ,

i n subsequent study (T enth P rinciple

. o f Instruction in con
nect io n with the psychology o f reading
) A ccordingly the .
,

vocabulary and sentences o f elementary reading S hould be

representatives o f genera In pronunciation for example rep
.
, ,

r esen ta t iv e words must be found by the teacher and care

fully taught With these representative words man y analo

.
,

gous words m ust be associate d until the pupil arrives at the ,

rule to be learned In this wa y the inductive method will

.

beco m e a habit Of the pupil and his e m ancipation in pro nu n

,

ci a t i o n assured In due time n ew words will come to the

.

learner as individuals of some family or species w ith which he

has already beco m e acquainted Thus induction finds its sup .

ple m ent i n deduction and only anomalies will trouble the

,
 1 14 PR I NCI PLE S A ND ME TH ODS OF TE ACH I NG
E qu i v a len t Consona nts kite quick stick chrism ; Ca t,
'
.
, , ,

sit lace church watch ; o fl trough pheasant ; jo y gill sol

, , , , , ,

dier ; hallelujah J ulia yes ; thank song ; canon has zeal ;

, , , ,

social nation precious chaise shall ; sit m i s sed ; vane o f

, , , , , ,

no xious ; flin ts chintz , .

I nt er m edi a te Vowels A gain around pare fair ask d ance ;

.
, , ,

tall la w war ; bar park ; emit the ; her ; pique field ; son
, , , , , ,

word nation could would ; your tour ; o ne once ; fo r,

, , , ,

m om omit lesson ; full put ; rude ru in ; quay conquest

, , , , .

E qu i v a len t Vo wels S aid bet ; was not warm north ;

.
, , ,

dollar father ; sere S pleen sneak field ; met bury ; miss

, , , , , ,

been busi ness women fur ther work her fir myrrh ; bite
, , , , , ,

fry lye high ; son sun

, , ,
.

E qui v a len t Vowel D ig r ap hs H a y paid break they feign .

, , , , ,

freight ; bare fair where their wear ; oh toe float four blow
, , , , , , , , ,

floor sew ; moon moves crude drew tune few j uice due
, , , , , , , .

P r o g r e s s i n V o ca b u l a r y ( ) A t first and for some

1 .
,

months the vocabulary o f reading lessons should co nsist

,

mostly o f concrete monosyllables whose vo wel is shor t and ,

the con sonants simple as hat melt pin pond rub In the , , , , ,
.

construction o f sente nces the teacher may introduce though ,

sparingly necessary words that do not belong to this genus

, .

These words must o f course be taught arbitrarily The end

, , .

ings s and es fo r plural nouns may be i ntroduced ( 2) Co n .

crete monosyllables whose radical vowel is long and e the ,

final letter should be taken up a fter considerable work has

,

been done o n short vowel monosyllables D issyllables proper

‘

.
,

diphthongs and doubled vowels as well as doubled consonants , ,

m a
y be introduced at this stage T h e names of the lette rs and .

spelling become appropriate at this point Print charts and .

, ,

books should be em ployed afte r the first half year The first
,
.

and second courses should together take about o ne year (3) .

Then lessons o n improper diphthongs ambiguous consonants , ,

silent consonants consonantal digraphs silent consonantal di

, ,
 RE ADI NG 115

graphs equivalent consonants equivalent vowels and vowel

, ,

digraphs and intermediate vowels should be gradually intro

, ,

d uced The teacher should not take up any new task until the
.

pupil has arrived at the principle to be learned If the pupil .

knows the principles o f reading especially those o f p ron u n ,

ci a t i o n by the time he has passed once through the fourth

,

reader the progress is am ply su ffi cient H is emancipation

,
.

from the teacher s supervision in that event will have been

’

almost accomplished (E ighth Principle o f Instruction ). .

I . E L E ME NT R Y COU R S E A IN RE ADI NG .

It is important to know just wha t to do in te aching and ,

how to do it and the rea s o ns ,

The following outline and ex .

position are therefore submitted to teachers o f reading

Th e F i r s t Ye a r i n R e a d i n g .

1 . A su ita ble or a l v o ca bu la ry to be bu ilt .

2 Tr a nsi ti o n to v i si ble words

. .

3 A u di ble a n d wisi ble a na lysi s

.
f
o r e r esenta
p ti v e words .

R equ i si te tea chi ng a bili ty .

4 . Vi s i ble a n a lysi s a nd a u di ble synthesis of a na log ous wor ds .

I n du cti v e discov ery of ru les of p ro nu nci a ti on, etc

!
I
C .

6 . Words ta ug ht bu i lt i nto sen ten es a s c fa st a s p r a cti ca ble .

The tea cher r e a ra ti o n, a n d r e o rd o c f lessons

’
s
p p .

7 . The fu ncti on o
f di a cri ti ca l m a r ks, etc .

8 . S crip t letters a nd the b la ck bo a r d, -

ca p i ta l letters .

9 . The a lp ha beti c n a m es.

B ui ding l t bl e V o ca b u l a r y The mode o f pro

a S ui a .

ced u re in bu i lding an oral vocabulary is determin ed by the

nature o f the step (S econd P rinciple o f Instruction ) A t

. .

the age of six ye ars the child knows m any objects qualities
, , ,

and actions but may not know their na m es in E nglish In

,
.

that event the w ords to be taught must be taught as names o f

,

objects, qualities and actions just as mother does it i e by

, , , . .
,

perceptive a ssociation If however the E nglish language is .

, ,
1 16 PR I NCI PLE S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE ACHI NG

the child s mother tongue the appropriate object q uality o r

’
-

, , ,
’
action is to be nam ed by hi m at the teacher s request Th e
, .

object quality o r action need not be present to the child s

, , ,
’

senses if the teacher knows h o w to resort to the child s mem

,
’

cries and concepts This is usually acco m plished through

.

pictu res gestures questions and other devices

, , ,
.

Tr a n s i t i o n t o V i s i bl e W o r d s Th e transition from oral .

to v isible words can be made as soon as the pupil has learned

the oral word though it is thought best to defer it for some
,

weeks In case of those children whose mother to ngue is

.
-

E nglish the transitio n is appropriate as soon as the child

,

comes to school The mode o f proced ure is perceptive asso

.

ci a ti o n
( S econd
. P rinciple o f Instruction
) In other words .
,

the teacher gets the child to sp ea k some nam e and then wri tes ,

it thus presenting it to the pupil s eye Objects and pictures

,
’
.

add interest to the lesson but are not essential to the tran ,

si t i o n .

A udi bl e an d V i s i bl
t ti v e W o rd s e A na y sis l of Re pr es e n a .

In building the oral vocabulary of representative words as ,

well as i n the transition to their visible form s the pronun cia ,

tion of the pupil is to be imitative The reasons are as follows .

( 1 ) A t this stage o f childhood there is not a su ffi cient aptness

o f understanding to warrant dedu ctive e f forts so di fficult as the
‘

deductive use o f principles o f pronunciation (Third P rinci .

ple o f E ducation ) (2) A t this stage o f childhood there is

.

su ffi cient imitative aptness and activity to do what is required .

The requirement is t herefore appropriate (F irst P rin c iple o f .

Instruction ) .

In due time however the pupil must be emancipated in

, ,

pronunciation i e become able to pronounce new words u n

,
. .
,

aided B ut the pupil cannot pronounce a new visible word

.

by himself until he acquires adequate abili ty in visible a na ly

sis and simultaneous audible synthesis In other words the .
,

pupil can pronounce any new word as co nfu se by himself , , ,

118 P R I NCI PL E S A ND M E TH OD S OF TE ACH I NG

words presented diacritically to the pupil s eye When fo r ’

.
,

example the n e w word a ro se is wri tten o n the blackboard

, ,

and then divided in t o a r o s e the child must be required to

-

unite the sounds thus represented into sy llables and these if , ,

there be more than o n e into the word whole There should

,
-
.

be abundant and long continued practice in co njoin i ng visible

-

analysis and audible synthesis Indeed it sho ul d be con .

,

t i n ued for years as a means toward correct and pure articula

ti on etc
,
.

I n d u c t i v e D i s co v e r y o f R u l e s i n R e a d i n g When the .

pupil can pronoun ce unaided a su fficient number of analogous

words purposely associat ed in recitations he must be made to ,

see the la w to which these words conform in pronunciation .

Th e exceptions should be taught w ith special reference to the

violated rule and by special d rill The teacher should not
, .

attempt to tea ch man y rules the first winter L itt le by little .

the pupil wil l acquire the habi t o f looking for analogies and
’
rules A fter this inductive habit has come the te a cher s as
.
,

si sta nce will become less and less necessary Th e principles .

o f syllabication accentuation and elocution are o f cour se to

, , , , ,

be taught in the same way .

W o r d s Ta u g h t B u i l t i n t o S e n t en ce s The representa .

tive words used in read ing lessons and the analogous words , ,

as well as the necessary arbitrary words should be built into ,

sentences This should be done in all recitations and between

.

recitations B etween recitations the sentences taught should

. ~

be left o n the black board and copied by the pupils In due

-

,
.

time the pupil should be urged t o construct sentences o f his

o wn . This is what t he child does with his oral vocabulary .

It is as natural and interesting to a child to build words into

sentences as it is to build play houses (S econd P rinciple o f-

Instruction ) .

The Tea cher s P r ep a r a ti o n a nd R ecord of L essons

’
The .

teacher should build the requisite representative words a nd ,

 RE AD I NG 119

analogous words as fast as necessary as wel l as n ecessary arbi ,

tra ry words into a graded series o f sentences

,
Th e utmost .

care and wi sdom is needed in this task A ny teacher who .

cannot do this work well is i n so fa r not qualified to teach .

Th e sentences should be recorded and used in preparing fo r ,

recitations .

Th e F u n ct i o n o f D i a cr i t i ca l M a r ks If the E nglish lan .

guage were absolutely phonetic i e if each elementa ry sound ,

. .
,

had i ts own representative o r letter and each lette r its o wn

, ,

phonetic value the graph i c contrivance s termed diacritical

,
”
marks would be superfluous Inasm uch as the E nglish la n .

guage is n o t strictly a phonetic language diacritical marks are ,

indispensa b le i n the analysis o f visible words U ntil th e pupil .

arrives at the reflective stage o f intellectual development the ,

diacritical marks and perhaps al so the accent marks should

, ,

be used by the tea cher and the pupil This is especially i m .

portant at first The symbols are to be gradually omitted by

.

'

the teacher when hE presents o ld words to the pupil s eye In ’

.

’
this case the pupil s associative memory is to be pressed into
service and with good reason for pronunciation must ev entu
,

ally become mechanical i e the pupil must learn to read with

,
. .
,

o u t the aid o f diacritical marks and without thi nking o f rules,

o f pronunciation B u t the symbols are to be employed with

.

all n ew words whether presented on the black board or found

,
-

o n charts and in elementary readers In due time how ever .

, ,

the pupil must be taught to refer to the dictionary In other .

words all graphic contrivances should be omitted from fifth

,

readers perhaps from fourth readers and the pup il should

, ,

rely o n the dictionary (E ighth P rinciple o f Instruction )

. .

S cr i pt L e tt e r s a n d t h e B l a c k B o a r d It is deemed best -
.

to employ script letters and the black board for several months -

in reading lessons ( 1 ) Writing takes less time and is not so

.
,

di ffi cul t for children The printing that is necessary as an i h

.

t ro du ctio n to chart s a nd books is readily learned by associa ,

1 20 PR I NCI PLE S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE ACHI NG

tion (2) The black board is more interesting to the learner

.
-

than chart s and books because it makes movements the object

,

o f attention It is w ith the black board that the teacher ca n

.
-

best sho w children how to write letters words and sentences , ,

.

Indeed the pupi l that watches his teacher write these letters
,

and words day after day and then i m itates them betwee n reci
,

ta t i o n s o n the black board slate o r tablet will learn to write

,
-

, , ,

without much additio nal instruction (F irst P rinciple o f .

Instruction ) Teachers should o f course be good writers

.
, ,
.

C a p i t a l L e tt e r s Capital letters should be taught only

.

as fast as needed and by writing them side by side with the

,

correspondi ng small letters i e by association V ery little ,

. .
,
.

explanation will be needed (F irst P rinciple of Instruction ) . .

Th e A lph a b e t i c N a m e s D uring the second half o f the .

first year in reading the n a m es o f the letters should be ta ught

,
.

U p to this time these names are o f very little use and might ,

do much harm A s soon as ambiguous lette rs i e letters

.
,
. .
,

with more than o ne phonetic value become frequent their , ,

names are a convenience in speaking o f them When long .

words silent letters and other complexities become frequent

, , , ,

oral spelling and therefore the names o f the letters should be

, ,

introduced as appropriate supplements In due time the .

,

names o f t he alphabetic letters should be taught in their

order both backward a nd forward This acquisition will be
, .

a convenience in consulting dictionaries references cyclo , ,

aed i a s etc
p ,
.

The only way to learn the alphabetic names is to associate

the name o f each letter with its form and to persevere i n this ,

association until the com m itting is perfec ted Only a few let .

ters should be atte m pted at a time It may be done in special .

recitations o r in connection with exercises in reading .

B e tw e e n R e c i ta ti o n s V isible analysis including syllabi

.
,

cation and accentuation as well as sentence building should,

-

be required o f pupils between recitations Old words, o r those .

1 22 PR I NCI PLE S A ND ME THODS OF TE A CHING

simply impossible because these names are not the elements

,

o f w hi ch the w ord is phonetically composed B y t his method .

’
the child remained dependent too long o n the teacher s super
vision and assistance in pronunciation The absurdity o f the .

method comes home to adults when the lette rs of some Greek

word a re named and the effort is made to pronounce the word
,
.

Thus if the reader knows the names o f the Greek word 1 67 0;

,

to be respectively L ambda O micron Ga m ma Omicron and , , , ,

S igm a he canno t even begi n to prono u nce the word ; but if he

,

knows the sounds of the letters to be respectively 1 o g o s he -

can pronounce the word at once .

P honetic Method that

”
Th e Ph o n e t i c M e th o d The .

was advocated some years ago is impracticable because it re , ,

qu ires the pupil to know about fourteenn ew lette rs in addition

to o u r twenty six in order to avoid th e diacritical contriva nces
-

,
.

The transition to t wentysix letters and the diacritic al marks-

is necessary after all and is complicated rather than promoted

,

by the introd u ctory phonetic system If however the E nglish .

, ,

language were absolutely phonetic this system would have ,

some rea l merit It is not likely that the method will ever
.

be revived .

Th e P o ll a r d M e th o d Th e Pollard S ynthetic Method .

consists o f audible and V isible synthesis It begi ns with sounds .

,

as a and m pro m pting t he pupil to find these sounds first in

,

Nature and then to imitate them : It groups these sou nds in to

“ “ ”
families as a t a m a ck and keys as b f, l t It em
, , , , , , ,
.

ploys a story called the J ohnny S tory to interest the learner

”
.

It resorts to analogies association and i m a gination as when

, , ,

the child is required to imitate what the lamb rooster dog

' , , ,

etc say It bu i lds w ords wsi blf wo rds pronounces the m

‘

.
, , ,
.
,

and then r ecogni z es these uttered words as names o f obj ects ,

qualities o r actions It aims from the beginning at the child s

,
.
’

”
emancipation i n pronunciation It is calle d the Polla rd .

method after Mrs Pollard the author .

,
.
 R E AD I NG 1 23

The method claims the following merits : (1 ) It gives cer

tai nty and independence i n the recogni t ion o f words (2 ) It .

gives rational scope and aim to di a critical ma rks (3) It is a .

complete system o f vocal training (4) It promotes distinct .

enunciation and perfect articulation (5 ) B y its simple and .

effective rules it secures proper pronunciation (6) It equips

,
.

pup i ls for an intel ligent use o f the dictionary (7 ) It provides .

for the child those mental operations which are most a greeable
to him It makes good spellers by its constant use o f all
.
( 8 )
”
the letters in a word L eading educators of o ur o wn and
.

o t her S tates affirm that experiments prove these clai ms to be

well founded .

S everal objections to the system deserve o u r attention ( )

1 .

Th e learner should be conducted from that which is known to

that which is in logical j unction with it B u t the P ollard .

Method beginn i ng with sounds rather than with words

,
”
,

ignores the language acquisition o f those children whose

mother tongue is the E nglish language N evertheless the
-

.
, ,

P ollar d Method overcomes the child s natural repugnance to

’

abstractions by calling into service the child s imagin ation and

-
’

his imitative powers ( )

2 Ideas
. precede names and signs .

B ut the P ollard Method reversing this order builds words

, ,

before it teaches their meaning This violation is however

'
.
, ,

efl ect i v el corrected by bringing the words thus built up into

y
i m m ediate connection wi t h the ideas for which they stand (3) .

Th e chief obstacle to the introduction of the P ollard Method is

the fact that it requires trained teachers and special books etc ,
.

In the long run this objection is convertible into a m erit .

It is too early to predict the ulti m ate general adoption of

the P ollard Method It has been tried i n hundreds o f to wns
.

and cities and wherever the teachers understo od their busi

, ,

ness the res ults w ere satisfactory Indeed the syste m has
, .
,

wo n to its side many prominent educators who at first opposed

it Whatever may co me o f her system Mrs Pollard s books
.
,
.
’
1 24 PR I NCI PL E S A ND M E TH ODS OF TE A CH I NG

are so suggestive and helpful that they should be in every

’
teacher s library .

The method ad vocated in the text is designed to meet the

requirements o f fundamental principles without the loss o f ,

the meritorious features o f the methods considered .

II . I NTE R ME D I
ATE COU R S E I N R E ADI NG .

A great deal o f work in ort hoepy and elementary elocution ,

remains to be done after the first year in reading P resuma .

bly the child has no w mastered the vocabulary o f an ordinary

first reader and has acquired the inductive habit o f discover
,

ing principles of orthoepy and elocution in a m iniature wa y ,

and perhaps he has also acq uired the supplementary habit of

pronouncing ded u ctively withi n a very limited vocabulary .

It is evi dent however that these habits m ust be strengthened

, , ,

and that the co m plexities of orthoepy and elocu tion should be

grad ually mastered until the pupil s emancipation in reading ’

has been acco m plished This course should extend over the
.

second and third year probably over the fourt h and is appro
, ,

priately term ed the Intermediate Course because it presu p ,

poses a n E lementary Course and requires a H igher Course as

,

a supple m ent Th e Intermediate Course may be outlined as

.

follo ws
Th e I nt e r m e d i a t e C o ur s e i n R e a di n g .

1 A u di ble a n d v i sible a na lysi s of c om p lex r ep resenta ti v e

.

wo r d s .

2 . Vi si ble a n a lysi s a n d a u di b le syn thesi s o f a n a log o us wo r ds .

3 I n d u cti v e di scov ery of o r tho e i a n d elo cu ti o r i n ci les

.
p c na r
yp p .

4 . L a ngu a g e lesso n s .

5 . The a tta i n m en t o
f fl uen c
y i n l c i
e o u t on .

6 . Sp eci a l elocu ti o na r y i
exer c ses .

A r ti cu la ti on .

S ta m m eri ng .
1 26 PR I NCI PL E S A ND ME THOD S OF TE ACH I NG

ni n g with a vowel o r silent h but soft before accented sylla ,

bles beginning with a conson ant ; as exact exhort exclaim , , ,

.

Th e principles of elocution are to be discovered in the same

way Great pains should be taken to develop these principles
.

o f reading into practical rules Th e teacher should not allow .

his pupils to forget what they have learned (S eventh and .

E ighth P rinciples of Instruction ) E xceptions to rules must .

be more carefully studied in drills adapted to the purpose .

L a ngu a g e L ess o n s In the inte rm ediate course of read

.

in g pupils must be required to write colu m ns o f words selected

,

from the lesson according to special directions mark these ,

words according t o orthoepic rules copy sentences commit , ,

sentences and construct original sentences The usual re

,
.

q u i rem ent s o f language lessons are to be respected T h e .

pupil fo r exam ple should atte nd to capitals commas periods

, , , , ,

spelli n g pen m anship neatness and syste m

, , ,
.

Th e A t t a i n m e n t o f F l u e n cy i n E l o c u t i o n It is not the .

function o f common schools to develop specialists in elocution .

B u t that fluency which consists o f correct and rapid articula

tion rapid recognition and ready pronunciation together wi th
, ,

expressive skill in emphasis movement p i tch force a nd qual , , , ,

i ty o f voice are desirable attainments in any education The

, .

pupils o f o u r co m m on schools should in due ti m e and for

various reas ons attain to considerable ability in elocutionary
fluen cy .

S p e ci a l E l o cu ti o n a r y E x e r ci s e s The following special .

'
phonic drills will be found useful The d ia crit ica l m a rk s .

used w ith the key letters are those of the Worcester D i c

“ ”

t i o n a ry .

E nu n ci a ti on D ri lls a a a a a a a a (o) a (e) a (é) ; . 1 a,

.
, , , , , , , , ,

at cellar acute ape dare fast far wa r wa s again quay

, , , , , , , , , ,
.

2 e 6 e(i ) é e(a) e e ; rent the E ngland here they

.
, , , , , , , , , , ,

where term ,
.

3 I i i I i (y) i ; p in police infinite girl onion kite

.
, , , , , , , , , ,
.
 RE AD I NG 1 27

4 6 , 6,
. c
( ), , , ,
ii o 6 6 o
( ),
fi o (w ti ) ,
o n o t, some work , omit , ,

r oll ,
do ,
could o ne occur , ,
.

5 u u ii u (e)
. u s ii u
,
up upon burn bury busy
, , , , , , , , , , ,

push truth numerate unite

, , ,
.

6 y, y y y ; myth chr ysanthemum myrrh cry

.
, , , , ,
.

7 . ew
( ) u ,
ew u
( ), oo
( )
fi ,
6 6 ,
oo
( 6 ), 6T
,
b y, 013,
ou
() 6 ,()
o w,
ofew
w crew sew book spool floor6blood o i l , , , , , , , ,

t oy proud four co w flo w n
, , , ,
.

8 a ai ay ea ey éig eigh ; mate paid ray break whey

.
, , , , , , , , , , ,

reign eighth ,
.

9 are ai r ere ei r ea r ; spare stair there the i r wear

.
, , , , , , , ,
.

1 0 a e ; a rat the cat : a (é) 6 ; said head : a (o) 6 was

.
, , , , , ,

on : a 6 swarm north
, ,
.

1 1 e é e ea i é
. mete screen speak fields : é u (e) fret
, , , , , , , ,
'
bury ; ii o (ii ) fur world er i r yr ; in te rsperse firm myrrh
, , , , , ,

i u (i ) ; fit busi ness
’
.
, ,

1 2 i e (i ) o (i ) u y ; bin been women busy : i y ye i gh ;

.
, , , , , , , , , ,

ivy S pry lye fight : i (y) y ; spaniel yell

, , , , ,
.

1 3 6 a (6 ) ; knot what : O 6 6 a de 5 0 on ( w e(6) w 6 h ;

.
, , , , , , , , , ,

0 o ld goat toes floor four blow shew o h

, , , , , , , ,
.

1 4 dr ar ; form swarm : 6 ii ; sons funnel : c(wii ) wti ;

.
, , , , ,

o n e w fi : o o (fi ) o (u) u ; spook should full : 6 6 6 6 ew(u

, , ); , , , , , ,

moon prove r ule strew : 6 6 as loud bowi ng : (Si b y foil

, , , , , , ,

destroy .

1 5 fi fi e ui . tube dues juices few

, , , , , ,
.

1 6 b P d t j S V W Ch j Ch 5
:
) )
X X X k g; b i
) g
) ) , ) , , ) ) : : ; ) ) )

pick dull ti n jug gill voyage w i nte r church joke choke

, , , , , , , , , ,

fits s i ns extort exhort example kick gold

, , , , , ,
.

1 7 e k q ck ch ; call kid quote quick chrism : c s z (9)

.
, , , , , , , , , ,

cement soon ch i ntz : f gh (f ) p h(f ) fins laugh S phinx : j

, , , , , , ,

g ( j) ;
d
,
jug gill soldiers : i (y) j(y) ;
y India
,
n hallelujah , , , , ,

yonder : n (ng) n g think strong s z is zinc ; s (sh) t e(sh) , , , , , , ,

9h sh ; sugar faction social chaise sh i ne : f(v ) v ; o f vows ;

, , , , , , ,

d (t) t ; decked pit

, ,
.
1 28 PR I NCI PLE S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE A CH I NG

18 . He
ta lks earnestly On either side is the ocean. .

S he sought shelter Th e railroad ran di rectly across the rapid

.

river Wi th a thi ck thimble Theresa Thornton thrusts th i rty

.

thr ee thr eads through the thick clo th .

1 9 B ro th s truths moth s triumphs facts asps fifths pre

.
, , , , , , ,

cin cts fil ch ed
,
gulped depth parts harps steps girl learn
, , , , , , , ,

nymph phial loiter rhyt hm mug gaiter w ri st dagger stick

, , , , , , , , .

2 0 Th e above exercis es and others selected from various

.
,

sources should be studied very carefully Th e learner should

,
.

speak very slowly at first in creasin g his rate of utterance as

,

he acquires ability .

L isp i ng L isp i ng i s due to several causes

. A mong others .

the follo wi ng causes are common : ( 1 ) A ssociation with som e

o n e wh o lisps ; ( 2 ) Childish a fi ect a ti o n and (3) D efects of the
’

organs of speech Th e causes m ust be removed if possible

. .

When it is impossible to remove the causes as in organic de ,

feets the pupil must be tra i ned to manage his organs of speech
,

with cultivated tact .

S ta m m eri ng V arious causes lead to stam m ering

. Among .

them are the following : ( 1 ) E xuberance o f feeling ; (2) H ur

ried utterance ; and (3) D efects i n the nervous system If .

i m pul siveness o r heedlessness be the cause the cure of these ,

faults wi ll be the cure of the sta mmering If the trouble li es .

in the nervous system hygienic attention may be the su ffi cient

,

re m edy In all cases o f stammering the pupil sh ould be

.

trained to self control In other words he m ust lear n to sub

-
.
,

ord i nate his impulses and to overcome his nervousness The

, .

practical rule must be : S peak slowly Tact and kindness .

will do much in these unfortunate cases .

Th e M e n t a l Ph a s e o f R e a d i n g R eading in its ultimate .

sense presupposes and requires intelligence Th e pupil must .

be taught to think and feel what he reads In that event he .

beco m es a treasury of w isdo m and an adept in expressing ,

thoughts and feelings when he reads to others Th e develop .

1 30 PR I NCI PLE S A ND M E TH ODS OF TE A CH I NG

pupils o f o u r common schools should be urged to read such

E ngl i sh classics as are suite d to their age and progress Th e .

teacher should strive to cultivate true ideals in literary habits .

It is to be regretted that so fe w o f o ur boys and gi rls acquire

the habit o f reading good books In order to induce and
.

establish this habit there should be a library o f suitable books

in every school This library should at least in part be col
.
, ,

lected by the e fforts o f the pupils as dir ecte d by the teacher

, ,

in order to cultivate appreciation fo r books and literary equip

ments . If possible every school room should be supplied
,

with a good periodical and newspaper .

III . I MPOR T NCEA OF R E AD I NG .

R eading, as everybody who thinks about it must see is a ,

most effective means o f culture and instruction .

C u l tu re V a l u e o f R e a d i n g R eading is a stimulus to
.

thought and a help in the i nterpretation o f the world in

,

which we li ve (S ee R osenkranz ) It is through readin g that

. .

“ ”
we can think the thoughts o f the maste rs after them and ,

that through a train o f corresponding feelings and purposes

, ,

we may live at least in part in the i r m ental world Thus it .

follo ws that reading becomes a mode o f exercising the mind

in all its possibilities .

I n s tr u c t i o n V a l u e o f R e a d i n g R ead ing is the key to a

.

great deal of knowledge at which the mind without such

means would not and in many cases could not arrive The
, ,
.

practical aesthetic moral and religious importance of such

, , ,

kno wledge makes reading the subject p a r excellen ce in the

,

acquisition of an education and in the great commerce o f ideas

,

o f the human race .

Tr a i n i n g o f Te a ch e r s o f R e a d i n g In order to do ideal
.

work in teaching reading the teacher must evidently be a

,

good reader in its physical and mental phases A pedagogical .

kno wledge of reading is equally i m portant to success .

 WRI TI NG 1 31

CH A P TE R IV .

WR I TI N G .

TH E pedagogics o f writing is concerned with two topics

( )
1 Th e N ature o f Writ i ng ; and ( )
2 Instruction i n Writing .

A . TH E N A TU R E O F W R I TI N G .

In order to arr ive at a thorough understand i ng o f the sub

j ec t in hand it will obviously be necessa r y to s t udy the follow
ing topics : (1 ) The P hysica l A ct o f Writing ; ( 2) The P sy
cho lo y of Writing
g ( )
3 T h ( )
e S truct u re o f S cript ; 4 P roperties

o f Writing ; and 5 e H istory o f Writing

( ) T h .

Th e P h y s i ca l A ct o f W r i t i n g Th e physical act o f
.

writing presupposes a ppropriate positions o f the bod y and ,

consists o f various movem ents of the fingers hand and arm , ,

.

( )
1 T here is some room fo r choice as to the position o f the
“ ” “ ”
body in writing ; we may assume the front right o r , ,
”
left position at the desk The sitting posture is generally
.

preferred to the standing postur e the latter serving as a mode

,

o f relief .
( )
2 Th e movements of the fingers hand and arm , , ,

are muscular movements o f bone levers o n hinge joints wrist

- -

joints and ball and socket joints

,
- - -
.

Th e P s y ch o l o g y o f W ri t i n g The learner becomes a o

.

u a i nted w ith the positions movements and characters by

q , , ,

o bser v a ti on ; he discovers th e general truths of writing by

i nd u cti o n and reduces them to rules o f practice by dedu cti on
, .

The most important feature o f writing is the subjection o f the

physical organism to the mind The various positions and.

movements in writing require very strict attention at first .

In time these movements become habits and require only a ,

minimum o f voluntary effo rt .

1 32 PR I NCI PL E S A ND M E TH OD S OF TE A CH I NG

Th e S tru ctu r e o f S cr i pt The characte rs o r lette rs o f .

, ,

writing are composite str uctures consisti n g o f simple and co m

plex lines .

Sp eci es of L etters The script characte rs which are em

.

ployed to represent the elementary sounds o f our language are ,

termed L etters The two S pecies o f script letters in vogue are

.

the s m all and the capital le t ters S m all letters are employed .

in the body o f words while capita ls denote distinctions as i n

, ,

proper names o r head lin es -

.

The F o rm E lem en ts of S crip t

-
S cript letters are combina .

tion s o f form elements i e combinations of straight lines

-

,
. .
, ,

angles and curves ( 1 ) Th e form elements o f the various

,
.
-

sys te m s of script are co m paratively few S pencer for exam .

,

ple em ploys only seven principles the straight line (

,
the ,

right curve the le ft cur ve ( u ) the lo o p the direct ,

oval the reversed oval (0 and the capital ste m ( d ) The .

height width and parts of every letter are defini te quantities

, , ,
”
according to the syste m adopted (2 ) The down stroke o f .
-

letters is probably the most important element of any syste m

o f script since upon its direction depend as sta tistics sho w
, , ,

both legibility and rapidity in w riting as well as the physical ,

’
welfare o f the writer In S pencer s slanting syste m the do wn
.

stroke meets the writing line at an angle o f 5 2 degrees and

-

determines the general slope o f the letters In the various .

vertical systems the dow n stroke meets the writing line at - -

right angles and determines the general character o f the let

,

te rs The connecting lines are next in importa nce since upon

.
,

them too depend both legibility and rapidity in writing as

, , ,
’
well as the beauty o f the finished letters In S pencer s syste m .

the connecting lines meet the writing line at an a ngle o f 8 0 -

degrees while in vertical w riting the angle must be larger to

,

add to the general effect o f the vertical idea The actual slope .

o f connecting lines is not quite the same in all vertical sys

tems either to short e n connective curves in the interest o f

,
1 34 PR I NCI PL E S AND ME TH ODS OF TE ACH I NG
the very best R ight habits shoul d be developed from the b e
.

ginn i ng (2) That system of writing which is best for the eyes
.

o f readers should all o t her things be i ng equal be adopted by

, ,

o ur schools .

Th e H i s t o r y o f W r i t i n g There are t wo subjects to study

.

i n this connection ( 1 ) Th e S uccessive Tendencies in Writing

and (2) Th e Claims o f the Tendencies .

The Tenden ci es i n P enm a ns hip Th e tendency to write u p

.

right letters was the earliest tendency i n the history o f w ritin g .

“
It was not until t he beg inning of the sixtee n th centu ry that
the sloping o r I talian style was invented by A ldus Manutius
o f V enice . It soon beca m e a fashionable fad and spread rap
idly over all E urope P robably the best reaso n for t his was
.

that writing in those days wa s to a great extent in the hands

o f professional scribes and as t he slanting style wa s peculiarly
, ,

favorable to the development o f the n ew art of flo urishing it ,

” “
soon supplanted the old vertical m ode In the course o f
.

time when education beca m e the common possession o f all

, ,

slanting writing retained its supre m acy unchallenged N o .

attempts were m ade to return to vertical pen m anship until a

fe w years ago when an investiga t ion of the causes of curvature
,

o f the spine and imperfect vision so co m mon in school children -

was instituted i n Germ any with the result that eminent medi
,

cal authorities attributed the greate r part o f the evil to the .

position o f the body and eyes necessary in w riting a slanting

hand A t about t he sa m e time teachers began to aw ake to
.

the fact that the writing of t heir schools was anyth ing but
satisfactory ”
.
“
With the assura nce fro m th e m edical p ro fes
sion that slanting penmanship produces deformity and i m per
fect vision and fro m educational experts that vertical pen m an
,

ship is far superior to m ping it would appear tha t vertical

,

writing is to be the w ri t ing o f the future It has already .

been extensively introduced o n the Continent and i n E ngland ,

”
and has recently aroused absorbing interest in this country .
 WR I TI NG 1 35

The Meri ts f o W Ver ti ca l

ri ti n
g T h e advantages of ver t ical
.

writing are as follo w s : ( 1) It is better for the health of pupils .

Th e required position is natural and easy since the back must ,

be straight and square and both eyes must b e exercised equally

,
.

( )
2 V ertical writing is more legible as can b e shown by a ,

d i agram o f upright and slanting lines (S ee Merrill s V erti .

’

cal P enmanship ) This claim is confirmed by the fact that

.

books are commonly printed not i n Italic but in plain up , ,

right letters Th e fact that E nglish civil service examina

.
-

tions ask for upright writing is an additional proof .

( )
3 V ertical writing is more rapid T here is less distance
.

for the pen t o travel in making vertical strokes than in making

slanting strokes o f the same height The di fference between .

the down strokes o f vertical penma nship and those o f slant

-

i ng penmanshi p is as great as that between the perpendicular

and the hypothenuse of a right angled triangle There i s .
,

therefore a considerable gai n o f ti me i n vertical writing

,
.

Telegraph receiving operators avail themselves o f this a d v a n

tage almost unconsciously .

( )
4 V ertical writing is more economical I ts shorter down .

strokes save time and paper The greate r legibili ty o f verti

.

cal writing as well as its greater adaptability to learners must

, ,

also be regarded as matters o f econom y .

(5 ) V ertical writing is easier to teach and learn The p o .

si ti o n s o f the body hands and eyes are perfectly natural t o

, ,

the child and consequently do n o t have to be painfully incul

,

ca ted. It is unnatural for a chi ld to write with slanting

down strokes H ence it will cost both teacher and pupil
-
.

many hours o f needless labor to attai n uniformity in these

strokes S tatistics show that chi ldren have better success in
.

the vertical e fforts and that this success is a constant stimul us

,

to their efforts .

The Mer i ts of S la nti ng Wr i ti ng There are several thin gs

.

to be said in favor o f t he slanting syste m o f writing : ( 1 ) The

1 36 PR I NCI PLE S A ND M E TH OD S OF TE ACH I NG
possibility o f remarkable beauty belongs exclusively to slant
ing writing The history of slanting penmanship is incontro
.

vertible evidence o n this po i nt There is an irresistible charm

.

in the gra cfu l poise of the classical slant The vertical letter .

is sti ff i n comparison If the future history o f penmanship

.

is to be that o f a fine art as t he rapid adoption o f short hand

,
-

seems to indicate the slanting system deserves a place in

,

special train ing .

( )
3 T h e transition of schools to the vertical system is di th

cult The amount of time and labor needed to break higher

.

grade pupils into the new habit is an important consideration , .

Then too teachers need special training in vertical penman

, ,

ship i n order to do good work These objections have how .

,

ever been satisfactorily met i n hundreds of schools and the

, ,

probability is that the change will rapidly become universal .

B . W R I TI N G
I N S TR U C TI ON IN .

The study o f the nature o f writing suggests the following

topics fo r consideration : (1 ) Courses o f W riting ; (2 ) Methods
T e Importance o f Writing
o f Instruction ; and ( 3
) h .

C o u rs e s o f W ri ti n g In obedience to the law o f the pupil s ’

.

natural development and in accordance with the demands of

,

life there should be three courses in writing : (1 ) The E le

,

mentary Course ; ( 2) The Intermediate Course ; and (3) The

H igher Course Th e elementa ry course is designed to develop
.

mechanical ability the intermediate course to correct and per ,

fect practical ability by adding theory the higher course to ,

develop S pecial tastes or to fit for special vocations

, (S ee .

P rinciples of Instruction ) The common school owes her

.

pupils a training in the first t wo courses ; the higher course

belongs to special schools such as business colleges etc Th e
, ,
.

elementary course should be covered in two o r three years ;

the inter m ediate course in from four to eight years the ti m e to
, ,

be determined by circumstances The end in view i n the ele .

1 38 PR I NCI PL E S A ND ME TH ODS OF TE A CH I NG

b i n ed with read ing lessons Children should sometimes be .

requested to write on paper but the pen and the copy book are ,
-

hardly appropriate before the third year o f school (3) R ight .

habits o f position movement spacing slanting etc are best, , , ,

.
,

taught at first by example In o t her words the position .

, ,

movement etc must be illus trated by the teacher and Copied

,
.
,

by the pupil F ailur es are best corrected by k i ndly su gges

.

tion The teacher must see to it tha t children do not write

.

t o o fast and that they do neat work

,
H e should however be .
, ,

th o ro u ghly jud ici o u s in pointing o u t mistakes and i m p er fec

tions never losing hi s temper o r hurting the feelings o f pupils
,
.

II . TH E I NTE R ME D I ATE COU R S E I N PE NMAN S H I P .

Th e Ta s k s t e C o u rs e Th e lessons o f
o f th e I n te rm e di a .

the intermediate course in penmanship should begin the thi rd

o r fourth year of school and should combine theory and p rac ,

tice The following subj ects should be maste red in their order
.

( )
1 P ositions at D esk ( )
2 H olding the P en
( )
3 F
,
inger M ove ,

ment (4) F ore arm Movement (5 ) Combined Movement ( 6 )

,
-

, ,

Whole A rm Movement ( 7 ) L ines (8 ) Th e F orm E lem ents

-

, ,
-

( )
9 S mall L etters ( )
1 0 C apital L ette rs, ( )
1 1 S pacing ( )
1 2 , ,

S hading and ( 1 8 ) A rabic F igures

, .

Th e M e t h o d s o f I n t e r m e d i a t e L e s s o n s ( )
1 In the i n .

te rm ed i a te exercises o f pen m anship the pupil needs practice ,

paper a co py book suite d to his grade a good pen good ink

,
-

, , ,

and a suitable desk (2) It is convenient and at the same .

,

time effective to teach a whole class at once Two o r in

, .
, ,

so m e cases three classes are enough for any school (3) In

,
.

this course accuracy and beauty are the right ideals and great ,

effort should be put forth to develop taste for these ideals (4) .

There should be a system o f signals and everything should be ,

done in t he most orderly way The recitation m ay begin with .

( ) osition at D esk (2) A rrange B ooks (8 ) F ind Copy and

1 P , ,

A djust A rms (4) Open Inkstands ( 5 ) Take P ens

,
The reci ,
.
 WR I TI NG 1 39

t a ti o n may close with ( 1 ) Wipe P ens (2 ) F ront P osition ( 3) , ,

P ass P ens (4) P ass B ooks ( 5 ) Close Inkstands

, , (S ee T h e .

”
o ry o f S pencerian P enmanshi p
)
T e position fo r writing shoul d be a
P o si ti on a t D esk ( )
1 h .

convenient o n e allowing the easy action of the right arm

,

and hand In sittin g at a desk o r table there is little choice

.

” “ ” “
between what are known as the L eft side F ront R ight -

, ,

oblique or R ight side posi t ions They are all practised

”
,
” -
.

by wri ters but it is well for the sake o f order and uniformity
in a class that all the pupils should observe the same position .

Whichever method is adopted those who do n o t w ish to b e ,

co m e hollow chested or round shouldered should learn to sit

- -

easily upright and keep the shoulders square

, .

”
( 2 ) T h e F ront position is most appropriate in classes .

“
P upils should be required to S it directly facing the desk ,

near to it without leaning against it with the feet level o n

, ,

the floor and the fore arms resting lightly o n the des k in front
,

at right angles to each other L et the right arm res t lightly

.

o n the muscles forward o f the elbow — keep the wrist above

the paper and rest the hand lightly o n the nails o f the third
,

and fourth fingers which should touch the paper directly

,

under the palm A djust the book so that the right arm will
.

be at right angles to the lines o n which yo u are to write .

”
H o ld the book in place with the fingers o f the left hand .

H o ldi ng the P en P upils should be required to Take the

.

pen between the first and second fingers and the thumb o h ,

serving l st that it crosses the second finger o n the corner o f

, ,

the nail ; 2d that it crosses the fore finger for ward o f the
,
-

knuckles ; 3d that the end o f the thumb touches the holder

,

opposite the lo wer joint o f the fore fin ger ; 4th that the to p -

o f the holder points toward the right shoulder 5 th that the ,

wrist is above the paper ; 6 th that the point o f the pen comes ,
”
s u a rel
q y to the paper .

F i ng er Mov em ent ( 1 ) T h e action o f the first and second

.
1 40 PR I NCI PL E S A ND M E TH OD S OF TE ACH I NG

fingers and thumb is te rm ed the F inger Movement

,
it is “

used chi efly in the upward and do wnward str okes (2 ) P upils .

should be requi red to make th i s movement deliberately count ,

ing 1 2 1 2 etc o r saying up wa r d down ward etc

, , , ,
.
, , ,
.

F or e a rm M o v em ent e F ore arm Movement con

-

( )
1 T h .
-

sists in the action o f the fore a rm upon its muscular rest near -

the elbow ; the hand gliding o n the nails of the third and
fourth fingers It may be employed in makin g strokes in any
.

dir ection but is especially adapted to carrying the pen right

,

ward and leftward across the paper and is most effi cient in
, , ,

combination with the F inger Movem ent ”

.

( 2 ) P upils should be required to practise this movement in

combination with the finger movement until the complex pro
cess becomes almost automatic The teacher must be able to .

show the pupil what to do and should insist on right habit , .

Co m bi n ed M ov em ent ( 1 ) The Combined Movement con

.

sists in the united action o f the fore arm hand and fingers , , ,

the fore arm acting o n i ts muscular rest as a centre and

-

sliding the hand on the nails o f the third and fourth fingers ,

While the first and second fingers a nd thu m b extend and con
”
tract i n forming upward and downw ard strokes .

( )
2 “
T his movement answers the requirements o f bus iness
better than any other : it combines t he free untiring s weep
o f the fore a r m with the delicate shaping powers of the fingers
-

, ,
”
securin g ease and accuracy .

( )
3 T h e te acher should ca re fu llv study this movement as

explained in special text books I n order that he may under-

stand what he tries to teach H e should illustrate the move .

ment again and again un til all i n the class can make the
,

movement .

Who le a rm Mo vem ent ( 1 ) The Whole arm Movement

-
.
-

consists in the use of the whole arm fro m the shoulder the ,

elbow being raised slightly fro m the desk and the ha nd ,

”
slidi ng on the nails of the third and fourth fingers .
1 42 P R I NCI PL E S A ND M E TH OD S OF TE ACH I NG

These lette rs should be studied practised and reviewed , , ,

until each o n e becomes perfect .

The Cap i ta l L ett ers The capital letters should be ta ken

.

“ ”
u
p i n the following order :
( ) The
1 four F ifth P rinciple
5 Q
7
lette rs namely
, ( )
2
, T h e nine S ixth P rin
, ,

”
ciple letters ,
n amely , QKQ j ,
Q
”
( )
3 Th e thirteen S eventh P rinciple letters namely 4
f;
, , 9 , o

These letters to o must be studied practised and reviewed

, , , ,

u ntil they are mastered .

Sp a cing The teacher must see to it as much as possible

.

that the spa ce between letters words and sentences is under , , ,

stood and respected by pupils Th e teacher is referred to the .

copy book explanations

-
.

S ha di ng B eginners i n penmanship should not be taught

.

shading ”
When pupils have acquired artistic skill in
.

writing letters without shading it is ti m e enough to begin ,

lessons o n that subject The five species o f shading as seen in

.

the letters J Z2” and ,

should o f course in due time
,

be taught .

A ra bi c F ig u res L essons o n the A rabic figures

.

e a 4 a 6 7 cf r 0 , , ,
!
, , , , , ,

should be given in connection with the small lette rs and accu ,

racy as well as neatness should be developed into habits .

III . H I GH E R COU RS E S I N PE NM A NS H I P .

Inasmuch as it is no t the duty of the co m mon school to

o ffer higher o r special courses in pen m anship the details o f
, , ,

instruction in such courses need not be considered in this

treatise Th e special courses in pen m anship o ffered in special
.

’
schools are as follows : (1 ) B usiness Penmanship (2 ) L adies
 WR I TI NG 1 43

P enmanship ; and (3) Ornamental P enmanship The special .

requirements o f business etiquette and decorative art deter

, , ,

mine the ta sks and methods o f such courses (S ee the N inth .

P rinciple o f Instruction ) .

IV . TH E I MPOR T NCE
A OF PE NMANS H I P .

The unsightly hurried scrawls that are so common in all

,

S pecies of w riting are greatly to be deplored

,
S u ch writing is .

t o be deplored because : ( 1 ) The discipline o f pen m a nship has

a moral and practical radius and (2 ) A rtistic pen m anship is a
,

desirable instrument in business and social papers .

Th e D i s ci p l i n e o f P e n m a n s h i p Th e habits and tastes

.

cultivated in the e fforts to master penmanship assert them ,

selves as habits and tastes in the moral and practical life o f

pupils In other words the habits of self control attention
.
,
-

, ,

accuracy and artistic finish which pupils m ust cultivate in

, ,

order to master penmanship are likely to become their habits

,

and taste s in all activities .

Th e D e s i r a b i l i t y o f A rt i s t i c P e n m a n s h i p E xcept i n .

cases o f deliberate acting most persons photo graph their ordi

,

n ary character i n their hand writing This fact has important

.

consequences ( )
1 . E mployers look for self poise energy -

, ,

ta ste and manliness in thei r employees These cha racte ri s

, ,
.

tics and their opposites as just pointed out are often de

, , ,

t ected in the lette rs o f applicants for positions and the em ,

ployer makes up his m ind accordingly S chool direc tors for .

,

example may not the m selves be able to write w ell but many
, ,

o f them know how important it is that the te acher o f their

children should write a good b a nd and all other things being

, ,

equal they prefer the good penman

, .

2) What is true o f business intercourse is equally true o f

writte n social inte rcourse We think better o f our corre
.

spo n d ent s w hen they w rite a legible and artistic hand This .

preference seems to rest on the belief though it may never ,

1 44 P R I NCI P L E S A ND ME TH ODS OF TE ACH I NG

have been put in so many words that o u r friends are likely ,

to resemble their handwriting in other respects and in their

relations to us .

Th e R e q u i s i t e Tr a i n i n g fo r Te a ch e r s o f P e n m a n s h i p .

It is obviously the duty o f the com m on school to cultivate

penmanship both for i ts disciplinary and its practical worth .

Teachers have n o moral right to neglect either their o wn hand

w riting o r that of their pupils The consequences o f such
.

neglect are too di fficult to correct and too far reaching in the
,
-

pupil s career It is requisi te therefore that teachers under

’
.
, ,

stand ( 1 ) Th e theory o f pen m anship and ( 2) The theory o f ,

teaching penmanship In addition to such understanding it

.
,

is necessary that teachers have artistic ability in penmanship .

Indeed a knowledge o f higher courses in penmanship and

, ,

traini ng in each o f these courses so far as possible d evelops

, ,

an appreciation for the art o f penmanship and leads to an ,

ability in it that fit teachers to work from better standpoints

,

and to much better advantage The Normal S chools espe

.

ci a ll o w e it to the public schools to send out teachers that are

y
a b le to write and to te ach writing .
1 46 P RI NCI PL E S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE A CHI NG

n ew letters were introduced Thus it came that some lett ers .

represent more than o ne sound and that the same soun ds ,

o fte n have more than o ne alphabetic representative .

The N orm a n Co nqu est of E ng la nd Th e R oman mission .

aries were the first to red uce the A nglo S axon language to -

wri ting .They used the R oman letters in nearly their ,

R oman value a n d added new cha racters for the soun d o f a in

,
”
in in hi n e and to In the fusion o f N or
f a,
t th thei r
( )
dh th t , ,
.

mans and S axons after the Norman Conquest neither party

, ,

could pronounce the words o f the other party correctly and , ,

in spelling these mispronunciations they introduced many ,

lamenta ble irregularities .

The P r a cti ce of A u thors a nd Cop yists B efore the inventio n .

o f printing authors spelled words very much as the mood o f

,

the moment dictated There was no authorized orthography

.

fo r any word Thus it happened that words were S pelled

.

differently by di fferent authors and that the same author ,

S pelled a word in more tha n o n e way This was true even .

o f proper names such as L ei cester Vi llers Ma i n wa ring etc

, , , ,
.

L ower states t hat the w ord Ma i nwa ri ng was spelled in o ne

hundred and thirty o n e different ways To make the matter
-
.

worse the scribes that multiplied manuscripts were careless

, ,

in spelling There were some authors it is true who tried to

.
, ,

prevent these evils and to correct them The spelling o f the .

Orm u lum which was written in the thir teenth century th ough
, ,

strange and cumbrous is remarkable for its regularity ; a nd,

the author urges his copyists to follow his orthography with

the utmost exactness Chaucer also more than a century .
, ,

later carefully revi sed and corrected his o wn works ; and he

,

enjoined upon his scribe to w rite m ore trew that w hich was ’

entrusted to hi m saying that he wa s obliged it to correct and

,
‘

’
eke to rub b e and scrape because o f the negligence and haste ,
”
with which it had been Copied The orthography o f S hake .

speare s times though so much late r than that of Chaucer was

’
, ,
 S PE LL I NG 1 47
<

far from settled even the name o f the great poet was written
more than thirty different ways .

The I nventi o n of P r i nti ng When about the middle o f the

.
,

fifteenth century printing by means o f movable types was ih

, ,

vented the wretched spelling o f authors unfortun ately became

,

a somewhat fixed ort hography To make the matter worse .

,

printers often spelled words as prompted by convenience o f

space n o w adding a lette r now o m itting it to suit the partie
, , ,

ular case .

The P u bli ca ti o n qf Di cti ona r i es A t last the era of lexicog

.

ra h ers wa s ushered in T h e most distressing i rregularities

p .

o f spelling began to disappear and conformity to orthographic

,

principles took their place Of course it was i m possible to re

.
,
’
duce chaos to order at once but D r J ohn son s celebrated dic
, .

t io n ary published in 1 7 5 5 settled usage definitely in favor o f

, ,

some o n e o f the numerous forms in which words were written ,

and thus removed the cause o f confusion In other words .

,

J o h nson s dictionary became a standard of E nglish o rtho g

’

ra h
p y . T h e great lexicographers N oah W ebster and W
,
o r

o ester
,
followed in 1 8 2 8 They introduced orthographic
.

changes that met almost universal approval F irst they .

,

restored primitive spellings in order to reveal ety m ological

affinities and second they reduced as much as possible the
, ,

number of ano m alies and special cases Notwithstanding the .

improvements made by J ohnson Webster Worcester and , , ,

other lexicographers E nglish orthography continues to dis

,

tress those who must use it .

S p e ll i n g R e fo rm s Many attempts have been made to i n

.

t ro d u ce a system o f phonetic spelling t e a system in which ,

. .
,

each elementary sound of a word is represented by its own

alphabetic S ign A mong the first to atte m pt a phonetic sys
.

tem was S ir Thomas S mith S ecretary of S tate to

Queen E lizabeth E minent scholars in the times o f Charles I
. .

introduced orthographic changes a nd tried to popularize pho ,

1 48 PR I NCI PL E S A ND M E TH OD S OF TE A CH I NG

netic spelling ; but inasmuch as these efforts did not rest o n

' ,

settled principles the efiect s were not permanent In modern

, .

times D r F ranklin invented a phonetic system but it was

,
.
,

imperfect and he scarcely used it himself except in a brief

,

correspondence with a friend A mong recent attempts are .

those o f A J E llis I P i ttman E J ones and A M B ell

. .
,
.
,
.
, . . .

The system o f Mr B ell has been used i n scientific treatises

.
,

but seem s not to be gaining any permanent hold M any lead .

ing philologists o f E ngland and A merica are advocates o f re

form in orthography D r March P rofessors Whitney and
. .
,

H aldeman of A merica and Ma x Mii ller E llis and J ones o f

, , , , ,

E ngland are so m e o f the foremost advocates o f spelling re

,

form The F unk

. Wa gna lls S cientific A lphabet prob
”

ably indicate s and pa v es the way for the m ost practicable re

form in S pelling B y means o f a clever diacritical system and
.

t wo addition al letters o ur present alphabet becomes the means

,

o f an almost perfect phonetic orthography .

S uch a reform is certainly desirable It will save time and .

labor in schools ; it will save time labor and expense in , , ,

printing Moreover the proposed changes in orthogra phy

.
,

are not so violent as to seal the volumes o f the old—style o rtho g

ra h
p y .

P h y s i ca l S t ru ctu r e language in
of E n g i sh l W o rd s . A
which each elementary sound is represented to the eye by a
S pecial letter is term ed P ho neti c E nglish orthography as
, ,

we have seen is very irregular ,

This irregu larity consists .

in the use of silent letters and in the use of di fferent letters

,

and com bination s to represent the same sound Many letters .

are pronounced in several di fferent ways while the letters or ,

com binations of letters fo r a single sound in some cases ,

am ount to scores Many words of no more than t wo sylla

.

bles may be spelled in several thousand di fferent ways by the ,

use of combinations actually employed in other words of the

language The word scissors it is co m puted by E llis may be
.
, ,
15 0 PR I NCI PL E S A ND ME THOD S OF TE ACH I NG

I . TH E PR E PAR A TI ON OF A S PE LLI NG L E S SON .

That which is to be learned in this case necessitates associa

tive memory reinforced by rules as much as the nature o f the
subject admits ( S ee the S ixth and Tenth P rinciples o f I n
.

struction ) A ssociative memory as a process begin s in o b ser

.

vation H ence it follo ws that in order to master words in

.

spelling the pupil s tasks are three : (1 ) Observation (2) R ec

’

o llecti v e P ractice ; and 3 Th e D iscovery and U se o f R ules

( ) .

Obs e rv a ti o n P erfect observation is indispensable to true

.

associations P ersistent associations i e abiding memories are

.
,
. .
, ,

assured by multiplying a ssociation tracks in observing that -

which is to be remembered (S ee S ummation of S timuli page

.
,

Thus we see that pupils should study a word no t only

with the eye but also w ith the hand ear and voice That is
, , ,
.

to say the pupil should observe t he spelling o f a word ( 1 ) by

,

lookin g at it critically regarding its letters syllables and the

, , ,

word as a picture—whole (2 ) writing it (3) comparing it with

, ,

the word copied (4 ) naming the lette rs in their order until it

,

becomes an easy and accurate process (5 ) pronouncing the ,

syllables successively a nd as a whole The teacher must make .

sure that pu pils acquire the habit of thus observing word s .

Th e black board and slates o r tablets should be used

-

, ,
.

R e c o ll e c ti v e P r a c t i ce In order to assure persistent asso

.

ci a ti o n s the learner dare not be content w ith the observation

,

j ust described He must repeatedly w rite the words which he

.

has s t udied name the letters o f the word of which he thin ks o r

, ,

spell it orally at some o ne else s dictation co m paring the re ’

,

su l ts to see if the atte m p ted associations be true This work .

dare not be neglec ted except at the risk o f losing what was
gained only by hard work at first (S ee S eco nd P rinciple o f .

Cultur e ) .

Th e teacher must see to it that pupils get this practice .

Th e D i s c o v e r y a n d U s e o f R u l e s Observation and reco l “

 SPE LL I NG 15 1

lecti v e practice are necessities especially because o f the i rregu

la ri ties o f orthography B ut as indicate d in the beginning
.
,

o f this chapter there are conformities to law in E nglish o r

,
”
thography which though they seem fe w and far betwee n
, ,

to the thoughtless can be discovered and utilized in learning

,

to S pell Indeed memory finds a most grateful re i nforce

.
,

ment in more than a few rules o r laws o f spelling A mong , ,

.

the most serviceable rules though o f course there are excep ,

tions are the following

,

1 F inal e is d ropped before a su ffi x that begins with a

.

vowel as wri te wri ti ng

, ,
.

2 F i nal e is retained before a su ffix that begins w ith a co n

.

sonant ; as sta te statement E xceptio n j u dg m ent

, , .
,,
.

3 F inal y preceded by a consonant is changed t o i before a

.

su ffi x that does not begi n with i as la dy la di es , ,

.

4 F inal y preceded by a vowel sound is retained before all

.

suffi xes as joy joyo us enjoym ent chi m ney chi m neys
, , , , ,
.

5 A fte r a s i ngle vo wel the final consonant of any word

.
,

accented o n the final syllable is doubled before a su ffix that ,

begi ns with a vowel ; as contr o l contro lled fli t fli tti ng

, , , ,
.

6 A fter a single vowel the final consonant o f any word

.
,

not accented o n the final syllable is not doubled before a suf ,

fix that begins with a vowel as ben efit benefited , ,

.

7 A fter single vowels final f and l o f monosyl lables are

.
,

generally doubled as b ell stafii , ,

8 A ft er diphthongs o r more than a S ingle vowel , the final

.
,

consonant is never doubled as rev ea l rev ea li ng , ,

.

9 Words relati ng to matter end in ceo u s and others end in

.
,

ci o us as cr eta ceo us fer o ci o u s

, ,
.

1 0 In such words as concei ve a nd receip t 0 is generally fol

.
,

lowed by ci and other letters o f the alphabet b y te as beli ef,

, ,

r etri ev e.

Thereis no su fficient reason why pupils should not be re

quired to look fo r such rul es and to j ustify their spelling by
.
15 2 PRI NCI PL E S A ND ME TH ODS OF TE ACHI NG
reference to these rules when they apply to the case in hand .

F o r a fu ll discussion o f such rules see Worcester s U nabridged

’

D ictionary .

II . TH E R E CI TATI ON OF A S PE LLI NG L E S SON .

What the requirements o f a recitation in S pelling may be ,

depends very much on the means to be used in reci t i ng When .

the words are to be written the necessi ties are very di fferent
from those of an oral recitation whether it be alphabetic o r
,

phonetic It seems most convenien t to consider written S pell

.

ing first .

a W R I TTE N S P E LLI N G
. .

The points to be considered are as follo ws : ( 1 ) P reli m ina

ries (2 ) Giving out the Words ; (3) S pelling the Words ; (4)
Corrections ; (5 ) A ssignment of L essons ; and (6) Th e Mean
ing o f Words i n S pelling L essons .

P re li m i n a ri es . Th e words to be spelled S hould not be

given o u t before the class is properly seated and supplied with
the most desirable writing materials o r before the class has
,

passed to the black board and taken the most suitable places
-

according t o thoughtful directions on the part o f the teacher .

Th e most suita ble writing materials for spelling classes are

prepared blank books together with pen and ink On passing
, .

to the board if that be the mode of reci ta t ion the pupils

, ,

should be required to prepare the board i e t o erase what ,

. .
,

ever may have to be erased t o space the board by means of

,

vertical lines and to w rite their names neatly n ea r the top

,

to ward the right upper corner of the ir respective spaces .

Whether seated or s t anding all m embers should be required

,

to main tain a natural and gracefu l posture No dis turbing .

conduct should be tolerated and absol u te attentiveness should

,

be developed in all parties about to engage i n the recita tion .

Gi v i n g Ou t t h e W o rd s When everybody is ready — and

.
,

that S hould be as soon as possible — the words should be pro

,
15 4 PR I NCI PL E S A ND ME TH ODS OF TE ACH I NG

fro m the o ther modes of written spelling Th e words should .

be written in columns and numbered .

C o rr e c t i o n s
. A t a signal from the teacher the pupils may ,

exchange blank books at the seat o r places at the board car e

-

, ,

being taken to prevent cheating The pupils may also be .

allowed to correct their o wn lists in order to develop moral ,

responsibility The right o f appeal to the teacher must be

.

allo wed w hen pupils do not correct their o wn lists and the ,

teacher should frequen t ly inspect the corrected lists to make

sure of his pupils In the case o f younger pupil s such i h
.

sp ect io n must obviously be most frequent Corrections may .

be indicated by crosses figures o r any other good device upon

, ,

which the teacher may determine A t the close of every regu .

lar recitation in spell i ng the misspelled words S hould be re

,

corded in a book kept for that pu rpose If prepared blank .

books are used by the class the words may be correctly written
,

right after the incorrect spelling This is probably the best.

way ; it requires the pupil to compare words and saves the ,

teacher the trouble of const ant inspection .

A s s i g nm en t o f L e sso n s A t the close o f the recitation ,

.

if the pupils are youn g the list of words for the next lesson
,

ought to be pronounced Th e pupils should have the first

.

chance to pronounce the words of the prospective lesson In .

’
case o f failure the teacher must com e to the pupil s rescue
,
.

H e m a y S i m ply pronounce the di ffi cult w ord and require the ,

pupils to imitate his pronunciations B u t the bet ter way is to .

resort to phonic drill in the case of difficult words (S ee .

chapter on R eading ) M ischief m ust come from any neglect

.

o n the part of the te acher to see to t hese pre pronun ci a tio n s -

.

Th e M e a n i n g o f W o r d s i n S p e ll i n g L e s s o n s ( S ee .

under Oral S pelling ) .

 S PE L LI NG 15 5

6
. OR AL SPE LLI N G .

The points to be considered are as follows : (1 ) Preli m i

n aries ; 2 ivi ng o u t the Words ; (3) S pel ling the Words ;
( ) G
ssignment o f L essons ; and ( 5 ) The M eanin g o f Words
( )
4 A .

P r e l i m i n a ri e s
“ ”
If the method o f trapping i s not to be
.

used the pupils o f the oral spelling class may be either seated
,

o r standing .In either case they should be required to assume

,

a healthful and orderly posture It is thought best however .

, ,

to requi re the class to stand rather than to sit ; this posture is

a physical relief to pupils and prepares them to sit still when
,

they return to thei r respective seats Then to o if the trap .

, ,

ping system is used the standing postu re is obviously more

,

appropriate .

Gi v i n g Ou t t h e W o rd s ( )
1 T h e trapping system o f
.

course requires that the words be passed from the upper to the
lower end o f the cla ss in regular order When trapping is not .

allowed the words may be assigned to any pupil at pleasure

,
.

Th e former method is advisable as a stimulus ( )

2 T h e words .

should not be given o u t in any order which might tempt the

pupils to com mit i t If this ca ution is no t observed pupils
.
,

are likely to prepare only those words which they expect to

get in their turn (3) In giving o u t the words of a spelling
.

lesson the teacher should not except for good reasons pro
, , ,

nounce a w ord more than once If he falls into the habit o f .

pronouncing the words oftener than once the pupils will ex ,

p ect him to do so In that

. event t hey will beco m e habitu
,

ally inattentive thus trying the teacher s patience wasting

,
’
,

v aluable time and fitting them selves for failures in la ter

,

years (4) There are various methods of passing from word

.

to word in assigning them to a class (a ) Th e same word may .

be assigned by nod o f the head o r other appropriate signal to, ,

more than o ne pupil just as if it had been misspelled This

, .

method develops attentiveness and certainty as to the spel li ng

15 6 PRI NCI PLE S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE ACH I NG
of a word (b) Whenever a word is misspelled the next word
.
,

may be assigned Th e pupil to whom it is assigned is ex

.

ected to spell the word that was missed rather t han the word
p
after it If the pupil fails to do this the teacher gives out a
.
,

n ew word and keeps o n giving o u t new words until some o n e

,

spells the word that was first missed The pupil that S pells .

this word takes the place o f the pu pil that missed it or if it

, , ,
” “ ”
has passed the head o f the class he goes up head This, .

is possibly the best method It develops the greatest atten

.

tion and stimulates to thorough preparation o f the lesson

, .

B oth methods (a ) and (b ) m a y be used i n every recitation

, , .

The variation is very stimulating (5 ) The teacher should .

“ ”
not allow himself to fall into the habit o f saying right ,
” ”
wrong next etc This habit is not only ludicrous but
, ,
.
,

cultivate s a n undesirable dependence of the pupils o n the

teacher (6) S o m etimes false sympathy prompts teachers to
.

suggest the S pelling o f a word by pronouncing it in such a

way as to name t he letters Thus teachers are sometimes.
,

te m pted to say ord tOr for ora to r i nf i ni te for i nfi ni te This is

,
.

evidently wrong If the pupil cannot spell a word when it is

.

pronounced as it would be in good speaking o r reading the ,

pupil does not know the word and should fail The ability ,
.

to pronounce words as th ey should be pronounced is obviously

indispensable in teaching spelling .

S p e ll i n g t h e W o r d s ( )
1 In the
. oral spelling class the ,

pupil should be required to pronounce the assigned w ord before

he attem pts to spell it This precaution assures both teacher
.

and pupil that the word w a s understood and thus avoids dis ,

putes as w ell as other evils (2 ) There are three possible

,
.

things to do after the pupil s pronuncia t ion of a word : (a )

’

Th e pupil m a y name the letters of each syllable in order pro ,

n o u nci n
g each syllable in its order but only once and the , ,

word as a whole at last (b) The pupil may nam e the lette rs
.

as before pronouncin g each syllable i n its order and th en

, ,
15 8 PR I NCI PLE S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE ACHI NG

tion would advocate spelling lessons in which the meaning o f

all the words cannot be taught This is high ground to take
. .

The view is based o n a false creed in psychology and peda

o
g gy .
( )
a In the first plac e it
,
is wrongly supposed that
memory ought to be absolutely dependent on the understand
ing The order in w hich the menta l functions mature co n
.

fa tes this theory (S ee the eleventh la w of Mental A ctivity )

. .

Then to o a good mechanical memory t e associative memory

, , ,
. .
,

unassisted by the understanding is the best equipm ent for

,

more than one important task i n the practical affairs of life .

( )
b In the second place it ,
is economy in pedagogy to teach the
younger pupils the spelling o f words whose meanings they can
not fully master for the time being on account o f im m aturity .

This conclusion follow s from several obvious facts : F irst t he ,

mind of younger pupils is able to spell though unable to mas ,

ter meanings S econd the programm e of younger pupils i s

.
,

no t cro wded This leaves roo m for stress on spelling as spell

.

ing Thus ti m e and possibilities are utilized Third the

. .
,

competitive interest is present as a su fficient stimulus to the

necessary associative efforts F ourth the meanings o f words
.
,

are readily mastered in due time whereas the spelling of words

,

requ ires to o much time and effort when the epoch o f thought
lessons has come .

( )
3 It is therefore m aintained as we think o n su fficient
, ,

grounds and earnestly advocated that regular S pell i n glessons

, ,

from S pelling books be kept in our course o f studies whether

-

o r not we find ti m e enough to t each the meaning o f all the

words as fast as we go in spelling If any other argument is

.

de m anded it may be confidently affi rmed that those who

,

learned to spell under the old spelling book sti m ulus are i n-

finitely superior i n practical spelling There is no doubt about

.

it that the spelling—book has been abused and that it will be ,

abused but all things considered its legiti m ate u se will pro
, ,

duce an ability in spelling that is most gratifying whereas its ,

 S PE LL I NG 15 9

di su se has sent a great host o f J osh B illings into our Normal

.

”
S chools Colleges and
, ,
other spheres Th e necessary stress .

o n spelling as spelling is best secured by syste matic persistent ,

use o f a good spell i ng -

book .

III . S U PPL E ME NTA R Y D E VI CE S I N S PE LLI NG .

The tasks o f the pupil in learni ng to spell as pointed o u t , ,

are (1 ) Observation ; (2) R ecollective P ractice ; and (3) Th e

,

D iscovery and U se o f R ules B u t the pupil will be more

.

likely to perform these tasks vigorously and habitually if the

proper stimulus is supplied In most instances it is not an
.

adequate stimulus to insist si m ply o n the importance o f

,

spell i ng
. This argument somehow fails to touch the ordi
nary pupil to the quick A ny appeal to the competi t ive
.

instinct is more effective Th e competitive instinct is utilized

.

in the following devices : (1 ) The M ethod o f Trapping ; (2 )

R eviews ; (3) R ecreations i n Word B uilding ; and (4) S pell -

ing Matches .

Th e M e t h o d o f Tr a pp i n g Th e trappin g system is
.

most effective in oral recitations and with younger pupils , ,

but can be used to a dvantage in written recitations and with ,

older pupils (1 ) In the written recita tion the number o f

.

errors determines the respective places The matter must be .

settled at the close o f the recita t ion though the places should ,

n o t be taken until the next recitation Th e pupil will u sually .

see to it that places are no t wrongly taken The seats slates .

, ,

corrections etc must be carefully supervised to prevent dis

,
.
,

honesty (2) In oral recita tions the tempta tion to cheat is not
.

so great and attempts to do so are more readily detected The

,
.

m ethod o f trapping in oral spelling classes adds a di ffi cult task

to that o f conducting the class namely the prevention and , ,

cure o f such feelings as anger envy pride etc V igilance and

, , ,
.

absolute j ustice are therefore i m perative It is a good plan to .

require the pupil at the head to start a gai n at the foot This .
1 60 PR I NCI PLE S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE ACH I NG

d evice is in most in stances enjoyed as much by the pupil that

goes down foot as by t he others .

R e v i ew s . It was pointed o u t that at the close of regular

written recitations in S pelling the misspelled words should be
,

recorded in a book kept for that purpose A t stated ti m es .

these lists S hould be used as a review lesson The words .

marked as m isspelled in oral recitations m ay also be used in

the same w ay Th e importance o f such reviews can hardly be
.

over estimated seeing that they make it necessary for pupils

-

to study the very words which ought to be studied The li st .

o f words to be S pelled in reviews may fo r the same reason , ,

be selected from readers exam ination papers compositions

, , ,

etc but al ways with adaptation to the pupils grade (S ee

.
’
.

F irst S econd and Third P rinciples o f Instruction )

, , .

R e cr e a ti o n s i n W o r d B u i l d i n g
-
V arious recreations i n
.

spelling have been proposed by ingenious teachers These .

devices are useful as supplementary w ork for pupils whose

time cannot otherwise be advanta geously utilized It is h o w .
,

ever doubtful whether such recreations should ever be allo wed

,

to take the place o f the ordinary S pelling lessons A s a stim .

ulus to word building the following recreation has been pro

-

posed : Th e pupil ta kes any fertile w ord as su bscrip ti o n and , ,

writes in a column all the words which he can construct using ,

any letter o f the given word only once in each n ew w ord o r ,

as often as it occurs in the given word The new words m ust .

o f course be true w ords It is surprising how m a ny wo rd s

.

can be built up by young pupils in this way .

S p e ll i n g M a tc h e s ( 1.
) T h e ora l spelling match as every ,

one who has any personal knowledge of the m atte r knows is , ,

a most stimulating variety in the study o f spelling Th e .

co m petitive instinct is thus excited throughout the school and ,

someti m es throughout the com m unity to w hich the school

belongs A writte n spelling match though quite ta m e when
.
,

comp a red with the oral S pelling m atches is nevertheless very ,

1 62 PR I NCI PLE S A ND ME TH ODS OF TE A CH I NG

”
this method are evident S aving and o u t is probably the
.
,

best of all the methods for oral spellin g matches .

A Wr i tten Sp elli ng Ma tch Written spelling matches when

.
,

wisely conducted are not as uninteresting as it is sometimes

,

supposed The choosing o f sides can be managed as in oral

.

spelling The chief diffi culty is to seat the spellers so as to

.

keep those o f the same side from helping each other This .

di fficulty is usually overcome by alternate seatin g i e by so ,

. .
,

arranging the spellers in seats as to separate those o f o ne side

by means o f the spellers o f the Opposin g side When the .

number o f words upon which it was agreed has been S pelled , ,

S lates o r books may be exchanged opponents correct i ng the

, , ,

words o f opponents and reporting the number o f mista kes

, .

Al l the spellers must be allowed to appeal to the teacher before

the final results are announced The side whi ch on adding
.
,

up mistakes is found to have missed the greater number o f

,
” ” “ ”
words is declared vanquished o r defeated o r lost
, , ,
.

There are four o r five other methods o f conducting spelling

matches but they hardly deserve recogn ition here Ingenious
,
.

teachers m a y invent plans to suit themselves but the atte m pt ,

to change plans too Often i s productive o f misunderstandings ,

and should therefore be avoided The teacher must in all .

cases see to it that quarrels and bitterness do not result from

these co mpetitive exercises in S pelling .

IV . ATI VE ME R I TS OF WR I TTE N A ND OR AL S PE LLI NG

REL .

The questions now confront us What are the merits o f writ

,

ten spelling and o f oral spelling ? Which o f the two modes

deserves to be cultivated rather than the other ? D o both
modes o f spelling deserve equal respect ? In order to answer
these questions we must inquire into the advantages and dis
advantages o f each method .

Th e A d v a n t a g e s o f W ri tt e n S p e ll i n g There are at .

least three import ant ad vanta ges in written S pelling ( 1 ) Writ

 S PE LLI NG 1 63

ten pell ing is more i nstructive than oral S pelling ; (2 ) The

S

menta l discipline o f written spell i ng is greater than that o f

oral spelling and (3) The pract ical necessity o f written spell
ing is greater than that o f oral S pellin g .

1 . Wri tten sp elli ng is m o re i ns tru cti v e tha n or a l sp elli ng .

( )
1 T h e af te r i mages
”-
o f sight are generally more persist

ent t han those o f hearing ( S ee P sychology .

) In wr itte n .

spel lin g the letters o f a word and their true order are there , ,

fore impressed more indelibly This result is illustrated in .

the fact that pupils whose sight is defecti ve generally find it

harder to maste r S pelling than those W hose sight is perfect , .

The fact that deaf pupils learn to S pell sooner than blind
pupils proves the rul e
, .

( )
2 In writ t e n spel ling the eye can d w ell longer o n the

word just S pelled thus stimulatin g the habit of corrective

,

comparisons and producing vividness of sensation the essen

, ,

tial to persistent a ssdcia t io n s in memory (S ee the sixth la w .

o f M ental A ctivi ty ) Words orally S pelled are lost to the ear

.

almost i n stantaneously Thus we see that by reason o f the

.

greater corrective possibilities in wri tten spelling it i s the ,

better mode o f studyi ng spelling Thi s conclusion is illus .

t ra ted in the w ell known habit o f writin g a word to see how

-

it looks when we are no t sure that we have S pelled it right

orally Th e conclusion is also co nfirmed by the fact that per
.

sons who learn to spell by eye can spell well orally and in
composition whereas those who can spell well orally o fte n
,

spell poorly in composition .

2 . The m en ta l d is cip li ne f
o wri tten sp d li ng i s g r ea ter tha n tha t
f o or a l sp elli ng .

( )
1 In w ritten S pellin g every pupil is r equired to spell every

word Th i s is not true in oral spelling except perhaps where

.
, , ,

the teacher is a maste r in his art .

o pay un fl
( )
2 In writt e n spelling the pupil is required t a
g
16 4 PR I NCI P LE S AN D ME THO DS O F TE A CH I NG
ging attention This discipline develops t he po wer to perse
.

vere in a task to its end There is no species of culture that

. .

su rpasses this power o f resolute attention The pupil that .

learns to pay u n fla gg i ng attention in t he spelling class is so ,

m any s te ps n earer to su cce ss in other stu d ies and in life O ral .

spelling excep t i n the hands of rare te achers do es not produce

, ,

these e ffects o n the pupil s will and hence is moral ly in ferior

’
,
.

( )
3 It is in w rit te n s elling as wa s pointe d o u t that records
p , ,

of miss pelled word s ca n be most systematically kept fo r re

views While such reco rd s a re partly possible i n oral spelling
. ,

the proced ure is less satis facto ry .

3 . The p ra cti ca l ne essi ty o

c f wri tten sp elli ng i s g r ea ter tha n tha t

In t he ordinary a ffairs o f li fe we could almost dispense

with oral spelling It is d i fferent with written spelling ; we
.

n eed it al m ost every d a y and in the most varied inte rests .

The ability to spel l orally is n o t as wa s pointed o u t a suf , ,

fi cient guaran te e that a person ca n spell corre ctly i n writing

“ ”
lette rs e tc Correct spelling i n writings as i t will b e
,
.
,

poin te d o u t a t t he close o f this chapte r i s d esirable both o n ,

i ts o w n account and f or other reasons

, .

Th e A d v a nt a g e s o f O r a l S p e ll i n g There are at least .

three advantages i n oral spe lli ng : ( 1 ) O ral spelling is more

convenient incidentally tha n writte n s elling
p ; (2 ) O ral S pell
ing is the natural su pple m ent to w ritten spelling and (3)
O ral s pelling is m ore in teresting than written spelling .

1 . Ora l sp elli ng i s m o re co nv e ni ent i n ci d enta lly tha n written

s elli ng
p .

should b e re q uired to spell any suspi cious word

P upils
i n any reci tation o f school E lusive terms and technical .
,

te rms can o ften b e d efinite ly place d i n m e m ory by si m ply

,

s pellin g the m a fe w ti m es It is g enerally m ore convenient

.

t o spell suc h words orally though it must be conceded that ,

166
'
l lt Ol l L lCH A N D M E TH ODS Oi ! T EA C H I NG
’

it that pu pils n o t only learn to s pell th ese word s but also to ,

u se them inte lli g ently whe the r it b e in stu dying a nd rm i ti n

, g z

t he va riou s l essons of re ad in g his to ry geogra phy e t c o r i n , , , ,

wri ting l ette rs essays cte (S ee t he F ou rth l ri nc ip le o f I n

, ,
. .
’

stru tion ) This work m a y be co m b ined with t he lessons in

c .

read ing h is te ry, g ra m m a r e tc o r i t m a y b e d one in special

' , ,
.
,

s p lling lessons l t specia l reci tations a re set a pa rt for such

e .

work t he lis t o f wo r d s selected by the te ae hcr m a y be w ritte n

,

o n t he bla ck lm a rd whe re t he class ca n se e and s tu dy th e m

-
.

2 Th e e x a c t p s y c h o l o g i c a l c o m p l e m e nt a n d s u ffi c i e nt
.

s t i m u l u s o f o ra l s p e ll i n g s h o u l d b e a d d e d t o w r i tte n s p e ll

i ng .
( )
1 H in co o ral s ellin
p g is a substi tut e fo r wri t te n spell

i ng i n t he ca se o f pu pils whose si ght is de fective or a co rn “

lcm nt i n the form ation o f p rsis te n t asso iations it follows

p c e c
,

tha t the te ache r should s tu dy his class a nd th e n adj ust t he ,

p ro po rtion o f wri tte n a nd o ral s pe lling t o t he Nee d s o f t he

c lass (2 ) S i nce t he ( nn pe ti ti v e ins tin ct ca n b e utili z ed to
.
a

be tte r a d vantag e i n oral than in wri tte n s pe llin g th ere ou ght ,

to he o ral s p lling i n those case s wh e re it is ad van tag eous i e

e ,
. .
,

i n re a d in g clas se s i n o the r bran ches a nd as spe ci a l l essons

, ,

wi th younge r pu pils .

s p e ll i n g b o o k sh o u l d b e u s e d a s m u ch a s
“
8 Th e
.
-

p ro p e r s tre s s a n d e c o n o m y re q u i r e ( 1) The s pelling

! !
.

l o o k ha s al ways e m phasi z ed the i m po rtan ce o f s pe lling as a

i
'
su bj ct of s tudy Wh e reve r i t fa l ls in to d isuse te ach e rs a re
e .
,

likely to pa y to o little a ttention to s pelling a nd pu pils fall ,

in te habi ts o f ca rel e ss s pelling (2 ) ICco no m y req ui res th a t . .

lis ts o f W o rd s b e m as te red i n s pe lling e ve n when t he word s ,

ca nnot all b d eve lo ped into a W orking vo ca b ula ry

e
( )
a T h e .

m ind o f t he pu pil is re a dy fo r this task a ss m ia ti v e m e m ory z

,

s ti m ula te d by t he co m pe ti tive instin ct whi ch is present i n

y oun g e r u
p p ils ti t s th e m to d o t he re uired work
q (S e e the
'
.
,

llCle v e n th L a w o f Mental Activity a nd t he S ix t h il ri ne i ple o i

’

I ns truc tim n) (6 ) The r e is a good d e al o f ti m e o n t he han d s

.
 S PE LL I NG 167

of younger pupils which ( a n be utilized i n such l es s ns (e)

,
o .

Moreover where v er t he s pelling book h as b een wisely used

,
-

the res ul ts have been grati fying .

VI . C OU RS E OF LE SS ONS .

It is evident from the princi ples of instruct io n in s pelling ,

that the m urse o f l ess ons should b e as f ollo ws ( 1 ) The voca b

u la ry of the gra d e t o which the pupil belongs should b e .

mastere d in s pelling ; and (2) there should b a parallel and e

supple m enta ry c ourse in the spel li ng b oo k ~

.

1 V o c a b u l a ry L e s s o ns
. The pupil n eu ls an e v er i n . ,
-

creasing voca b ulary i n order ( 1 ) tha t he m a y und erstand

books and (2 ) that he may express h is thoug hts It is o b
,
.

v i o us t h t this l is t o f words (the pu pi l s neces sary v oca b ula ry )

a
’

is t he lis t t o b e spellu l before any other work in s pe lli n g is

d one .

2 Th e S p e ll i n g B o o k
. The pres e nt necessity o f the pupi l
-
.

d eser v es the te ae hes first attention ; but a s pointed out o n ,

page 7 0 the future m a essity of the pupi l d eser v es atte ntion

,
z
,

t o
o . I n o ther words w hen pupils ar ri v e a t a ce rta in st ge in
,
a

their pro gres s their working vocabula ry needs t/ ) b e in creased

,

so fast tha t unles s they ha v e al re a dy lea rne l t o s pel l m ny

,
a

of the words they will n o t ha v e time enough t o m a ste r b oth

,

spelling and meanings and are there f ore likely t negi e rt the , o

s pelli ng To avoid this evil the lis ts of a grad ed s pelling book

.
,
-

are t o b e spelle d so m e wha t in a d v a nre of t he a ct ual v oca b u

la ry noe l of the p upil .

VI I . TH E I MPORTA NCE OF S P E LLI NG .

The re are very fe w s ubjm fts of study so s rio usly neglee t el e

as that of spelling The i m p rt a nrx: of o ther stu d i es is more

. o

obvious and this push es s pe lling int o the b ae kgro u nd o f o ur

,

esti m ation The f ollo wing estima t e of s pelling seem s fair

.

( )
1 T h e dis cipline o f spe lling has a moral and pract ical
1 68 PR I NCI PL E S A ND ME TH ODS OF TE A CH I NG

ra dius and (2 ) good spelling is a desirable instrument in

writte n communications whether they be co mmercial social
, , ,

o r literary and scientific .

1 Th e D i s c i pl i n e o f S p e ll i n g
. Th e habits and tastes cul
.

ti v a ted in the e fforts requ i red to m a ster spellin g assert them

,

selves as habits and tastes in the moral and practical act ivi t ies
o f pupils . In other words the habits o f attention accura cy
, , ,

and correction which the pupil must cultivate i n order to

,

maste r spelling will in ti m e become habi t s and tastes in his

,

other st u dies and in his moral and practical dealings

, .

2 Th e D e s i r a b i l i t y o f A b i l i t y i n S p e ll i n g T
. .
( )
1 h e

young people that seek positions o f trust and honor must give ,

evidence of character in most unexpected ways A busi ness .

man kno ws when he reads the letter o f an applicant for a posi

,

tion whether he may safely employ the applicant or not H e

,
.

knows this not only by observing the penmanship and indi

v i d u a l i ty o f th e let ter but also by the spelling of the words
,

used in the letter (2) What i s true o f w ritten interco u rse

.

with business men is equally t rue o f social letters literary

, ,

products and scientific treatises We th i nk better o f o u r cor

,
.

responden ts when they spell well We could not tolerate bad

.

spelling in literature and scientific treatises There is no .

reason why these ideals should not be respected in o u r school

curriculum (3) It is to be deplored therefore that spelling
.
, ,

has fallen i nto such great neglect as facts at present show a nd ,

the evil should be corrected in all grades o f o ur schools .

1 70 PR I NCI PL E S A ND M E TH OD S OF TE A CH I NG

the costs be what they will B u t the man o f limited means

.

should first examine his bank account and then plan his house ,

wi t hin his means In composition as in archi t ecture the t wo

.
, ,

important considerations after selecting a subject are ( l ) the ,

plan o f constr uction and (2 ) the mate ria l resour ces Th e man
,
.

o f large mental resources need n o t count the costs beforehan d ,

when he is about to write a composition F o r him it is po s .

sible t o plan the construction according to the ends in V iew ,

regardless of the m enta l costs B u t the man o f limi ted men.

ta l means should first ascerta in his resources and then plan ,

hi s composition .

If the materials are collected before the plan o f construe

tion is matured a tentative plan should be followed in the co l
,

lection In that event it is true the supply may exceed the

.
, ,

demand o f the ultimate plan but this is infini tely better th an

poverty in supply Indeed the supply Of materials should
.
,

be much greater than the demand In that event critica l .

selection o f m aterials becomes possible a nd this is a most ,

d esirable possibility .

Th e P l a n o f C o n s tru c t i o n When the collection of mate

.

rials has bee n accomplished the tentative pl an Of structure

,

should be developed i nto an ultimate plan The plan o f a .

co m position is co m monly term ed Ou tli ne o r S ynop sis A ,

.

“ ”
synopsis i n composition is a draught fo r the composer .

It represents the phases o f the subject and therefore serves as ,

a frame or skeleton for the collected m aterials The composer .

simply covers th i s frame o r clothes the skeleton with suitable

, ,

materials and thus completes the structure In order that a

,
.

synopsis m a y serve its purpose it must be specific i e it mus t , ,

. .
,

be designed for the particular species o f composition to be

constructed .

Sp eci es of Com p osi ti on The species o f composition are as

.

follows (1 ) D escription (2) Narration (3) L etters (4) E ssays

, , , ,

( )
5 O rations and
, ( ) oems
6 P .
 COMP OS I TI ON 1 71

(l ) A
com position devoted to the qualities Of an object per ,

so n,
scene o r phenomenon is termed a D escrip ti on (2) A
, , .

composition concerned wi th events W hether they be ficti t ious o r ,

true is termed a Na rr a ti on Tales stories anecdotes b i o gra

,
.
, , ,

phy history novels etc are species of narration (3) A L etter

, , ,
.
, .

is a written co mmunication fr om o n e person to another The .

S pecies of lette rs are di dactic new s official commercial in , , , ,

tro d u cto ry etc (4 ) A,

brief composition
. devoted to the ex
pres sion o f Opin ions on im portant subjects is te rmed an E s sa y ,
.

E di torials re v iews etc are comm on examples of essays

, ,
.
,
A .

Thesi s i s a lengthy and logica l essay on some dignified subject .

A text book is a thes is (5 ) A com position intended for hear

-
.

ers is termed an Or a ti on S peeches addres ses lectur es ser

,
.
, , ,

mons et c a r e S p ecies o f oration (6) A metrica l composition

,
.
, .

cons tr ucte d to please the taste is termed a P oem H ymns ,

.

are poems .

Th e S keleton o f a des cription S ho ul d promote organi c

sequence in construction ; that Of nar ration chr onological ,

sequence and that of essays o r orations syllogistic sequence ,

.

The foll owi ng outl ines are illustrations Of these requi rements .

A TH E R MOME TE R .
( D escr ip ti o n )
I NTR ODU CTI ON .

1 . V AR I A TI ONS I N TE MP E R ATU R E .

2 . TH E NE ED OF EX A CT ME AS UR E ME N T OF TE MP E R A
U
T RE .

IN V E NTI ON OF TH E TH E R MOME TE R .

IT L ON G B E E N N OTI CE D THA T B OD I E S E XP A N D
HA D

A N D S H R I NK .

2 . TH I S S U GGE S TE D TH E P OS S IB I LI TY OF CON S TR U CT I N G
A TH E R MOME TE R .
1 72 PR I NCI PL ES AND ME TH ODS OF TE ACHI NG

CONS TRU CTI ON OF TH E TH E R MOME TE R .

A H OLL OW U BE W I TH B UL B I S N E E D E D
T .

TH E BUL B I S F I LLE D W I TH M E R C UR Y .

A V AC UU M IS LE FT A B OV E .

H OW TH E M EAS U R I N G IS D ON E .

l The tu b e i s fixed i n a m a r ked p la te

. .

2 The d eg rees a r e cou nted up wa r ds

. .

5 . H OW TH E S CALE I S M AD E .

l The tu be i s im m ersed i n m elti ng i ce for

. the

p i o nt .

2 . P lu ng ed i n to stea m f
or the b o ili ng p oi nt -
.

3 . The i n terveni ng sp a ce i s di vi ded i nto equ a l sp a ces .

CONCL U S I ON I TS U S E S .

1 . To COMP AR E TH E H E AT OF DI FFE R E NT CLI MATE S .

2 . IN TH E AR TS .

F IV E YE ARS ’
E XPE R I E N CE WI TH A S U ND AY S CH OOL -

CLA SS .

( Cla r k s Pra cti ca l R hetori c ) ( Na rr a ti on )

’
.

I NTR ODU CTI ON .

MY H E S I TATI ON AB OU T TA KI NG TH E CL AS S , A ND TH E
FI RS T S AB B ATH .

TH E CL A S S .

1 . OR I G I N AL ME M BE RS .

2 . C HA N G E S .

TH E PU PI LS .

1 . P E RS ONAL A P PE AR AN CE .

2 . CHA R AC TE R S .

3 H OM E S UR R OU N D I NGS
. .
1 74 P R I NCI PL ES AND ME THODS OF TE A CHI NG

MANH OOD .

1 . TAL E NTS .

2 . OCCUP ATI ON .

3 . A CH I E V E M E N TS .

4 . CR I TI CAL E S TI M ATE S .

1 S ha kesp ea re 3 cha ra cter

.
’
.

2 . S ha kesp ea s wo rks .

’
3 . S ha kesp ea r e s endu ri ng f a m e.

CONCLU S I ON .

1 . D E ATH .

1 . Obsequi es .

2 R esti ng p la ce
. .

3 Re.
fl ecti ons .

H A B ITS .
( E ssa y ) .

I NTR ODU CTI ON .

1 . I n ter esti ng a ne cdotes .

WHAT IS A HA BI T ?
H OW D OE S A N YTH I N G B E COME A HAB I T ? E XA MP LE S .

WH A T HAB I TS ARE P OS S I B LE
l A i m ort a n t ossi bili t
. v er
y p p y .

WHAT HAB I TS S HOULD WE C ULTI VATE

1 . Th e g o v erni ng co nsi der a ti ons .

2 . Go o d ha bi ts enu m er a ted a n d
fi
de n ed .

3 . The wor th o
f g o o d ha bi ts .

TH E P E R S I S TE N C Y OF HAB I TS . E X AM P L ES .

1 . H ow to d estroy ba d ha bi ts . A necdo tes .

2 . The cu rse of evi l ha bi ts .

CONCL U S I ON .

1 . H ow ca r
e ufl we sho u ld be i n form i ng ha bits .
 COMPOS I TI ON 1 75

WI L L . Th esi s ) .

I NTR ODU CTI ON .

1 . TH E AB I LI TY TO GOVE B N O U RS E LVE S Is TE R ME D

WI LL .

2 . A NY E X E R CIS E OF T HIS A B I LI TY IS TE R M E D WI LL
I N G, O B VO L I TI ON .

N ATU R E OF WILL .

1 . MOTI V E S . Th e i nfluences that ente r, but do not i rres ist

ibl ) dete rm i n e a voluntary struggle, are termed Mo
7
,

2 . D E CI S I ON Th e
voluntary selection o f an alte rnative
.
,

afte r co mpari ng it W ith others is te rmed D eci si on ,

.

1 I ntenti on
. The volunta ry select ion Of an alte r
.

native W hose atta i nment is prosp ective is ,

te rmed I ntention .

( )
1 V igorous intention is term ed P u r ose
p .

E xamples .

( )
2 Inv i n cible p u rpose i s termed R eso lu

ti on E xam pl es . .

2 A ttention
. Th e volunta ry and uninte rru pted se
.

lection o f o ne alternative rather than others ,

i s te rmed A ttenti on .

CULTI VATI ON OF WIL L .

1 . D E VE LOP ME NT OF NO BLE CON CE P TI ON S AND FE E L

I N GS .

V I GO R OUS A N D R E SO LUTE A C TI V I TY I N A L L TA S KS .

TH E P UP I L S E FF OR TS MUS T B E S TIM ULATE D , S UP E R

’

VIS E D, AS S IS TE D .

CONCL U S I ON .

1 . TH E WOR TH OF W I LL .

2 . TH E I MP OR TAN C E OF I TS CULTUR E .
1 76 PR I NCI PL E S A ND ME TH ODS OF TE ACH I NG

THE PR OB AB I L I TI E S .
( L ecture )
I NTR ODU CTI ON .

NOW ON TH E WA Y TO B E TE ACH E R S .

1 . TH E IN FLU E NCE S H I TH E R TO A T W OR K I N YOU .

2 . TH E D I FF E R E N CE OF P E RS ON AL ATTI TU D E .

1 . E nds i n v i ew .

”
2 . The hea rt in ea ch a tti tud e .

3 R esolu ti o n, wea k
. o r strong .

PR OB AB I LI TI E S .

TH E R E W I LL B E W OR K F OR YOU To D o .

1 The d em a nd for tea chers

. .

2 . P r u dent p r ep a ra ti on , P rofessi o na l Tr a i ni ng .

2 . WH E TH E R YOU WI LL BE WOR TH Y OF SO NO B LE A
CALLI N G M US T D E P E N D TO A GR E AT E XTE NT ON
,

YOUR OWN E FFOR TS .

1 E xerci se i s the p ri ce of cu ltur e

. .

1 In it must be a good head

. .

2 In it must be a Whole heart

. .

3 In it must be a set purpose

. .

2 S tu dy i s the p r i ce of wisdom
. .

1 In it must be humility
. .

2 In it must be constancy
. .

3 In it must be V igor
. .

3 . TH E L I V E S OF M AN Y W I LL B E P U T I N TO YOU R K E E P
I N G F OR W E AL O R WOE THUS I T A P P E AR S I M
.

P OR TA N T ,

1 . Tha t yo u shou ld u ndersta nd you r busi ness .

2 . A nd tha t you shou ld m i nd your busi ness .

CONCLU S I ON .
1 78 PR I NCI PLE S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE ACH I NG
occupies a number of pages as in the case o f a thesis the first , ,

page S hould be devoted to the statement o f the subject the name ,

o f the writer the date etc ,

O nly o n e page o f a sheet should
,
.

be used The synopsis o r skeleto n should be written on the

.
, ,

third page The subject of a composition appropriately a nd

.
,

interestingly stated S hould be written o n the first line o f the

,

fifth pag e The follo wing line should n ot be used The I n

. .

t ro d u cti o n should begin on the third line W ith the usual mar ,

gin o f an in ch o r more H eadings o f the sections o f a chapter

.

should be written across the page with o ne line unoccupied b e

fore and after them (3) That which is said about each phase
.

o f the subject as represented by the skeleton

,
is termed a ,

P a ra gra p h E ach paragraph is a composition in itself and

.
,

all the paragraphs taken together in their true order constitute ,

the composition whole The subject o f each paragraph should

-
.

be stated in appropriate words and concisely This stateme nt ,

.
,

o r heading should be written o n the first line o f the paragraph

, ,

underscored and separated from the first sentence by a period

,

and considerable S pace When no paragraph headings are .

used as in subordinate paragraphs the first line Of the para

, ,

graph should begin a n inch o r more from the left margin o f

the page A paragraph should never begin o n the unfinished
.

line of a preceding paragraph The paragraphs S hould be as .

perfect as possible in the choice Of words correctness and effec ,

t i v eness o f sentences figures o f speech punctuation capitals

, , , ,

illustrations quotations etc , ,

.

F i n i s h i n g To u c h e s Improprieties and errors in a com

.

position should be criticised and corrected .

Cri ti cism E rrors and improprieties will creep into a co m

.

position do what we may to keep them out A mong the de

,
.

feets that commonly creep into a composition are ( 1 ) the choice

o f inferior thou ghts ( 2 ) an inferior plan of structure ( 3) de
, ,

fect iv e junction o f paragraphs (4) weak illustrations and quo ,

t a ti o n s (5 ) poor taste in figures of speech (6 ) faulty v o ca b u

, ,
 COMPOS I TI ON 1 79

lary (7 ) incorrect S pelling (8 ) poor pe nma nship (9 ) faulty

, , ,

sentences ( 1 0) defective punctuation ( 1 1 ) errors in capitaliza

, ,

tion (1 2 ) car elessness in details These imperfections whether

,
.
,

they be matter or form are injurious t o the composition The

,
.

writer should therefore repeatedly revise his production, and

the revision should be both critical and unsparing .

Co r recti o n The author of a composition may be very co n

.

sci en ti o u s in revision and yet fail to perfect his composition

,
.

It requires years o f discipline to become an adept in the busi

ness o f composing U ntil th e co mposer has become a m aster
.

in his art supervision and as sistance must be added to re

,

vision In other words a superior must point out i m perfec

.
,

tions and assist the writer i n perfecting a composition .

B . I N S TR U C TI O N I N C O M P O S I TI O N .

Th e teacher o f composition as we must in fer from the ,

nature o f the tasks in question should understand ( 1 ) S uper ,

vision in Composition ( 2) The P rinciples of P rocedure (3) The

, ,

Co u rses Of L essons and (4) Th e Importance of Composition

, .

S u p e r v i s i o n i n C o m p o s i ti o n The teacher s supervision ’

.

in composition as we know from the tasks o f the pupil must

, ,

extend over ( 1 ) The S election o f a S ubject (2) The Cumula ,

tion o f Mate rials (3) The P lan o f C onstruction (4) The Co n

, ,

struction Of the Composition and 5 ) The F inish , .

E ffe c t i v e S e l e c t i o n o f S u bj e c ts There are three govern

.

i ng considerations in the selection o f subjects for compositions

( )
1 T h e subject should be suitable in itself ;
( 2 ) Th e subject
should be suited to the writer s present po wers and (3) The ’

'
subject should be sui ted to the occasion .

E ffe c t i v e C u m u l a t i o n o f M a t e r i a l s A mong the govern .

i ng considerations in collecting thoughts and language fo r a

composition are the following : (1 ) The method o f cumulatio n
,

should be consistent w ith the n ature of the subject Withi n .

the domain o f experience fo r example Observation is more

, ,
1 80 PR I NCI PLE S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE ACH I NG
e ffective than rea ding (2) The cum ul ation should be co n
.

’
sis tent with the composer s constructive powers The young .

writer for example should not attempt to collect abstract an d

, ,

general thoughts (3) Th e cumulation should be co nsiste nt

.

with the purpose o f the composition The occasion the i nte l .

,

ligence o f the read er o r hearer e t c must be co nsidered i n

,
.
,

collectin g materials o f though t and language .

E ffe c t i v e P l a n n i n g o f t h e C o m p o s i t i o n A mong the .

governing considera t ions in the plan o f a composition are the

following : (1 ) The plan o f construction should be consistent
with the species o f composition to be constructed The plan .

Of a story for example would not do for a thesis

, , ( )
2 Th e .

plan of construction should be the m ost suitable framework for

the mate rials to be e m ployed in construct ion It should be a .

guide in collect ing materials and a skeleton fo r the composi

tion to be constructed (3) The tentative plan used i n collect
.

ing mate rials should be critically revised until it becomes most

effective When it has become a habit to plan co m posi t ions
.
,

a nd to persevere in the e fforts to find the best plan great ,

progress has been made toward mastery in composition .

E ffe ct i v e C o n s tr u c t i o n o f t h e C o m p o s i t i o n A mong .

the governin g considerations in writing o u t a co m position

, ,

are the follo w ing : (1 ) A composition S hould be constructed

in obedience to the plan o f construction D ev iations S hould .

be attempted only fo r good reas ons (2 ) The collected mate .

rials Of thought should be arranged in the most effective way .

This requirement refers to the development Of the paragraph s ,

the possible arrangements being either inductive o r deductive ,

analytic o r synthe t ic (3) The language Of a co m position

,
.

S hould b e choice and e ffective This requirement refers to the

.

selection o f words the structure o f sentences the figures Of

, ,

speech the taste in mechanical execution the punctuation the

, , ,

capita ls etc This is the domai n o f S TYLE

,
. .

Di cti on . The selection and use of words is te rmed D i c ,

 1 82 PR I NCI PL E S A ND ME THOD S OF TE ACH I NG

Ta ste i n Com p osi ti on . A ppreciation Of

proprieties is termed
Taste Good taste is a respect fo r bea uty subli m ity pa thos and
.
, , ,

humor Good taste in composition also respects mechanical

.

adaptations such as places o n the page the uses o f spaces etc

, , ,
.

P u n ctu a ti on a n d Cap i ta ls etc N o composition is complete

,
.

unless its punctuation and capitals are correct The details can .

n o t b e enumerated here The instructor i n composition must

.

study these matters i n some treatise o n R hetoric The same .

holds tr ue o f instruction in P rosody .

E ffe c t i v e F i n i s h The removal o f imperfections that were

.

n o t noticed i n writing o u t the composition is te rmed F inish , .

It corresponds to the process denoted by the same name in the

mechanical arts such as archite cture sculpture etc E ffective
, , , .

finish is the removal o f all those crudities and blemishes that

Offend good taste .

P r i n ci pl e s o f I n s tr u c t i o n Th e principles of instruction
.
,

as stated in the chapter devote d to that purpose are applica ,

ble to all branches o f study S everal o f them (the S econd and

.

Tenth ) need to be emphasized in their application to co m posi

tion F rom the S econd P rinciple Of Instru ction we derive the
.

follo wing modified form : The learner S hould be led to see

h o w talking and writ ing are related F rom the Tenth P rin
.

ci le o f Instruction we derive the following modified forms

p
( )
1 Instruction in the art of language should precede instru o

tion i n the science of language (2) The art of language S hould

be perfected by the science o f language ; and (3) The Courses
o f instru ction in language should be graded from the S i m ple to

the com plex .

1 . The lea rn er shou ld be led to see ho w ta lki ng a nd wri ti ng

r ela te d . Children
are inclined to think that composing is en
t i rely di fferent fro m talking and fa r more di fficult , This .

notion o ften causes them to dread co m position and to be u n ,

natural i n their attempts to compose It i s therefore quite .

important to correct all such notions The pupils must be .

 COMPOS I TI ON 1 83

made to see first o f all that it is possible to wri te thoughts as

well as to ta lk thoughts and that writing and talking are ,

somewhat equivalent as modes o f expressing thoughts This .

point cleared up it becomes evident to pupils that composing

,

is n o t a n attempt to say what they do not know o r cannot

think but j ust the opposite The relation o f talking and
,
.

writing is best taught by requiring pupils to ta lk their thoughts

before writing them and to wri te them j ust as they woul d talk
,

them .

2 I ns tru cti on i n the a r t of la ng u a g e sho u ld p r ecede i ns tru o

.

'
ti on i n the science of la ngu a g e U nlettered p eo ple exp ress their
.

thoughts in speech and writing w ithout thinking o f parts o f

S peech rules o f grammar requirements o f rhetoric etc
, , H omer ,
.

wrote the Iliad without a kno wledge o f these requirements It .

is true enough however that such attempts are Often crude

, ,

and imperfect The desire to improve language as a vehicle

.

o f thought prompted inquiry into the structure o f words sen

, ,

tences etc ,
A nd thus in time the laws Of language were as oer
.

ta i ned In other words the science Of language was developed

.
,

from the art o f language Thus it becomes evident that i n

.

struction i n the art o f language should precede instruction in

the science o f language Indeed this has become the govern
.
,

ing principle in the construction O f modern text books o n -

grammar rhetoric etc The introductory courses in these

, , .

branches are designed to develop imitative faculty in composi

tion rather than critical insight .

3 The a r t of la ngu a g e s hou ld b e p erfected by the sci ence of

.

la ngu a g e Imitative faculty in co m position is an inestimable

.

attainment but critical insight is the necessary comple m ent of

,

i m itative faculty In other words the co m poser wh o can jus

.
,

t i fy his i m itations and correct imperfections by reference to

principles is a superior workman If for example a pupil
,
.
, ,

should punctuate a sentence as he has seen it punctuated and ,

then give the reasons ; o r if he can correct errors in sentences

, ,
1 84 P R I NCI PL E S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE ACH I NG
and give the reasons a ccording to grammar and rhetoric he is ,

certainly more fortunate than a pupil who can only imitate

sentences etc w ithout knowing the rea sons or the principles
,
.
,

Of language involved It is evident therefore that a know l

.
, ,

edge o f gra m mar rhetoric etc are indispensable to mastery

, ,
.
,

in composition A ccordingly the pupil should in due time

.
,

he led to see these pri nciples and to govern hi m self by them , .

In short the art of language should be perfected by the science

,

o f language .

.4 The c o u rses of i nstr u cti on i n la ngu a g e shou ld be gra d ed

f rom the si m
p le to the co m
p lex A c cording to the Tenth P rin .

ciple o f Instruction introductory courses as well as subsequent

, ,

courses in any study S hould requ i re the learner to supple m ent

,

his observations by induction and deduction There are t wo .

governing considerations in the correct application o f this prin

ci le :
p ( l ) Th e stages o f mental development sh ould be asoer
ta i ned and respected These stages of comparatively greater
.

functional activity and aptitude are ( 1 ) The perceptive stage , ,

( )
2 T h e conceptive stage ( memory imagination and general , ,

i z a t io n ) and (3) Th e reflective stage (induction deduction )

, ,
.

Th e teacher should ascertain the particular mental epoch at

which his pupil has arrived and then adjust the tasks which ,

he assigns In the perceptive epoch fo r example the exer

.
, ,

cises in composition should no t demand too much generali za

tion and very little reflection In the conceptive epoch the
,
.

tasks m ay become somewhat m ore abstract and in the reflec ,

ti v e epoch they should require inductive discovery o f the prin

ci pl es of composition and deductive confor m ity a s w ell as logi ,

cal reflect io n on the subject o f co m position ( 2 ) There should .

be a progressive transition fro m si m ple to co m plex tasks in

composition I t is not enough th at the adjust m ents recognize
.

perceptive conceptive and reflective epochs in composi t ion

, , ,

and the relative preponderan ce of one aptitude over others in

each epoch There must be a further adj ustment within each
.
1 86 PR I NCI PL E S A ND ME THODS OF TE A CHI NG

P roper care should be taken o f neatness spelling numbers , , ,

periods commas capitals etc as the pupil can understand

, , ,
.
,

these matters The pupil will need constant supervision

. .

2 Wri ti ng the n a m es of a ctions

. The pupil should be re .

quired to write the names Of actions the names o f ten things

that a frog an owl a bee a mouse a storm o r a cloud have
, , , , , ,

been observed to do This should be done according to the

.

d irections that apply to writi ng the names of Obj ects .

3 Wr i ti ng si m p le sentences
. The pupil should be required
.

to write the names o f objects joined to the names o f their

actions ; as B irds fly ; The cat mews ; A cloud moves The
, .

name o f the object may be given and the pupil required to add ,

the name of i ts action or v i ce v ersa as A fish

,
A ,

s wims The pupi l S hould be taught to call these sentences

.

telling or D eclarative sentences

, ,
A S soon as he knows how .

to write these S hort D eclarative sentences and has formed the ,

habit o f using the capital and period correctly he S hould learn ,

to write a ski ng o r Inte rrogative sentences ; com m a ndi ng or

, ,

I m perative sentences ; and feeli ng or E xclamatory sentences , .

S pecial attention to the di fferences in punctuation is important .

There should be plenty o f practice and correction .

4 S upp lyi ng ellip ses i n si m p le sen tences

. The pupil should .

be required to supply the words wanted in such sentences as

the following : M abel lost hat found my skates . .

The rabbit was killed Those cakes tasted . Mary

can run Ma y I go you ? J ohn be ,

We sa w D ora on the door step A t first the pupil should

-
.

not kno w the words to be supplied as pronouns adjectives a d , ,

verbs prepositions part iciples etc but only as words needed

, , ,
.
,

to complete the sentences In due time the o ffices of the vari

.

o u s parts o f speech can be taught by means of such ellipses .

5 . Co nstru cti ng si m p le sen tences conta i ni ng g i v en wor ds o r

p h r a ses T.h e pupil should be required to construct simple
sentences containing given words o r phrases A t first the sen .
 COMPOS I TI ON 1 87

te n oes should contain onl y o ne given word o r phrase The .

words o r phrases to be used may be written o n the black

board and referred to the pupils A t first the pupil should
,
.

construct the sentences orally in order that he may see What ,

is required o f him in writing Whe n two o r more words are .

to be used the teacher mus t select very carefully so as not to

, ,

make the tas k to o difficult at first Phrases should n o t be in .

t ro d uced until the pupil has acq uired considerable sk i ll with

words .

6 Cop yi ng a nd i m i ta ti ng sen tences c onta i ning cap i ta ls a bbr e

.
,

vi a ti ons a n d
, p u nctu a ti on etc When the pupil has acquired
,
.

satisfactory skill in constr u cting simple sentences that require

only final punctuation and an o ccasional comma he S hould
, ,

be in troduced to simple sentences that require a number o f

punctuation marks abbreviations and capitals In due time
, ,
.

complex and finally compound sentences S hould be studied

, , ,

the mode o f proced ure being imita tive .

Th e teac her may write suitable sente nce s on the black bo ard -

explain the punct uation marks capitals abbreviations etc , , ,

.
,

that occur require the pupils to explain these matters as well

,

as they can and then to copy the sentences first at sight but
, , ,

afte rwards from memo ry until they can do so without awk

,

w a rd ness or blunder .The pupils S hould be required to imi

tate these co pied sentences i e to write original sentences in
, . .
,

which the punctuation etc is like that o f the copied sen

,
.
,

ten ces . P arts o f complex and compound sentences may also

be given and the pupils requ i red to complete them ; as If
, ,

J ane had not ret u rned ,

While
the house burned do wn A wise son maketh a glad
.

father ; but
Th e tas ks here proposed require the teacher to understa nd
grammar and rhetoric It is not maintained that these exer
.

cises should be continued in an unbroken series u ntil the whole

ground has been covered but only tha t such a co urse ought to
,
1 88 PR I NCI PL E S A ND ME TH ODS OF TE ACH I NG

be finished in due time and acco rding to circumsta nce s The .

more di ffi cult lessons in punct uation quotation abbreviation , , ,

etc should evidently be deferred u ntil grammar and rheto ric

.
,

are taken u p in the regu lar way The te acher should see to .

it that the tasks which he a ssigns at this stage in co mposition

necessitate perceptive and reco llective attention and concrete ,

judgm ent but not much reflect ive e ffort and very little origi
, ,

nal e ffort .

7 Cop yi ng a nd cor recti ng p o em s

. While pupils are study .

ing punctuation abbreviation quota tion and capitals as indi

, , , ,

ca ted they shou l d also copy and co rrect poems

,
A t first suit .

’
able poems should be copied from books put into the pupil s
hand A fte r wards the teacher should dict ate concrete poems
.
,

and require the children to copy these taking care to get the ,

l i nes capitals marks etc righ t

, , ,
When these exercises have
.
,
.

become e a sy poe m s whose punctuation m arks capitals etc ,

, , ,
.

are incorrect should be corre cted by the pupils S uch a o

, .

counts o f corrections as the pupils can give should be required ,

and the teacher should tolerate no guessing In due ti m e the .

more co nspicuous distinctions bet ween prose and poetry should

be studied but technical distinct ions and abstractions should
be reserved for the rhe t ori c class .

8 Co m m i tti ng a nd r eci ti ng choi ce s electi o ns of p r ose a n d

.

p o etr
y In
. all t h e grades O f o u r schools the pu ils S hould be
p ,

required to co m m it and reci te choice selections Of prose and

poetry Only su ch extrac t s as by reason Of their literary and
.
,

m oral excellence deserve t o beco m e permanent m ental posses

,

sions shoul d be co m m itted by the pu pils Th e teacher S hould

,
.

not allo w these extracts to b e reci te d in parrot fashion b u t ,

tho ught fully This tl u m g h t ful ness w ill be co m e a habi t if

.
,

q ues t ions m ust be ans wered by t he pupil in connection w ith

the recitations The pra cti ce here advocated will cultivate

.

a l iterary taste whi ch l ies at the basis of all artistic excellence

,
”
in the u se of language .
1 90 PR I NCI PL E S A ND M E TH OD S OF TE A CH I NG

ment of the letter the construction o f sentences the pun ctu a

, ,

tion the spelling etc should be as perfect as possible The

, ,
.
, .

corrected lette rs should be copied and preserved in a book .

1 1 D escri bi ng o bjects
. P upils should be required to o b .

serve some object critically and then to describe it truthfully , .

S ometimes chil dren cannot think of all that they know about
so m ething B y means o f appropriate questions the child may
.
,

be led to think of his knowledge and to discover more than ,

he could find o u t unaided Children should also be required .

to describe absent objects o r phenomena such as a meadow a , , ,

sunset a wagon a chestnut tree a rabbit etc These exer

, , , , .

cises develo p accuracy and vigor in descriptive composition ;

and in helping to establish the habit of critical observation
, ,

they equip the pupil for subsequent investigations A ttention .

to the though ts to be expressed often causes the novice in com

position to forget the requirements of gram mar rhetoric and , ,

penmanship etc S uch carelessness should not be tolerated at

,
.

any time .

1 2 D es cri bi ng a cti ons

. P u pils should be required to o b .

serve actions critically and then to describe them truthfully , .

The actions of a child the move m ents of a horse the perform

, ,

ance o f a trick the confusions o f an accident etc are suitable

, ,
.
,

subjects P roperly supervised children w ill not only enjoy

.
,

these exercises but acquire great ability in su ch description

,
.

A ppropriate questions are as important in these tasks as in the

description o f objects It may also be required of pupils at
.

'
this sta ge to write newspaper paragraphs In order to show .

the pupils what is wanted the teacher may bring a newspaper ,

to school and read such paragraphs as will interest them and ,

then require the m to wr ite little items in imitation o f those in

the paper In due time descriptions of current events should
.

follow A ccounts of floods fires storms parades conventions

.
, , , , ,

elections inventions dis coveries etc , are appropriate for older

, , ,
.

pupils .
 COMPOS I TI ON 191

1 3 D escri bi ng p i ctures
. a nd ba sing stori es o n
p i ctu r es . A
picture as it is well known appeals not only to the eye but
, , ,

also to the imagination o f children P ictures are accordingly .

o f great value in language lessons The pupils should be re

.

quired to Observe a pictu re critically and then to tell what ,

may be seen S ometimes it may be necessary to ask questions

.

in order to lead the Observer to fin d what is to be found I n .

a sm u ch as pictu res appea l to the imag i nation they may be em ,

ployed to suggest stories The children will readily i nvent

.

such stories provided the teacher start s the process and pre
serves the threa d by means Of skilful questions and suggestions .

A ppropriate pictures may be found in school books o r brought -

by teacher and pupils The teacher should see to it that only

.

such pict ures are used as are aesthetically and morally fit .

1 4 Wri ti ng a necdo tes a nd na rr a ti v es

. There is magic in .

anecdotes and narratives The young mind loves them ; the

.

Old mind lives in them The power to relate anecdotes and to

.

te ll stories is a ,
equipment in teaching language
lessons There are three sta ges to observe in teaching a nec
.

dotes and stories : (1 ) A t first the teacher should relate the

anecdote o r tell the story the pupils liste ning attentively all
,

through the procedure Then the pupil assisted by questions

.
, ,

if that b e necessary should repeat the su bsta nce o f the anecdote

,

o r story orally at first and then in writing (2) A necdotes

, ,
.

and stories may be told in short sentences either orally o r in ,

writing When the teacher has thus put the pupils o n the
.

track they should be requir ed to expand th ese short sentences

, ,

supply i ng what seems necessary to complete the structure .

( )
3 To O lder pupils only an outline should be submitted and ,

they should be required to construct the story themselves .

This last task is quite di ffi cult inasmuch as it requires concep

,

tive and inventive effort ; but the exercise brings excellent

results .

No te The incomparable stories of Grimm , H an s Christian

.
1 92 PR I NCI PLE S AN D ME TH ODS OF TE ACHI NG

A ndersen ,
and other writers of stories for children should be ,

studied by teachers i n order to imbibe the inspira tion that

,

ought to belong to this species o f ins t ructi on .

II . I NTE R ME D I ATE COU R S E .

( )
1 In the E lementa ry Course the stres s was laid o n per
ce p t iv e and r ecollective e fforts The concep t ions required i n
.

tha t course were concre te Inventive and reflective e fforts re

.
,

quired with i n l i mi t s were attentively superv ised and greatly

,

assiste d (2 ) Th e In te rm edi ate Cour se con t inues to require

.

the e fforts o f the E lementary Course but introduces abs tra ct ,

act ivity and lays s t ress on reflective and inventive e fforts

, .

L ess assistan ce is Offered to the pupil and he is requ i red to ,

depend a grea t deal upon his o wn resource s There is a tran .

s i t i o n from advisory t o corrective and critical supervision .

The co u rse is i n tended for pupils between t welve and eigh teen
years o f age In graded schools the Intermediate Co u rse
.
,

should be completed sooner .

1. Wri ti ng the su bsta n ce of r ea ding lessons It is an excel .

lent plan to require pupils to w ri te the substance of the i r

reading lessons This task may be requir ed as a prepara t ion
.

for intellectual reading o r as a d i rect exercise in composition

,

at stated times say once or t wice a week There are several

,
.

merits in the exercise here ad vocated : ( 1 ) It promotes intel

lect ua lity in reading ; and ( 2) It renders t he transition from
the concrete to the abstract in composition easier Th e second .

result follo ws for three reasons : (a ) Th e reading lesson fur

nishes thoughts for composition ; (b) I t furnished language ;
and (c) It furn ishes thread o r plan for the co m position .

2 . Wr i ti ng the r eci ta ti o ns i n g eog r a p hy, hi sto ry, o bserva ti o n

lesso ns , etc . es if the class be s m all the pup ils may
S o meti m , ,

be required to w rite instea d of ta lk t heir reci tations in geog

ra h
p y history
,
e tc If t,
he class be large
. so m e members may
,

wri t e their recitations while others reci te orally A part from .

,
1 94 P RI NCI PLE S AND ME TH OD S OF TE A CH I NG

school It should be considered di screditable to teachers if

.

they fail to train their proteges in these matters The first .

necessity in performing this duty is to study some standard

author o n letter writing The teacher who fails to do this .

cannot do good work Westla ke s little book o n H o w to

.
’

Write L etters o r H ill s E lements o f R hetoric and Compo

”
, ,
’

”
sition is recommended
,
.

5 Conv erti ng p oetry i nto p ro se, a nd rover bs i nto essa ys

.
p .

”
Th e poets give us great thoughts in verse P hilosophers .

condense the wisdom of the world into concise sentences te rmed

proverbs ( 1 ) F o r pupils whose ability to reflect has been
.

su ffi ciently matu red the effort to convert verse into prose is a

,

most effective exercise i n composition In this exercise the .

poet s thoughts and words become the pupil s thoughts and

’ ’

words but the structure o f prose is required to be original

,
.

The literary tas te thus developed becomes original tendency

and habit in the pupils (2) Th e effo rt to expand a proverb
.

into an essay is a very excellent exercise in abstract and re

flecti v e composition It requires keen analysis to pierce to
.

the core o f many proverbs and constructive effort abstract , ,

and reflective to expand them into essays Thus it follows

, .

that the practice o f converting poetry into prose and proverbs ,

into essays develops that comprehensive understanding which

,

is so muc h to be coveted in mature co m positions Teachers .

should therefore collect and grade appropriate poems and

p roverbs fo r the purposes indicated .

6 . E lem en ta ry lesso ns i n d i cti o n , sentence—qu a li ti es, a nd figu res

o
f r hetori c regular . A training in rhetoric m ay be o ut o f the
question for many common schools but older boy s and girls
should certainly know the desirable qualities of vocabulary and
sentences and the com m on figur es of rhetoric The follo wing
, .

exercises are recommended ( 1 ) The pupils should be required

to observe illustrative sentences in order to discover how t he ,

desirable qualities of vocabulary and sentences are secured ,

 COM POS I TI ON 195

and in order to see the force o f rhetorical figures (2) The .

pupils should be required to commit such representa tive sen

te noes as will subsequently serve fo r models (3) Th e pupils .

should be required to construct sentences in imitation o f those

which have been studied as models (4) Original sente nces .

should be criticised and corrected R eference to dictionaries

.

and rhetorics will be necessary The teacher should under

.

stand h is business .

7 Ori gi na l E xer ci ses

. A time should come when pu pils
.

should depend al m ost altogether o n their own resources in com

position ( E ighth P rinciple o f Instruction ) A dequate super
. .

v ision must however prepare for this emancipation in com

, ,

position In o ther words pupils in original composition need

.
,

a teacher s instructions and suggestions in the followin g tasks :

’

T e Cumulation o f M ate
( )
1 T h e S election of S ubjects ; ( 2 ) h
rials ; (3) The A cquisition o f V ocabulary ; (4) The A cquisi
tion o f S tyle ; (5 ) The P lan o f Construction ; (6) The Co n
struction o f the Composition ; and ( 7 ) The F inish The .

teacher s duties and the right modes o f proced ur e are as

’
,

follows
( )
1 T h e S electi o n of S u bj ects T. h e governing considerations

in the selection o f subjects have already been noticed (S ee .

page It is evident that only mature minds can select

subjects in accordance with these requirements Therefore it .

devolves o n the teacher to select subjects for you ng pupils .

If young pupils are allowed to select subjects for composition ,

the following resul t s are likely : ( I ) Impropriety o f choice ;

( )
2 W aste o f time by embarras s ment and (3) P lagiarism .

On the other hand if pupils are not requi red to rely o n

,

their o wn best j udgment i n selecting subjects their i ndividu ,

ality will be sacrificed . This result must be avoided In .

order to avoid this sacrifice several appropriate subjects should

,

be selected by the teacher and proposed to the class Th e .

teacher should ask questions and converse with the pupils o n

19 6 PR INC I PLE S A ND M i n i o ns o n TE A CH I NG

“108 0 subject s, u ntil they can choose f or the m selves Two .

p oints a re th u s gain ed : ( 1 ) The pupil s i ndepen dence is not ’

s ac ri fi e d but his indi vidual ity is cultivated (2) In te res t in

c
, .

the cho sen subj ect is sti m u late d and the pupil will perform ,

h is task with en ergy a nd purpose .

I n d u e ti m e o f co u rse the pupil sho u ld be r e quire d t o

, ,

sole d his o wn su bj ects in ac c rd a n ce wi th t he governin g

o

con siderations B ut even m ature pupils m a y b e req u ired to

.

w rite on s u bj n ts assi gned by t he t eacher espe ci ally in cases

r

' ,

when the c om positio n s a re to be COD S Id CI O d as ev ide n rre o f pro ’

ficiency in so m e d epa rt m ent of study Gr a duating th eses are .

illustrations In such eases the stu de nts shou ld b e req uired

.

t o s el ect su bject s h and th em in a ccordi ng to appoint m e n t

, ,

and am ept t he approval of th e t each er The propriety of this .

c ou rse is obvio u s ( 1 ) D es ira ble va ri ety of sub jects i s secured

( )
2 T h e liability of plagia ris m is les sened ; and
( )
3 T h e indi
v id ua li ty o f t he pupil is gu a rd rrl against possi ble caprice .

P u pils sho u ld b e taugh t t o s tate t he subje ct of a co m position

in the m ost fi tting word s Conci seness a nd pre cision s h ou ld
.

b e cu l tivate d Though attr ac tive ness of state m ent is effective

.
,

it sh ould n ever be atte m pted at the sacri fi c e of tr ue d ignity

a nd si m
p icity
l .

The abil ity to adjust s ubjw ts to the pre sent po wers of the
pu pil i s to b e greatly coveted by t he teacher On h is succe ss
'
.
,

in this task w ill depend t he d egree o f in teres t in co m position

,
'
a n d his ( r n sc ue n t suc ce s s as a te acher o f m m po s i tio n Th
i
q e .

teache r that fails in the task o f supe rvising t he sel ect ion of
sub jects w ill m ak e his pupils hate co m position This hatred
,
.

is gen erally fa tal .

a ti o n of M a ter i a ls T e govern ing m ns id e ra

( )
2 ( hm n/ h .

tions i n the c u m ulation o f i d e a s thoughts sen ti m ents etc

-

, , ,
.
,

have al re a dy been n o t irxzd (S ee page . i t d evol ves on

the teach e r to cul tivate obe dien ce to these re q uire m ents on the
'
par t o i t he pupils The possible m odes o f cu m ulating m ate
.
1 98 PRI NCI PL E S A ND ME THODS OF TE A CH I NG

large and choice vocabulary will acquire this vocabulary as if

by insti nct It is a serious misfortune to as sociate with peo
.

ple who are careless in speaking o r to attend a school whose ,

teacher cannot talk .

It is a good plan to make and keep a list of the new words

met in lessons general re ad ing conversation speeches etc
, , , ,
.

This habit should be formed in early youth and kept up ,

through life The words thus catalogued and looked up in

.

the dictionary should be used in speaking and composing

,
.

F requent review will keep these words at the end o f o ur

fingers and tongue In this way o u r vocabulary which is
.
,

much smaller than most people suspect can be greatly i n ,

creased and permanently improved .

It is to be deplored that so many pupils neglect to look for

the meanings and uses a s well as the pronunciation o f the
, ,

words which they meet in their books and elsewhere and it is ,

even more deplorable that so many teachers do not insist o n

this habit both in themselves and in their pupils If it be .

within his means every student should o wn some sta n da r d

,

d i cti o na ry and make it his constant companion in study

,
.

This w a s the habit o f some o f the most accomplished schol

ars and writers Charles S umner was a most assiduous stu
.

dent o f the dictionary He h ad several copies in his library in

.

constant use and usually carried a pocket edition with him ;

,

and they were found afte r his death to be the most thumbed
, ,

o f any o f his books L ord Chatham went twice through the

.

largest E nglish dictionary studying the meaning of each word

,
”
and its various uses .

In order to acquire a precise and copious vocabulary the ,

student must rea d the m a sters in E nglish literature such as ,

A ddison Washingt on Irving Tennyson etc

,
These masters
, ,
.

put m eanings into words and phrases whose delicate shades ,

the ordinary mind would never even suspect The disciple .

o f s uch masters cannot but improve at their feet .

 C OM POSITIO N 199

A part from the fact that tra nsla ti ng for eign la ng u a ges espe ,

cia lly the classic G reek and L atin tends to make students
,

idealists it increases and improves their E nglish vocabulary

,
.

The translato r must consul t a lexicon i n order to find the

corresponding E nglish words into which a foreign word may
be translated and then from a number Of alte rnatives he
, , ,

must select that E nglish word which will best express the
meaning o f the foreign word It is in this wa y tha t his E ng
.

lish vocabulary i ncreases and improves even if he should in a ,

short time forget all the foreig n words .

The pupil should be taught to p r efer short wo rds to long

wo r ds
. It is no t a literary sin to use long words when short
words cannot be found o r when these do no t express the i h
tended meanings ; but the impression that lo ng words indi
ea te profundity o f mind is a delusion which the teacher
,

should dispel as soon as possible There should be a severe

.

simplicity in o u r choice o f words The A nglo S axon vocab

.
-

ulary O f which the English B ible as wel l as P ilgrim s P rog

, ,
’

” ”
ress and R obinson Crusoe are good examples is far more
, ,

expressive and far less cu m bersome tha n the co rresponding

, ,

words derived from foreign languages .

( )
4 The A cqu i si ti on of S tyle A
. large and expr essive vocab

ulary is a most desirable acquisition but it must be supple ,

m e nted by the ability to constru ct sentence s acco rding to the

rules of grammar and rhetoric There are various ways o f

.

acquiring an effective E nglish style The following practices

.

are recommended : ( 1 ) General reading (2) Copying the sen ,

tences o f the Maste rs (3) Co m mitting choice extracts o f prose

,

and poetry and (4) D eclaiming choice selections .

P upils who r ea d a great d eal are usually bette r co mpose rs

than other pupils however bright the latter m a y be
,
The .

practice Of cop yi ng sentence s ma kes their struct ure familiar

and in time i m presses the style On the o ne wh o copies them .

The practice of com m i tti ng is still more impressive inas much ,

200 PR I NCI PLE S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE ACH I NG
as the amount Of e ffort is greater in committing than in Copy
ing Th e Old practice of d ecla i m i ng o n F riday afternoons is
.

a good practice The prospect o f an audience and the desi re

.
,

to deserve praise sti m ulate an intensity in committin g selec

,

tions that will impress them deeply

,
.

( )
5 Th e P la n of Co ns tru cti on . T h e governing considera

tions in planning a com position have already been noticed .

ee page It is the teacher s duty o lead the way in

’
( S t
this ta sk o f his pupils as well as in other tasks The impor
,
.

ta nce Of outlines should be pointed o u t and the habit o f ,

making them should be developed in pupils in due time The .

formation Of outlines is a very a wk ward business at first ; but if ,

wisely superintended it soon becomes a pleasure The te a cher

,
.

can do the follow ing things (1 ) H e can teach the pupils h OW

to ask themselves questions on some subj ect such as F rogs o r , ,

S ta rs .
( )
2 H e ca n teach the pupils how to convert these ques

tions into an outline (3) H e can write o u t a composition

.

according to outline while the pupils Observe him In this

, .

way they will see what use to make o f an outline (4) H e .

can revise outlines formed by the pupils showing them where ,

they went wrong and h o w to avoid the mistake in the future

,
.

There should be a great deal Of practice in the formation

of outlines A n outline lesson may sometimes take the place
.

Of a co m position the pupils being required to construct the

,

outlines on the board slate s o r paper and corrections follow

, , ,

i ng according to the teacher s judgment

’
.

( 6 ) W ri ti ng th e Co m
p osi ti o n
. Th e form features in the -

structure o f a composition were described on page 1 7 7 I t .

devolves on the teacher to insist o n these matters The pupils .

should be led to see just what is wanted and also the i m por ,

tance o f strictness in these form features Of a composition

-
.

Carelessness in the mechanical execution o f a composition is

not only an Offense to good taste ; it also renders the completed
structure an imperfect vehicle o f thought .
202 P R I NCI PLE S A ND M E TH OD S OF TE A CH I NG

”
Co m position D a y may include all the exercises o f a good
literary society the pupils being members and Offi cers
, .

III . H I GH E R COU R S E .

In th i s course the student is requir ed to aim at perfection i n

his art H e must try to find subjects that have something
.

characteristic in them and develop them in harmony with the

,

principles o f thought and language H e must try to appro .

r i a te t he inspirations o f the M asters in literature but develop

p ,

his o wn in dividuality to the utmost E very composition must .

be subjected to scientific criticism (H ill s E lements of .

’

R hetoric and C o m position ”

pages 1 35 to ,
It is the
function o f such a course to develop authors journalists , ,

teachers of lite rature m inisters lecturers etc

, , ,
.

The requisite s Of higher com position are as follows : ( 1 )

C riticism o f the Mas terpieces o f E n glish literature ; (2 ) I n
quiry into the relations o f thought and language ; (3) Th e a p
plication o f principles o f the relations Of thought and language ;
and (4) Criticism o f original compositions .

IV . A OF COMPOS I TI ON
I MP OR T N CE .

The art o f composition deserves the most earnest cultiva

tion The resul t s Of practice in co m position a re as follows
.

T h e F unctional I m prove m ent o f the Mind ; 2 Increase

( 1 ) ( )
( )
o f Knowledge ; and 3 P ractical E quipment .

F u n c ti o n a l I m p r o v e m e n t o f t h e M i n d Th e selection .

Of subjects the accumulation of materials the invention o f plan

, ,

Of co nstruction the completion o f the structure the critical re ,

,

vision the correct ion ete require all the possible species of
, ,
.
,

mental activity (S ee Mental . A ll the ends o f

mental development may be attain ed in composition namely ,

( ) Greater functional activity (2 ) Greater functional power

1

( )
3 R ight habit s and ( )
4 C orrect tastes .
 COM POSI TIO N 203

I n cr e a s e o f Kn o w l In composition there must be

ed g e .
”
something to say and language with which to say it The .

acquisition Of ideas thoughts vocabulary style etc is there

, , , ,
.
,

fore a necessity Thus practice in composition necessita tes i n

.

creas e i n knowledge Th e knowledge acqu i red is derived from

.

all the domains of thought accordin g to the supervision o f the

,

teacher or the preferen ce of the pupil

,
.

P r a c t i ca l E q u i p m e n t S kill i n composition is a valuable

.

equipment in the affairs o f life Th e ability to write a letter

.

i s a commercial ad vantage and a social accom plish m ent In .

deed the master in composition is able to live by his art and

, ,

is a prince among men J ournalism authorship etc are

.
, ,
.
,

among the most powerful agencies in modern civiliza t ion .

204 PR I NCI PLE S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE A CH I NG

CH A PTE R VII .

GR AMMAR .

TH E true Object o f instruction is to cause right menta l

processes in pupils (S ee the P rinciples o f Instruction ) It
. .

is obvious that in order to cause the right mental processes in

,

teaching any branch o f study the teacher m u st kno w those

,

processes Therefore the pedagogics o f grammar is concerned

.
,

with t wo general topics : (1 ) Th e Nature Of Grammar ; and

( )
2 Instruction in G rammar .

A . TH E N A TU R E OF GR A MMA R .

Th e nature Of gra m mar is most conveniently studied under

three head s : (1 ) Th e S ubject Of Gramm ar ; (2 ) The P sychology
o f Grammar ; and 3 Th e H istory Of G rammar
( ) .

J OF GR AM MA R
“
I . TH E SU B E CT ”
.

In the sense in which physiology is the study o f the body ,

”
grammar is the study Of words in sentences .

W o r d s i n S e n t e n c e s It is not with isolated words but

.
,

with word s as parts o f sentences t hat gram m ar is concerned .

D i fferences of function and relation require variations in the

spelling and placing o f words Therefore inquiry into these
.
,

di fferences of function and relation is the essential to insight

,

into the formation of sentences w hich insight is the ultimate

,

object Of grammar Thus we see that although grammar

.
,

must encroach upon the domain of or thography and rise into

“

the sphere o f prosody its special territory is a li m ited domain

,

in etymology enriched by syntax

,
.

Or thogr ap hy Grammar consists Of only so much o rth o g

.

ra ph as is required in the interest o f form i ng sentences

y .

When for example t he time to which the thought of a sen

, ,
2 06 P R I NCI PL E S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE ACH I NG
sentences just as Observers in botany exami ne flowers i e he ,
. .
,

must look for parts properties relations etc In langua ge

, , , .

as i n other S pheres instan ces are generally individuals o f a

genus and therefore suggestive Of laws B ut there are ma ny
, .

irregularities in language Therefore the Observer should ex

.

am i ne many instances before he ventu res to generalize lest the ,

generalizations have insu fficient grounds If for exa m ple the .

, ,

student of grammar Wishes to study pronouns he must m a ke ,

as large a collection Of pronouns as possible and Observe them ,

as used i n sentences .

I n d u ct i o n i n G r a m m a r The second step in the formal

study o f words in sentence s is induction i e the asce rtain
, ,
. .
,

ment of laws In a smuch as insta nces in language are gener

.

ally individuals Of a genus induction begins with the justifi

,

able hypothesis that what w as found true i a particul ar may

also be t rue in general The d istincti ve Object of induction i n
.

the larger sense is to verify such hypotheses In order to

,
.

accomplish this purpose the Observer m ust gather sente n ces

,

fro m all sources and Offer them as evidence S ho ul d i rregu .

l a ri ti es be discovered in the sentences Offered the hypothesis ,

must be either co rrected o r abandoned ; but if all the o ffered

sentences confirm the hypothesis it is accepted as la w If for
, .
,

example the student o f etym ologi ca l grammar wishes to as oer

,

tai n into how many parts Of speech the E nglish language must
be classified o r wha t ea se prepositions govern he gathers evi
, ,

d en ces from various sour ces proving as he can in these ca ses

, , ,

that there are no exceptions to his hypotheses P roceeding .

in the sa m e w a y in syn ta x he finds that the rule of agreement

,

o f subject and predicate h a s several exceptions which he there ,

fore records and thus co rrects his hypothes is This m ethod

,
.

o f discovery s i nce it is both historica l and ra t ional is the ideal

, ,

method of ascertaining all the general truths of gram mar ,

w hether it be in orthography ety m ology syn ta x o r prosody

, , ,
.

It sho u ld be made the habit of all st udents .

 G RA MM AR 207

D e d u cti o n i n G r a m r The final step i n the formal

m a .

“
study o f w ords in sentence s is ded uction i e the clas si fi , ,
. .
,

cation o f individual words and par ts Of sente nces and their use ,

according to discovered laws There are three distinct de .

d ucti v e processes in grammar : ( 1 ) P arsing ; (2 ) An alysis and ,

o f S entences
( )
3 C onstruction .

P a r si ng Th e comparison o f a sente nce word w ith the

.
-

concepts o f its Objective fun ction and relations i e with the ,

. .
,

con cep ts Of etymology is termed P arsing The language by

,
.

means o f which these deductive explanations are m ade r e ,

qui r es many technical terms such as noun gender tense, , , ,

voice etc
, .

A na lysis The compar i son o f sentence parts with the co n

.
-

cep ts o f their logical fu nct ions and relations i e with the ,

. .
,

concepts of syntax is termed A na lysis The language o f

,
.

these deductive explanations o f a sente nce as well as the lan ,

guage o f parsi ng rgq ui res technical terms such as subject

, , ,

predicate adjuncts etc

, ,
.

Constructi on of S entences ( )
1 F aulty sente nce s may be
.

correct ed i e mad e to conform with violated la ws S uch

,
. .
,
.

deductive reformation o f sentences is co m monly known as

the correction Of fa lse syntax ( 2) Original sentences may .

be constructed in co nformity with the laws o f gramma r .

S uch deductive formation o f sentences the supreme end in ,

view in the study o f grammar is commonly known as true ,

syntax .

Th e D e fi n i t i o n o f Gr a m m a r The method Of study j ust .

described together w ith a syste m atic statement Of truths co n

, ,

st i t u tes science Gram m ar is therefore a science ; and since

.
,
“ ”
its subject is words i n sentences it is correctly defined as ,

the science o f words i n sente nces o r simply the science of , , ,

sente nces B ut as a syste m atic guide to usage grammar is

.
, ,

also an art and may be so defined A ccordin gly grammar is

, .
,

the science and art o f sentences .

208 P R I NCI PLE S A ND M E TH OD S OF TE A CH I NG

III . TH E H I S TOR Y OF GR AMMA R .

The history of grammar is conveniently studied u nder the

following heads ( 1 ) Th e D evelopment of Gram m ar (2) Text
B ooks o f Grammar ; and (3) Th e P opularity o f Grammar .

Th e D e v e l o p m e n t o f G ra m m a r A complete history Of
.

develop m ents in grammar though essential in a course o f gen

,

eral gram mar would require too much space fo r o u r present

,

purpose and could hardly be j ustified by the demand A

, .

brief ac count however see m s necessary at this ti m e

, , .

The H indoos and G reeks were the pioneers in grammar .

( )
1 A mong the H indoos the science o f grammar arose in im
mediate connection with the study and interpretation o f their
sacred books and served the main pu rpose of explaining and
,

Of maintaining in puri ty of form the ancient o r classical lan

guage the S anskri t which had ceased to be the language o f

, ,

the people and wa s regarded as the peculiar property o f the

priestly class ( )
2 . A mong the G reeks the beginnings of
gra m m ar are found in the works o f the philosophers The .

parts Of speech w ere partly identified and defined by A ristotle ,

and additions were made by the S toies It wa s not until the .

second century before Christ that A lexandrian scholars devel

Oped a complete system o f G reek grammar In preparing .

correct texts of the Greek classics especially o f H omer these

, ,

scholars found that the m anuscripts di ffered and the ndeter ,

m ined the correct form by co m parison with the language o f

H omer (3) Modern developments in gram mar consist chiefly
.

of expansions superstructures rational correlation of depart

, ,

men t s practi cal applications and i m provements in presenta

, ,

tion The long domination o f humanism in education has

.

made gram m ar al m ost as exact a sci ence as mathe m atics .

Th e Te x t B o o k s o f G ra m m a r
-
Great ch a nges Of content
.

and m ethod have been introduced into the text books o f gram -

mar s i nce the time Of Zeno do t us and A rista rchus the great ,
2 10 PR I NCI PLE S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE ACHI NG

F or fuller presentations o f the h i story o f gra mmar meth ods ,

students are respectfully referred to J ohns on s U ni versa l ’

” ”
Cyclopaedia The Cyclop aedia B ritannica
, The Century ,
”
D ictionary etc ,
.

B . I N S TR U C TI O N I N G R A MM A R .

The nature o f grammar makes inquiry into the followin g

subjects a necessity fo r tea chers o f grammar :
( )
1 Th e Cour ses
o f Instruction i n G ram mar ; 2 The S pecial O bjects o f the
( )
C ourses ; (3) Th e S ubjects o f S tudy ; (4) The Methods o f
Instruction ; and (5 ) The Impo rtance o f Grammar .

I . TH E COU R S E S OF I NS TRU CTI ON I N GR AMMA R .

The number o f nece ssary adaptations o f the subject and

method o f grammar to the powers and needs o f pupils deter ,

m i nes as i t does in other branches the number and character ,

,

o f t he courses of instruction
(S ee the Principles of Instruo
.

tion ) The following topics therefore deserve special atten

.
, ,

tion : (1 ) Th e Nature o f the S ubj ect ; ( 2) Th e P upil i n Gram

mar ; a n d (3) The N umber o f Courses i n Gram mar .

Th e N a t u r e o f t h e S u bj e ct In grammar consisting as .
,

it does practically o f etymology and syntax there are two ,

species o f necessary j ud gments ( 1 ) Th e judgments o f ety .

m ol o are o b ecti v e i e they have do with the var i ous Oh

gy j ,
t o
. .
,

j ects o f thought as classified in the parts o f speech T h e .

judgments of syntax are s ubjecti v e i e they have to do with ,

. .
,

thoughts themselves There is however an important dis

.
, ,

tinction between direct comparison and syllogism (S ee the .

chapter o n Mental A ctivity ) .

Th e P u p il i n G r a m m a r Objective judgments are possi

.

ble before subjective judgments (S ee P r i nciples o f Knowl .

edge ) They are necessary stepping stones in abstraction

.
-
.

S ubjective j udgments presuppose considerable maturity in re

 G R A MMA R 2 11

flectio n . Thesyntax o f si m ple sentences as the h is to ry o f ,

gramma r shows f ollo ws etymology as a natural s quence and

,
e

is only slightly more di fficult Th e syntax o f co mplex and

.

c om po und sente nces ( xm sists o f anato mic a nalysis and synthe

sis O f syllogisms and thus req uires a m a turity in logical
,

thought to which fe w pupils attain be f ore the high school

epoch Th e ano m ali es and s ubtleties o f which the structure
.

o f E nglish sentence s ofte n consists req uire a k eenness of a n a l

, y
sis and a maturity in langu age to which f w ca n attain be fore e

t he c ollege epoch .

Th e N u m b e r o f C o u rs e s in G r a m m a r In vie w o f the .

psychology o f gra m m ar and the po wers o f pupils it seems a p ,

ro ria te to arrange three courses o f inst ruct ion in grammar

p p
( )
1 T h e ele m enta ry course fo r etymo l ogy and the si m ple se n

te nce ; (2) The inte rm e diate course f r co mplete etymology o

,

and t he c omplex and co mpound se nten ces and (3) The higher
c ourse f or anomalies and subtleties i n E nglis h cl a ssics .

II . E L E ME NT R Y G R
AMMA R
A .

Th e distin cti v e features o f any course o f instru ction come

to V ie w as ends t o b e a m o m p l lshrxl ground t o be c overe d o r
, ,

m ethod s o f work
(
.S ee P ri nciples o f Instruction
) Th e f l . o

lo wing t opics therefore d ese rve attention a t this point : ( 1 )

, ,

The Obj ects o f E lementa ry G rammar ; (2 ) I ts S ubj ect s ; and

( )
3 T h e M ethods O f Instruction .

Th e O bj e c t s o f E l e m e nta ry G r a m m a r Th e sub jective .

j ud gments so impo rt ant as rein f orce ments o f etymology in

ele m enta ry g ram m ar (see Courses in G ram m ar) re quire a ,

m aturity o f mind sel d o m found in pupils prior to their se vent h

year in s chool In the t wo years of the gra m mar school epoch

.

which thus remain many ele m enta ry indu ctions and c orre
,

s o nd i n
p g ded uct ions in
g ram m ar can b e succe ssfully aecom

p l i shed .

The I nd ucti on s o
f Elem enta ry Gr am /m a r .
( )
l Th e te chnica l
2 12 PR I NCI PL ES A ND ME THODS OF TE ACH I NG
n a mes of the co ncepts o f g r m ma r a s noun ten se modi fier
. a
, , , ,

should a s a mat ter of econo m y b t ugh t fr om the b eginning

, ,
e
a .
.

T h e pupil of ele m entary g ra mmar should seldom if ever

( )
2 .

( see the S ix t h S e ven t h E i g h

. t h a nd Ten t h P rinciples o f I n
, ,

struction) be allo we d to use defini tio ns which were no t devel

,
.

Oped i n his o wn m ind The abili ty to des cribe a co ncep t i n

.

original la ngu age is the best pro of th a t the p upil k no v s the

,
.

t hing i n ques tion The danger of pu tt ing a tex t bo ok i n th e

.
-

h a nds of pupils i n e lem en t ary gram mar is ther e f ore very , . .

grea t ( 3) The co n c e pts o f re la ti on ( ag ree men t go v ern m en t

.
, ,

should e ex pand ed in t o law s a nd e xp re s e d i n th e f orm

etc.
) b ,
s

o f rules This p roce s like t ha t of definition in gu m uma

. ,
.

p res upp oses c onsidera ble m en ta l m a t uri t y and requires grea t ,

skill i n tea chers The rul es like t he defini tions of el emen t

'
.
,

a ry g r am m a r should a t fi rst b e e xp res s d i n th e pupil s o wn

,
.
e

l a n gu a g e .

17m M i s cti o ns o f E la ncnta ry Gra mm a r

/ In o r der to .

make t he c onc e pts o f ele m ent ar y gra m m a r pe r m a nen t p osses

sions of th e pupil s m ind to enla rge th em a nd to cu l t i v a te
’

, ,

th e h a bi t o f d e du ctive or p ra cti ca l j udgm en t i n l a ng u ag e ,

w o r ds in sen ten ces should be pars e d t he sen t ences a na l y ze d , ,

lete se n te n ces c m ple te d de fect i v e sen ten ces c or recte d

o
p . ,

a nd ori g in a l sente n ces co n str u cted S e e t h e F i rs t S nd

( o w .
, ,

F o ur th a nd E ig ht h Principle o f In st ru ct ion ) Tl is neces

,
s .

v et as sy s e t
m a t ic as lxxs i b lc s .

Th e S u bj e ct s o f E l e m e n t ar y G ra m m ar R eg ar d f or .

lo gica l se q uen c e re qu i res t h a t a d efini te o r der b e o b se rved in

as sin fr m subj ec t to subj ect i n g ra m m a r a s i n a n y o t her
o
p g ,

b ra nch o f stu d y ( Se the ch a pter o n The Na tu r e of Kno wl

.
e

Thc Order S ub jects i n E la (1) The

!

or ncnta r y Gm m m nr .

mo st ob je t i v e c
. a nd th er e f r e the mo st elemen ta r y ta k i n
o s

gra mm a r is to , cla s s i fv w o rds in to pa rts of spee h This tas k c

.
2 14 PRI NC IPLE S A ND M ETHOD S OF T EA C HING
grammar even in their mos t elementary phases Much of this
, .

work can be done wi th greater satisfaction i n the intermed iate

course .

Th e M e t h o d o f I n s t r u c t i o n i n E l e m e n t a r y G r a m m a r .

Th e ideal m etho d o f stu dy as alrea dy poin ted o u t co nsi sts o f

, ,

observation induction and deduction in the order ju st sub

, , ,

m i tte d . The ideal method o f i nstru cti on (see P rinciples o f

Instruction ) should, therefore ca use these mental processes in ,

the pupil .

The Metho d of Observ a ti on i n E lem enta ry Gra m m a r Ex .

amples of that which i s to be taught must be presented to the

’
pupil s attention The pupil s inquiry must be assisted by
.
’

means o f questions hints etc In this way the elementary

, ,
.

f a cts o f grammar may be taught ,

The Metho d of I n du cti o n i n E lem enta ry Gra m m a r Many .

instances o f that which is to be taught must be presented to

the child s atte ntion S uch questions h i nts etc as may help
’
.
, ,
.
,

the pupil to see that what is true o f in stances is g enera lly true ,
'
must be added with great care The pupil will need the .

te acher s constant guidance in the original definitions original

’
,

statement o f rules and original illustrations which must be

, ,

required as the necessary discipline in ind uction .

The Metho d of D edu cti on i n E lem enta ry Gra m m a r The .

di fficulties in parsing analyzing etc as they present them

, ,
.
,

selves in elementary gram m ar must be divided and adapted ,

to the pupil s power Th e necessary concepts in these d ed u c

’
.

tive judgments must be kept perfect in the pupil s mind lest ’

,

confusion should result S entences in which the ideas are t oo

.

abstract and general o r the thought too complex must o f

, , ,

course be avoided in elem entary deductions

,
.

I ll u s tr a t i v e L e s s o n s i n E l e m e n t a r y G r a m m a r Th e .

following lessons are subj oined as illustrations o f the method

just described They are designed as suggestions and should
.
,

n ot be slavishly imitated by methods students -

.
 GR AMMA R 21 5

Th e C o n ce t p “
No u n
name five objects . Tea cher . P lea se ,

J ames J B o x hat pencil chair apple

. .
,
T S ince these
, , ,
. .

words are names o f objects what may we call them Kate ? , ,

K P erhaps we may cal l them o bject wor d s

. T What then -
. .

is an object word ? K An obj ect word is the n ame o f a n o h

-
.
-

j ec t T. A n object word
. may be called a N oun W
-
h o can .

define a noun ? J a m es The name o f an obj ect is call ed a .

No u n T P leas e find the nouns i n thi s sentence (writin g it

. .

o n the board) Write the noun s o f your yesterday s read ing

.
’

lesson and bring the list to morrow morn i ng (The complete

,
-
.

definition should be developed in the next few lessons ) .

Th e C o n ce pt V e rb Tea cher Nell what do bird s do ? ”

. .
,

N B irds sing fly eat drink

. T S ince these words are the
, , ,
. .

names o f action s what may we call them ? R o bert A ction

,
.

words T What then is an act ion word

. . R The name o f -
.

a n action is called a n action word T A n action word may -

. .
-

be called a v er b Who can define a v erb ? E m ily The name

. .

o f an action is calle d a Ver b T P lease find the verbs i n this . .

sentence ( writin g it) Make a list o f verbs in your readi ng.

lesson o f yesterday and bring the list to morrow morning ,

-
.

T h e complete definition should be taught in the follow i n g

(
lessons ) .

Th e C o n ce p t A dj e ct i v e Tea cher A re these objects . .

i n all respec ts alike ? A lfr ed Th e pencil is roun d and black .

the ruler is flat and brown T S ince the words round black . .
, ,

flat and brown name t he qualities o f objects what may we

, ,

call them class ? C Quality words

, T B u t since these
.
-
. .

words name the quality of o bj ects what kind o f quality ,

words should we call them O Q uality obj ect words T .

- -
. .

What then is a quality object word J ohn J The name of - -

, .

the quality o f an object is called a quality obj ect—word T -

. .

A q uality object word may be called an A djecti v e (The

- -
.

teacher should explain ful ly ) T Who can define an a djec . .

tive ? Mi ldred The n am e o f a quality of an obj ect is called

.
216 PR I NCI PL E S A ND ME THOD S OF TE A CH I NG
an A djecti v e T P lease find the adjectives in this sen tence
. .

(writing it) Write in a column o n your slate the adjectives

.

’
i n your yesterday s read i ng lesson and bring the list to the ,

grammar recitation to morro w (The complete definition o f -

.

adjectives should be developed soon after pronouns ) .

Th e C o n ce p t A d v e rb Tea cher A re the actions which

“ ”
. .

you observe (m oving in various ways ) in all respects alike ,

Tho m as ? T: S ometimes yo u walked fast and then slowly ;

someti m es yo u looked up and then down Tea cher S ince the . .

words fa st slowly up and d o wn name the qualities of actions

, , , ,

what may we call them ? Ma ry Quality action words T .

- -

. .

To what part o f speech are they added Thomas ? T To , .

verbs .Tea cher F o r that reason quality action —words are

.
-

called A dv er bs Who can define an adverb ? Ma ry The

. .

name o f a quality o f an action is calle d an A dv erb T P lease . .

find the adverbs in these sentences (writing a number o f sen

ten oes ) Write in a column the adverbs o f your yesterday s
.
’

reading lesson and bring the list to m orrow (The develop

,
-
.

ment o f the co m plete definition of an adverb w ill require com

parisons of the qualities o f o bjects and of a cti ons P upils .

should be required to write illustrative sentences ) .

Th e C o n ce p t S u bj e ct ( Th e pupils have learned what

”
.

a sentence is and the species o f sentence in language work )

, ,
.

Tea cher Which w ord in the sentence (B irds sing) w hich I

.
?

have j ust w ritten names that about w hich something is said

,

H elen Th e noun bi r ds
. T What is that about wh ich we . .

write in a com p o si ti on called Claude ? C It is called the ,

.

S u bj ect T What then m a y we call the word bi r ds in our

. .

sentence ? 0 The su bject of the sentence T Wh o can de ;

. . .

fine the subject of a sentence ? F lo r en ce That about which .

something is said in a sentence is called the S u bject T P lease ,

. .

name the subjects o f the sentences that I shall read from this
book Write in a colu m n the subjects of the sentences o f
.

your to day s reading lesson and bring the list to morrow

-
’
,
-
.
218 PRI NCI PLE S A ND ME TH ODS OF TE ACHI NG

Th e C o n ce pt P ro n o u n please read . Tea cher J ohn , .

the sentence which I have writt en J “

Mildred holds Mil . .

” “
T A nd this sente nce J ames ? J George
’
dred s book . .
,
.

”
T H o w could we express the same
’
holds George s wheel . .

thoughts without repeating the words Mildr ed and George

J We can say M ildred holds her book and George holds
.
”
,
”
hi s wheel T Of what parts o f speech do the words his and
. .
,

her take the place A nnie A They take the place o f nouns
,
. .

T What may we call words used for nouns

. A I thin k we .

may call them fo r n owns T Yes or P r o nou ns because p r o

~
. .
,

means for o r i nstea d of Who can define a pronoun ? G A

,
. .

word used for a noun is called a P ro nou n T P lea se open . .

’
your readers and find the pronouns in your yesterday s lesson .

J ames you may write these pronoun s o n the board as fast a s

,

your classmates find them fo r you .

Th e C o n ce p t C o nju n c t i o n Tea cher P lease read the . .

sentence which I have written Mary M H e sells books “

, .

and pictures ”
T What word connects t wo words in the sen
. .

tence ? M The word a nd connects the words bo o ks and

p i ctu r es T . W hat may . we call words that connect o r con
j oin others ? M We m ight call them conjoi ni ng words T . .

Yes ; conjoining words or Co nju ncti o ns Who can define a , .

conjunction ? ( S uch exercises as have been suggested should

follow Th e other uses o f conj unctions should be introduced
.

o n e at a time
) .

Th e C o n ce p t P re p o si ti o n (Th e meaning of the word .

relation can be best taught by using it ) Tea cher Where

”
. .

is the book Mary ? M On the table T A nd now

, M . .

It is under th e table T A nd where is it no w . M In my

.

lap T Which words then did you use to express the r ela
. .

ti on of the book and table or your lap ? M The words on, ,

u nd er and i n, T What may we call words which show the

. .

relation o f things ? Ma bel R elation words T Yes ; o r .

-
. .

P r ep osi ti ons (T h e pupils should be led to see why they are

.
 GR A MMA R 219

so called but not at first ) T J ames what is a preposition ?

,
. .
,

J A word which shows the relation o f things is called a

.

P r ep osi ti on (Th e usual exercises should follow

.
) .

Th e C o n c e p t Ca se (T h i s property
“
can be mos t co n .

v eni ent ly taught at first by mea ns of pronouns where the for m ,

o f the word is a help ) Tea cher P lease read the sentences . .

”
which I have writte n Charles C J ames struck me ,
I . . .

” ”
struck J ames J am es hit my hand
. T D o the words I . .
,

and m e and m y refer to different persons

, ,
They all refer
to the same person T If these words all refer to the same
. .

person why are they not all spelled the same way
,
E m ily .

They are not used the same way : the word I is the subj ect o f
a sentence ; the word m e is an object and the word m y denotes
ownership T These changes o f form to suit the use o f words
. .

as subject object and o w ner are termed Ca se S ince the

, , ,
.

word m e names the o bject of the sentence in what c as e may we ,

say that it is R alph ? R In the o bject ca se T Yes or the

, _
.
-
. .

Objecti v e cas e What words then are said to be in the objec

.

tive case Mildred ,

M A word used as the object of a sen
te nce is said to be in the objective case T S ince the word
,
. .

m
y denotes ownership o r possession in what case is it ? M ,

In the P ossessi ve case T What words therefore are i n the . .

possessive case ? M A word that denotes possession is said ,

to be in the possessive ca se T A word used a s the subject . .

of a sente nce is said to be in the Nom i na ti ve case J ames

,
.
,

please name the three possible cases that we have no w found .

D escribe each case (S entences in w hich n

. o u ns are used i n

ste ad o f pronouns should next be studied Th e objective case

,
.

afte r prepositions can also be most conveniently taught w ith

,

pronouns Th e possessive form of nouns should be carefully

.

studied S pecial lessons on the no m inative ca se by a d dr ess

.

may be attempted the second year The nominative a bso lu te .

should probably not be attempted before the inte rmed iate

course Th e other properti es o f nouns and pronou ns should
.
2 20 P R I NCI PL E S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE A CH I N G

be taught in the sa me way as Ca se The methods students .

-

should be requ i red to write o u t recitations o n person gender , ,

and number ) .

Th e C o n cep t Te ns e Tea cher R uth please read the

. .
,

sentences which I have j ust written R “

Mary laughs ”
. . .

M ary laughed ”
Mary will laugh
.
”
T To what times do . .

the verbs i n these sentences refer H enry I I Th e first verb , .

refers to p r esent time the second to p a st time and the thir d , ,

to fu tu re time T The change o f form in words to denote

. .

different times is called Tense S ince the word la ughs denotes

,
.

present time in w hat tense may we say that it is E mma ? E

, ,
.

In the p resent tense T The word la ughed E In the p a st

. . .

tense T A nd the words wi ll la ug h t E In the fu tu re tense

. . .
’
. .

T Mary what is meant by tense ? P resent tense ? P ast

.
,

te nse ? F uture tense ( T h e other tenses and all the other ,

propert ies o f the verb should be taught in the way suggested

,
.

The methods students should be required to write o u t the

-

necessary recitations ) .

Th e C o n c e p t C o m p a ri s o n Tea cher Newt on plea e . .

,
s

read the sentences o n the board N Maude s picture is . .

’

grand . M iriam s picture is grander than M aude s

’ ” ’
.

”
G race s picture is the grandest of all
’
T P lease under . .

sco re the words which tell the quality o f the pictures J ames ,
.

(J a m es underscores the right words

) T W h y are these . .

words not all alike in form J To denote u n li keness in the .

quality o f the pictures Tea cher Change in the endings in

. .

adjectives and adverbs to express degree in q u ality is termed ,

Co m p a ri son The firs t degree is ter m ed P o si ti v e ; the second

.
,

Com p a r a ti v e ; and the third or highest S up er la ti v e (

,
These ,
.

terms though introduced arbi t rarily at first should be ex

, ,

plained as soon as possible The various spellings of regular .

and irregular adjectives and adverbs should be illustrated , ,

and finally classified The methods students should be re

.
-

quired to write out the necessary recitations ) .

22 2 PR I NCI PLE S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE A CHI N G

may we call these elements J A djective elements and a d .

v erb i a l elements (T h e te rm A dj unct may be i ntroduced at

.

thi s poi nt ) T S ince it is the business of conjunctions to

. .

connect what kind o f an element may we call the word a n d

, ,

G race ? G A Co nn ecti v e E lement

. T S ince A la s is n o t at . .

all connected with the sentence so fa r ps its for m goes what ,

may we call it Ma y ? M We might call it the I ndep en dent

,

E lement ( Other sentences illustrating the same points should

.

be studied until the new terms are familiar B y and by .

hr a ses and cla uses should be introduced as subordinate ele

p
ments ; relative pronouns and conjun ctive ad verbs should be
mad e connecti v es ; and other words besides interjections should
be used as i n d ep endent ele m ents The methods students should .
-

be required to writ e out the necessary recitations ) .

R u l es o f G ra m m a r The rules of grammar should

”
Th e .

be introduced the second year but no t un til t he anatomy ,

see the preced ing study

( ) o f the sente nce is pretty familiar .

On e i llustration must su ffice Tea cher P lease read the sen. .

“
tence on the board A lma A ,
The b oy whom the gypsies
. .

had stolen has been recovered

,
”
T What part o f speech is . .

the word who m 5 A A relative pronoun (It is presu m ed

.
’
. .

that this concept was developed under cl as ses of the parts of

S peech
) .T W hat is. the person o f the word whom E lsie ? ,

E I t is o f the third person (this concept was developed

.

under properties of nouns and pronouns) because its ante ,

cedent is o f that person T What other properties o f w hom. .

do w e know by its antecedent Calvin C The number and , .

gender T P ut all these truths into o ne sentence George

. .
, .

G A relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person

.
,

number and gender T What you have just said is a lwa ys

, . .

true o f relative pronouns S uch general truths are termed .

R u les . H ereafter when you parse a relative pronoun you ,

will be expected to remember the rule which you found j ust

T e methods student should be req uired to write
no w .
( h -
 G RA MM AR 22 3

o ut the nece ssa ry recitations for the development o f several

r ules
)
.

A W o r d t o M e th o d s S t u d e nt s-
Methods students should
.
-

n o t expect to o grea t success in these inductive deductive les -

sons a t first n o r should they hope to obtain ideal answers

,

from their pupils If however the mai n course be kept in

.
, ,

m i nd deviations can be corrected

,
.

III . I NTE R ME D I ATE GR AMMAR .

The distinctive features o f intermediate as well as of ele ,

mentary grammar present themselves under the following

,

heads : ( 1 ) The Objects o f the Course (2 ) Its S ubjects ; and

e Method o f Instruction
( )
3 T h .

Th e O bj e c ts o f I n t e r m e d i a t e G r a m m a r The obj ect of .

i n termediate grammar (see Th e N umber o f Cour ses) is greate r

perfection in its inductions and deductions .

The I nd u cti ons of I nterm edia te Gr a m m a r The concepts .

developed in elementa ry grammar require enlargement It is , .

seldom possible to develop some of the most essential concepts

o f syntax before the high school epoch The development o f
.

complete definitions i n so abstract a study as grammar re ,

qui res considerable maturity Th e same is true o f rules as

.

expressions of remote relations .

The D ed ucti ons of I nterm ed i a te Gr a m m a r The deductive .

comparisons required in parsing and analyzing complex and

compound sente nces presupposin g comple te development o f
,

concepts and rules are for that reason im possible for most
,

pupils before the high school epoch Th e successful d edu c .

tive construction o f a ll species o f sentences (the p ra ctica l o b

j ec t o f grammar ) presupposes
,
correct standards o f comparison
and critical habit and must therefore be regarded as tasks of
,

m atur er mi nds .

Th e S u bj e c t s o f I n t e r m e di a t e G r a m m a r The great .

subjects o f intermedia te o r high school grammar i n accord

, ,
2 24 P R I NCI PL E S A ND M E TH OD S OF TE A CH I NG

ance with its objects are : (1 ) D efinitions ; (2 ) R ules ; (3) I n

,

fiect i o ns (4) P arsing ; (5 ) A nalysis and (6 ) E xercises in S yn

tax Three o r four years should be devote d to this course
.
,

the number o f recitations to be determined by practical con

siderations .

D e fi n i ti o n s i n I n t e rm e d i a t e G ra m m a r ( )
1 Th e i n co m .

l et e definitions developed i n elementary grammar should

p
n o w be completed care being taken that all definitions are
,

correct descriptions o f the pupil s conceptions (2 ) New d efi ’

.

n i t i o n s descriptions o f the new concepts developed i n the i n

,

term edi a t e course must of course be added, ,( )

3 In order to ,
.

make the concepts contained in definitions per m anent posses

sions and thus ready standards for the deductive comparisons
,

necessary in parsing analyzing and syntax interm ed iate , , ,

pupils s h ould be required to co m m i t definitions F o r practical .

reasons it is probably best to require i ntermediate pupils

,

to commit the text bo o k definitions or those o f the teacher

-

, ,

but always in connection with the necessary inductive a p

roa ch es
p .

Ru l es in I n t e rm
t e G ra m m a r
ed ia
( )
1 A s a practical .

”
guide in constructing sentences the rules o f grammar i e , ,
. .
,

the state ments o f its general truths must o f course be co m , , ,

m i tted at least virtually if not ver ba ti m

,
but never un til the ,

necessary inductive ap proaches have been made F o r reasons .

o f economy the statements of the te xt book in use are prob

,
-

“ ”
ably the most convenient (2) Notes and exceptions .
”
,

though o f great practical i m portance should not be co m m itted ,

v er ba ti m since their contents can be readily associated with

,
“ ”
the rules to w hich they belong F amiliarity with these .

notes and exceptions is ho wever a practical necessity , , .

I n fi e ct i o n s i n I n t e r m e d i a t e G r a m m a r In elemen
( )
1 .

tary gramm ar inflections i e declensions and conj ugations

, ,
. .
, ,

must necessarily be frag m entary ; but in intermediate gram ,

mar these fragments should b e gradually collected into wholes

, ,
2 26 PR I NCI PL E S A ND M E TH ODS OF TE ACH I N G

be parsed as follows : I s is a n euter verb b eca use i t exp resses ,

b ei ng ; etc To save time and to preserve thought fuln es s

.
,

those reason s with w hich the pupil is known to be familiar ,

should not be required R u les should generally be fully

.

state d Th e objects o f enthy m eme statements in parsing are

.

as follows : (1 ) The requirements tend to make the concepts

presuppose d in these deductive j udgmen ts permanent posses ,

sions ; (2) It is an ad m i rable discipline i n syllogistic thought ,

promoti ng right habit and preparing fo r logic .

S i m p le S ta tem en ts i n P a r si ng A s soon as it seems safe for

.

pupils to do so they shoul d be requi red to parse w ords co m

,

p lete ly without adding reaso n s to classifications In the sen .

”
tence Grea t Caesar fell the word gr ea t for example should
, , , ,

be parsed as follo ws : Th e word g rea t is a descriptive adjective

o f the positive degree ; it m odifies the word Cm s a r accordin g ,
”
to the rule A djectives relate to nouns and pronouns
,
To .

make sure that pupils pars i ng this way do not let acqui red
concepts slip and that they think as w ell as speak in parsing
, ,

the teacher must ask fo r reasons wherever he suspects defec

tions The reasons for parsing in this way are as follows
.

It saves t me without inj ury o the pupil s min d

( ) It is
’
( )
1 i t 2
an ad m irable discipline in rapid thinking prom oting the habit ,

o f decision in connection with t hat o f accuracy ; and (3) It

is more in teresting to parse in this way when much o f it has

to be done .

A bbrev i a ti o ns i n P a rsi ng In written parsing some syste m

.

o f abbreviations is convenient Th e follo wing scheme is pro

.

“
posed by D r E O L yte in his Grammar and Composi
. . .

tion .
”
Write the sentence whose w ords are to be parsed in
o n e lin e if possible D ra w a line under the w ords to be
.

parsed and w rite the i nitial letters o f the parsing in a vert ical
,

column under the resp ective words D o not use punctuation .

marks When necessary use a dotted line to separate the

.
,

written parsing o f t wo words .

 GR A MMA R 22 7

advancing ,

R V

F or fuller explanation the student is respectfully referred to

D r L yte s Grammar and Co m position
’
. .

The objects o f such abbreviations are as follo w s : ( 1 ) Th e

plan is service able in preparing lessons for the teacher s i n ’

specti o n ; ( 2 ) It is useful in combination wi t h oral parsin g as ,

a variation from t he full forms and as a means of parsing

,

more sen tences in a given t ime (3) The plan must ho w .

,

ever be carefully guarded lest pupils make it a system o f

, ,

d eceptions .

E clectic P a r si ng A s a rule intermediate pupils should be

.
,

required to parse the w ords o f a sentence in order B y and .

by ho wever the proces s o f parsing should b ecome eclectic

, , .

There are t wo species o f eclect i v e parsing : ( 1 ) Those words

o r part s o f speech with which the pupils are known to be

fa m iliar may be ignored and (2) Th e tea cher m a y ask such

,

questions about certain words in the sentence as seem to him

’
to test the pupil s knowledge B oth fo rms are convenient with
.

advanced pupils : (l ) Th e plan saves time and tends to pre

serve interest in gra m m ar ; (2) It is a bette r m ode of discipline ,

sin ce it requires constant attention and thoughtful judgment .

The P r op ort i on of Or a l a nd Wri tten P a r sing Oral parsing

.

ta kes less time but written pars i ng is a better discipline in

,

language Written parsing saves time as a supplement in

.

recitations and is a convenient mode of exhibiting t he prepara

,
22 8 PR I N CI PL E S A ND M E TH OD S OF TE A CH I NG

tion of lessons Oral parsing though not as effective as a dis

.
,

ci p li n e in language is indispensable as a language exercise

, .

P robably yo u nger pupils should do more oral and older pupils ,

more w ritten parsing .

E rr o rs i n P a rsi ng There are t wo species o f errors in

.

parsing ( 1 ) Th e pupil may say the wrong thi ng as w hen he ,

calls a verb a noun though he kno ws bette r This is termed .

an error o f form ( 2) The pupil may have the wrong idea as

.
,

when he regards a regular verb irregular This is termed an .

e rror o f j udgm ent .E rrors of form are due either to thought

lessness o r slips o f the tongue and may be remedied by re ,

moving the causes E rrors o f j udgment are due either to i m

.

perfect inductions o r slips of memory and must be remedied ,

by perfect induction or revie w .

The Objects of P a rsi ng The objects o f parsing are as fol

.

lows : (1 ) To exercise pupils in acquired kno w ledge thus ,

ma king it a permanent possession ; (2) To exercise pupils in

deductive j udg m ents thus developing the important power
,

o f deductive t hought ; and T

( )
3 o equip pupils w ith standard

conceptions for the criticism and construction o f sentence s .

A n a l y s i s i n I n t e rm e d i a t e G ra m m a r In elementary .

grammar the pupil is co nfined almost altogether to simple

,

sentences and informal analysis Th e intermediate course is .

concerned m ore especially with complex and co m pound sen

ten oes and the process of analysis becomes a complete system
,

o f deductive explanation .

F or m s of A na lysis .There are t wo possible form s o r plans , ,

of an alyzing a sentence the synthetic and the analytic : ( 1 ) In

,

synthetic analysis the simple subjec t and predicate are na m ed ,

and their adj uncts added Take this sentence for exam ple
.

Th e m a n wh o com m itted that dreadful cri m e wa s arrested by ,

the o fficers This is a co m plex declarative sentence consist

.
,

ing o f o n e principal and one dependent clause Th e si m ple .

subj ect of the principal clause is m a n modified by the a djec ,

2 30 P R I NCI PL E S A ND M E TH ODS OF TE A CH I NG

In analyzing a sentence as in
A bbr evi a tio ns i n A n a lysi s .
,

parsing and for the sa m e reasons systems of abbreviation are

, ,

convenient V arious syste m s of such analysis are proposed

.

in the text books of B rown L yte H adley and others To

-

, , ,
.

these books o n gram mar the m ethods student is respectfully -

’
referred The follow ing illustration is taken from D r L yte s
. .

”
Grammar and Composition It is the analysis o f the sen
.

”
tence An idler is a watch that wants bot h hands .

id lr
e
8

A n adj
is P
wa tch 8 P n

ad j
a

th at “ 5°

wa n tsP

h a nd s d 0

bo h t ad j

E clecti c A na lysis . With advanced pupils ti m e can be saved

and thought pro m oted by eclectic parsing In this m ode o f .

analysis the teacher simply inquires into the di fficulties of a

lesson and if the answers to his questions are satisfactory he
, , ,

assu m es that his pupils understand the whole lesson E clec .

tic parsing is therefore a risk w ith immature pupils since it

, , ,

assu m es too m uch .

Gr a m m a ti ca l D escrip ti o n Grammatical description is an

.

eclectic union of parsing and analysis Its design is t wo fold .

-

( 1 ) It saves ti m e by ignoring uni m portant details

; and ( )
2 It
is an admirable exercise in thinking It is however not a p .
, ,

p ro p ria te for younger pupils since it presupposes training in

,

both parsing and analysis The subjoined treatm ent of the

.

sentence The li ttle bi r d tha t sa ng so sweetly i n m y g a rden yes

,

ter d a y wa s wo un d ed thi s m or ni ng by a hu nter is an illustration

, ,

o f the synthetic method o f gram matical description Th e .

analytic method is readily derived .

 GR AM M A R 2 31

The proposed sentence is a simple d ecl a rative sentence .

The is an article ; it is used to modify bi r d L ittle is an a d .

j ect i v e it also is used to modify b i rd B i r d is a noun ; i t is

.

used as the subject o f wa s wou n ded Tha t is a relative pro .

noun and its antecedent is bird ; it is used as the subj ect

,

o f sa ng ; it introduces the clause tha t sa ng so sweetl

y in m y
g a r den yester da y and j oins it to bi r d
,
S a ng is a verb ;
.

i ts subject is tha t S o is an adverb ; it is used to modi fy

.

sweetl
y . S w eetl
y is an adj ective ; it modifies sa n
g I n is a .

prep o sition ; it is used to i ntroduce the phrase i n m y g a r den ,

and join s it to sa ng My is a personal pronoun it is used to

.

modify g a rd en Ga rd en is a noun ; it is used as the object

.

o f in . Tha t sa ng so sweetly i n m y ga rden yester da y is a clause

used as an adjective ; it modifies bir d The li ttle bi r d tha t sa ng.

so sweetly i n m y g a rd en yester d a y is the entire subject o f the

sentence Wa s wou nded i s a verb its simple subject is bir d

. .

Thi s is a demonstrative adjective it is used to modify m or n

i ng. Mor ni ng is a noun ; it is used as an adverb o f time and ,

modifies wa s wou n ded B y is a preposition it is used to i n

.

t ro d u ce the phrase by a hu nter and joins it to wa s wou nd ed

,
.

A is an article and m odifies hu n ter

,
B y a hun ter is a phrase
.

used as an adverb ; it modifies wa s wo u n ded Wa s wou n ded .

thi s m orni ng by a hu nter is the en t ire predicate o f the sentence .

D i a gra m s i n Gr a m m a r A grammatical diagram is a pic

.

ture by which it is proposed to represent to the eye the rela

tions o f words in sentences P rofessor C lark s system is a
.
’

very clever invention and has been favorably rece ived The
,
.

system used in R eed and Kellog s grammar not only looks ’

”
well o n the board but is an effective instrument i n th e
,

tea cher s hands Th e o bjecti o ns to grammati cal diagrams are

’
.

as follo w s : ( 1 ) It is n o t true that lines and d i rections can

picture the anatomy o f thoughts ; (2) The diagram that will
represent the anatomy o f a lengthy co m plex or compound
sentence is probably more di fficult to understand than the
,
2 32 PR I NCI PL E S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE ACH I NG
analysis without diagrams Th e legiti m ate u ses o f diagr ams
.

are as follows ( 1 ) They represent t he anatomy of a sen ten ce ,

and are thu s effective helps in the analysis of the thought o f

the sente nce ; (2) They are admirable modes of writte n recita
tion saving much time and adding interest to the study o f
,

grammar ; a n d (3 ) They are useful modes of prepari ng lessons

fo r the teacher s inspection
’
.

It is believed however that the simplest possible syste m

, ,

o f diagrams is the only j us t ifiable o n e and that even then ,

there is danger o f makin g the diagram to o prominent at the

expense o f the pupil s development in logical independence
’
.

E rr o rs i n A n a lysi s Two species o f error are possible in

.

analyzing a sente nce : ( 1 ) Th e pupil may err in language as ,

when he miscalls ele m ents o f the sentence or misrepresents re

la ti o n s by diagrams and abbreviations These errors of fo rm
.

are caused either by thoughtlessness slips of the tongue slips

, ,

o f mem ory o r defective instruction

,
Th e removal o f these
.

causes is the proper remedy (2) The pupil may err in

.

thought as when he mistakes the elem ents o f a sentence o r

,

their relations These errors o f ju dgm ent as they are called

.
, ,

are commonly caused either by inattention lack o f prepara ,

tion imperfect inductions o r slips o f memory The causes

, ,
.

should be re m oved .

The P r op o r ti on of Or a l a n d Wri tten A na lysi s Oral a n a ly .

sis is probably more interesting than w ritten analysis and ,

takes less time It is also better than written analysis as an

.

exercise in rapid thinking Written analysis is the p roper

.

supplement in recitation and offers a better opportunity t o do

,

correct and complete work It is also an indispensable re

.

u i rem ent in the preparation of lessons fo r the teacher s i n sp ec

’
q
tion P robably therefore oral analysis should preponderate
.
, ,

over written analysis in younger classes and vi ce v ersa in ,

older classes .

The R ela ti on of A na lysi s to P a rsi ng ( 1 ) P arsi ng is a prepa

.
2 34 P R I NCI PLE S A ND M E TH OD S OF TE A CH I NG

a common and convenient method o f correcting false syntax .

( )
I T h e sentence is incorrect T h e objective pronoun hi m is
.

u sed as an attribute complement In i ts place the nomina

.

tive pronoun he should be used according to the rule that a ,

noun o r pronoun used as an attribute co m plement must be i n

the same case as the subject to which i t refers (2) The sen .

tence should therefore be Wa s it he whom you saw ?

,

Th e methods —students should be required to write o u t the

synopsis o f these illustrations and apply the plan to other
cases o f false syntax A ny other sys temat ic plan will serve
.

the sa m e purpose (S ee text books on grammar )

.
-
.

Origi na l S en ten ces Intermediate students should be re

.

quired to construct sentences in conformity with studied rules .

E arly in the course these exercises should be developed into

brief co m positions on various topics It is o f the greate st .

importance to require students wri t ing such compositions to

j ify
u st the construction o f every sentence i e to show that i t ,
. .
,

conform s with law .

The I m p ort a n ce of E xer ci ses i n S ynta x It should ever be .

kept in mind that the practical objects o f the study o f gram

m a r are the follo wing :
( )
1 T o develop adequate po w er right ,

habits and correct tastes in the construction of sentences and

, , ,

to construct sentences deductively ; and (2) To prepare the

student to understand and appreciate the construc t ion o f sen
t en oes i n literature .

Th e M e th o d o f I n s tru ct i o n i n I n t e r m e d i a t e G r a m m a r .

Th e distinctive feat ures o f inter m ediate methods co m e to view

under the following heads : (1 ) Text B ooks o f Inte rm ediate -

Gra m m ar ; (2) The P reparation of L essons and (3) Th e R eci

t a ti o n .

Text B o o ks
f -
o I nter m edi a te Gr a m m
first tex t ar .
( )
1 Th e

book o f intermediate gram m ar should be plann ed for o b ser

vation induction and deduction in such proportion as will best
, , ,
“
serve the purposes in hand (S ee Th e Objects of Intermediate
.
 GR AMMA R 2 35

G rammar ’
D r L yte s Gra m sev d Com p o si ti on , and
’
. . m ar an

eral other late grammars are illustrations o f this ideal method

, .

Th e fact that the great majority o f te xt books have been to o -

deductive in plan accounts at least partially for the failures re

,

corded in the history o f gram mar (2 ) A fte r about two years .

’

’
study of a book like D r L yte s a text like B rown s Insti
.
,
’

”
tutes o f E nglish Gram m ar w hose plan is deductive should
, ,

be taken up for a year o r t wo (3) The gram m ar of several .

” ’
E nglish classics such as Gray s ,
E legy and P ope s E ssay ’

o n Ma n
”
,
together with L atin o r German grammar should be ,

added to B ro wn in high schools and N ormal schools with the ,

special purpose o f cul t ivating analytic power and critical taste .

P r ep a ra ti o n of L essons i n I nterm edi a te Gr a m m a r The .

lesson having been definitely assigned intermedi ate pu pils in ,

gram mar should be required to observe to parse and analyze , ,

and to correct and construct sentence s etc according to the plan ,

.
,

o f the lesson S o m e o f this work should be prepared in w riting

.

and subm itted for inspection P arsin g and analyzing by a b .

b rev i a t i o n as indicated and diagra m s should con stitu t e parts

, , ,

o f the student s preparation

’
Th e pupil should be expected to
.

be master of the defini t ions and rules that m ay be in question .

The R eci ta ti on i n I n ter m edi a te Gra m m a r Th e objects o f .

the recitation (see the F ifth General P rinciple o f E ducation)

are culture and instruction .

F o r the cu lture o f all the mental functions the follo w ing

tasks may be assigned : ( 1 ) To state explain and illustrate , ,

definitions or rul es (2) To decline conjugate o r compare , ,

w ords (3) To parse certain w ords of a sentence (4) To ana

lyze a sentence ; (5 ) To correct or construct sentences accord
ing to rule This work should of course be partly oral and
.
, ,

partly written the proportion depending on the nature o f the

,

tasks and the purposes of the teacher .

( )
1 W hile part o f the grammar class is working at the
board the teacher must supervise the oral work adding co r
, ,
2 36 P R I NCI PL E S A ND M E TH OD S OF TE A CH I NG

rections and information wherever the right opportunity

presents itself (2 ) When the board workers read what they
.
-

have written t here will be S plendid opportunities to make

,

corrections and to add information The ta sk o f correcting

.

board w ork should be divided between the class and the

-

teacher Much o f the success to which the teacher hopes to

.

attain will depend on the skill with which he adds informa

tion in class .

IV . H I GH E R GR AM MAR .

O ur limits forbid all but a brief outline o f the work to be

done in higher grammar Th e follo wing outline is subjoined
.

as a stimulus to teachers and special students .

Th e O bj e c t s o f H i g h e r G r a m m a r The ends in vie w in

.

higher gra m m ar are as follo ws : (1 ) Th e attain m ent o f such

scholarship as the merits o f the branch justify ( 2 ) Th e prep
aration o f students for the co m prehension and enj oyment of
literature so far as such comprehension and enjoyment depend
o n training i n gra m m ar ; and
( )
3 T h e development o f such

practical proficiency in gram m ar as m a y serve the practical

in terests o f the various occupa tions and professions .

Th e S u bj e c t s o f H i g h e r G r a m m a r Th e course o f higher
.

gram m ar belongs to the latter part o f the high school epoch ,

to Nor m al schools and t o preparatory schools o f high grade

, .

H ig her Gra m m a r of H igh S cho ols To the work already

.

mapped o u t for high schools the following tasks m a y be

,

added where the circumstances allo w it : ( 1 ) A S pecial course

in the ano m alies of E nglish gram m ar ; (2 ) A course in the
co rrelation o f gram m ar with rhetoric logic etc (3) A course
, ,
.

i n the grammar of the most di fficult E nglish master pieces ; -

( )
a n d 4 A course of composition in which the special object is

the deductive construction of sentences .

I I igher Gr a m m a r i n N or m a l S cho o ls Th e Norm al school

.

should o ffer a course o f grammar equivalent to that mapped

23 8 PR I NCI PLE S A ND M E TH OD S OF TE A CH I NG

understanding (The methods student sho u ld be required to

.
-

prove this statement ) A s the virtual study o f t he structure

.

o f thought together w ith conco m ita nt emo t ion and volition it

, ,

is an admirable exercise o f self consciousness B u t studied -

.
,

rightly gram m ar is more than a discipline o f the intellect ;

,

the joy o f induc t ive discoveries and deductive uses rouses the ,

w hole hear t into responses and the caution concentration

”
, ,

and purpose so essen tial in the right study of grammar make

, ,

it a most excellent discipline o f the will The Committee of .

” “
F ifteen says : Grammar demonstrates i ts title to the first
place by its use as a discipline in subtle analysis in logical ,

division and classification in the art o f questioning and in the

, ,

mental accom plishment o f m aking exact definitions No r is .

this an empty formal disciplin e for its subject matter lan , ,

guage is a prod uct of the reason o f a people not as individuals

,

but as a social whole and the vocabulary holds i n its store o f

,

words the generalized experience o f that people including ,

sensuous observa tion and reflection feeling and emotion i n , ,

st i n ct and volition
”
On e sided training in grammar how
.
-

ever may have serious results On this point the same com
,
.

m i ttee says : Grammar rich as it is i n its contents is only a

, ,

forma l discipline as respects the scientific historic or literary , ,

contents o f language and is indi fferent to them A training

,
.

for four o r five years in parsing and grammatical analysis

practised o n literary works of art (Milton S hakespeare Ten , ,

n so n S cott is a training of the pupil into habits of i nd i ffer

y , )
ence toward and neglect of the genius displayed i n the li terary
work o f art and into habits o f i m pertinent and trifling a t
,

tention to elements e m ployed as material o r texture and a cor ,

responding neglect o f the structural form w hich alone is the

”
work o f the artist .

Th e I n s tr u ct i o n V a l u e o f G r a m m a r Th e study of the .

s t ruc ture of sentences is virtually the study of the structure of

thought admittedly the m os t important study of m a n The
, .
 GR AMMA R 2 39

fact that thought cannot be isolated from emotion and voli

tion makes the study o f gram mar the great anteroom o f p sy
,
”
ch o lo
gy proper . O n thi s point T h e Committ ee o f F i fteen

says : It shows the structure o f language and the logical ,

for m s o f subject predicate and modifier thus revealing the

, , ,

essential natu re o f thought itself the most important o f all

,
”
objects because it is self object
,
-
.

Th e P r a c t i ca l V a l u e o f G r a m m a r The practical a d v a n
.

tages o f grammar are as follo ws : ( 1 ) It offers a systematic

guidance in the construction o f sentences and is therefore o f , , ,

inestimable value to spoken and to wr itten discourse ; (2) It

is the indispensable preparation for the study o f rhetoric logic , ,

foreign languages and philology 3) It is i m possible to co m

,

prehend and appreciate fully the structural agency of litera

tur e without a thorough training in grammar ; and (4) Th e
,

proper study o f grammar develops habits of m i nd which are

o f the greatest i mporta nce as practical equi pments .

Th e Tr a i n i n g o f Te a c h e r s o f G r a m m a r Th e responsi .

b il i ty o f teachers o f grammar must o f course be measured by

, ,

the importance of the study If therefore gram m ar is as i m

.
, ,

porta nt to pupils as j ust explained it is evident that teachers ,

o f gram m ar need the best possible trainin g in grammar This .

training consists o f two items ( 1 ) Training in gram m ar itself .

This traini ng as else where state d is needed in the a r t as well

, ,

as i n the sci ence of tea ching gramm ar Without such p ro fi .

ci e nc
y gra m m ar will be distasteful to students and a failure as
,

an ed u cational instrument (2 ) Training in the principles and

.

methods o f teaching gra m mar is necessary S ince this topic .

w a s the subject of the present chapter i t is hbp ed that further ,

discussion m ay not be necessary .

2 40 PR I NCI PL E S A ND M E TH ODS OF TE ACH I NG

CH A P TE R VIII .

AR I THME TI C .

TH E purpose in hand requires that in this chapte r our atten

tion be directe d to ( 1 ) The N ature o f A rithmetic ; and (2) I n
struction in A rithmetic .

A . TH E N A TU R E OF A R I TH M E TI C .

In order to form a correct idea of the nature o f arithmetic ,

it is necessary to consider the following tOpics : (l ) The S ub

”
ject o f A rithmetic ; (2 ) Th e P sychology o f A rithmetic ; (8 )
Th e D efinition of A rithmetic and (4) Th e H istory o f A rith
metic .

S U B J E CT OF A RI TH ME TI C
“ ”
I TH E . .

”
It is with numbers (ho w many ) rather than with the ,

nature and relations of things that arithmetic has to do B ut

, .
,

as in dra wing it is rather the acts than the lines in question in

,
“ ”
those acts that constitute the subj ect o f study (though both
together are the subject) so in arithmetic it is rather the oper
,

a t i o n s than the numbers in question in those operations that

constitute the subject of arith m etic (though both together are

the subject) A complete description o f the subjec t o f
.
”

arith m e tic therefore requires the consideration of the follow

, ,

ing topics ( 1 ) Th e Nature of N umbers and (2 ) Th e N umber

Operations .

Th e N a t u r e o f N u m b e r s P arts of any kind which to

.

gether constitute a w hole for the mind thus constitute what is ,

term ed a U nit A ny unit in the conception o f which the mind

.

is unconscio u s o f arbitrary division is termed an Integra l

U nit The division of the integral unit gives rise to the F rac
.

t i o n a l U nit as o ne—third
,
A unit o r collection o f units is
.
242 PR I NCI PL E S A ND M E TH ODS OF TE ACH I NG

si ti o n .
( )
2 A
number may be used a number of times as a
multiplier and the product ascertained This process is te rmed
,
.

Involution .

The A n a lysi s of Nu m bers The possible modes o f analysis

.

o f numbers a s deter m ined by the nature of num ber are as

, ,

follows : ( 1 ) To take a number from a number to ascertain the ,

di fference ; and (2) To take the same number away as often as

possible to ascertain the number o f tim es one number contains
,

another These modes of analysis are termed respectively (1 )

.

S ubtraction a n d (2 ) D ivision,
D ivision is subtraction by uni
.

form diminution and there are t wo disti nct varieties : (a ) A

,

co m posite number may be subjected to successive divisions the ,

n umbers o f which it is composed being thus ascertain ed This .

process is termed F actoring (b) A number may be resolved.

into the equal factors o f which it is the product This process .

is termed E volution .

The Co m p a ri so n of Num ber s The possible modes of co m

.

paring numbers as determined by the relation o f numbers are

, ,

as follows : ( 1 ) The comparison o f two equivalent numerical

quantities (2) Th e comparison of t wo unequal numbers ; and
Th e comparison o f t wo equal relations of numbers T
( 3) h e .

equations which express these three modes o f co m parison are

te rmed respectively ( 1 ) S imple E quation (2 ) R atio and (3) , ,

P roportion Th e ends in view are respectively (1 ) To tr ans

.
,

form any numerical quantity into a more desirable form as ,

2 x3 6 (2 ) To measure the relation o f unequal numerical

quantities as ,
and (3) To co m plete o ne ratio by
means o f another as b 6 These equations as the
, ,

thoughtful reader will see are really the thought proce sses in
,
-

t h e various modes of synthesis and analysis j ust described in

the text Indeed all the judgm ents of arithmetical processes

.
,

fall into the form o f equations .

The L a ng u a g e of the Nu m ber Op er a ti ons F o r various .

reasons it is as important to express number concep ts and -

 A R I TH ME TI C 2 43

number operations truthfully as it is to describe objects and

-

events In order to carry o n as well as to express and record

.
,

the number operations a language sui g en eri s is requisite

-

, .

Th e complexity o f many number concepts and number opera - -

tions requires a language in which the elements are few and

their ca pa cti ty for co m position as great as possible The most .

rem arkable adaptation to these requ i remen ts is the A rabic sys

tem o f numeration and notation Th e A rabic figures ( 1 2 3 .
, , ,

4 5 6 7 8 9 O) and various S ign supplements are few

, , , , , , , ,

enough to satisfy any cri t ic The method o f combining these .

characters and giving them value according to the place which

they occupy toward the right o r left each figure being worth ten ,

times as much e v ery place tow ard the left is o n e o f remarkable ,

power The value o f the method is i ncreased by the S imple

.

system o f grouping the place s and nam ing the groups The .

R oman notation as any o ne can understand who will take the

,

time to think about it is far inferior to the A rabic system

,_ ,

and except as a means i n expressing differences in emphasis

, ,

has become almost obsolete Only o ne other system the pro .

,

posed duodeci m al notation in which two additional characters

,

are e m ployed and in w hich each figure to ward the left is

,

worth tw elve times a s much as if it stood a place further

toward the right is superior to the A rabic o r decim al system
, ,
.

It is superior to the A rabic syste m in its greater capacity to

express common fractions in few figures B u t whatever may .
,

be said about the numeration and notation i e about speak ,

. .
,

ing w riting and readi ng numbers this is obvious that numer

, , , ,

ation and notation as a su i g eneri s and necessary means in

,

nu m ber operation must be made the subject o f special study

-

,
.

Th e S u bject of A ri thm eti c (1 ) F rom the foregoing co n sid

.

era t i o n s it appears that the properties and relations o f num

bers toge ther with the number operations (synthesis analysis

,
-

, ,
”
and co m parison ) and the language means are the subject -

o f arithmetic
( )
2 Th e concrete applications o f the number
.
2 44 PRI NCI PLE S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE ACH I NG
operations as well as many other problems found in our arith
,

metics belong essentially to the domain of logic Indeed all

, .
,

problems are logical exercises In other words problems are .

,

statements o f conditions o r premises and the worker is re

, ,

quired to construct the syllogism o r series o f syllogism s by ,

mea ns o f w hich he can obtain the conclusion It must how .

,

ever be remembered that while these logical processes require

, ,

the services o f arith m etic they are not in the technica l sense
,

the subject o f ari thmetic

”
.

II . TH E PS YCH OL OGY OF A R I TH ME TI C .

Three things m u st be included in o u r presen t conception o f

arithmetic : (1 ) A w ell d efined system of operations ; (2) A n
-

organic body o f P rinciples ; and (3) The logical adj ustment

o f ari t hmetic to prac t ical and theore tical S pheres Th e m ental .

steps in the development o f arithmetic are respectively : ( 1 )

Observation 2 ) Induction a n d (3) D eduction
, ,
.

O b s e rv a t i o n i n A r i th m e t i c The observation o f numbers

.

begins with the conception (see chapte r o n Mental A c t ivi ty) o f

n u mber as quantity Th e concept o f number as quantity i m
.

plies the possibility of synthesis analysis and comparison It , , .

is a sumed that as a m eans in the conception o f particular num

s
,

bers these processes at least in their si m plest modes are spon

, , ,

ta n eo u s in all m inds When the mind m atures it observes

.

variations in the elementary processes o f synthesis analysis , ,

and com parison o r subjects them voluntarily to experi m ents

,

in which the conditions are constantly varied S ome o f these .

variations are doubtless accidental but whether accidental o r ,

intentional it is through them that all the species o f synthesis

, ,

analysis and comparison o f numbers are discovered This

,
.

necessary genesis of the number concepts determines both the -

me thod and course o f instruction in these concepts .

I n d u ct i o n i n A r i th m et i c B elieving that things are sub

.

ect to l a w and that a kno wledge of laws is advantageous in

j ,
2 46 P R I NCI PLE S A ND M E TH OD S OF TE ACH I NG

and m a y be expressed as follows (a ) Th e multiplication o f

this dia m ete r by gave the circumference o f this circle ;
( )
b T h e deductive experiments represent all possibilities there
fore (c) Th e m u lipli ca ti o n of the diameter by
,
al ways
gives the circumference o f a circle (a separate general truth of
complete Induction ) The deductions involved in complete
.

induction are generally sub conscious proce sses but they are
-

nevertheless always present (2 ) H aving discovered general

.

truths in arithmetic the student may derive less general truths

,

from these and solve problems as particular cas es The pos

, .

si b ili ty o f solving problems as examples o f a class j ustifies ,

the hard labor involved in complete induction and constitute s

the practical argument in favor o f arithmetic as a branch o f
study in o u r schools .

The D efini ti o n of A ri thm eti c Th e method o f study j ust de

.

scribed together with a systematic statement of truths consti

, ,

t utes science A rithmetic is therefore a science ; and since its

.
,

subject is numbers it is correctly defined as the science o f

”
,

numbers The word numbers as a term in this definition

.

must however be understood to include the number Opera

, ,
-

tions and the language o f numbers and number operations -

,
”
S ince all these to gether constitute the subject of the science .

A n d since o n e i m por tant end in view in the s t udy o f arith

metic is the attainment o f skill in perform ing the number
Operations it is practically correct to define arith m etic in the
,

terms o f o u r authors as Th e science o f numbers and the a rt

o f computing with t he m .

The H istory of A ri thm eti c A co m plete treat m ent of this

.

subject requires reference to the follo wing points (l ) Th e his

tory of the various nu m ber proce sses ( 2 ) The history of nu
-

m era t i o n and notation ; 3 Th e history o f the discovery o f

( )
general t ruths of arithmetic ; (4) The history o f the service s
o f arith m e t ic in practical and theoretical spheres and (5 ) Th e
history o f the pioneers and masters o f arithmetic A complete .
 A R I TH M E TI C 2 47

consideration o f these topics would require too much space for

o u r present limits and an abridged treatment would be u n
,

satisfactory A knowledge o f the history o f arithmetic is

.

however not o nl y in teresting to thoughtful students but o f

, ,

great i m portance to tea chers o f arithmetic The history o f .

arithmetic prepares the teacher o f arithmetic to appreciate

arithmetic and therefore makes it more likely that earnest
,

work will be done in teaching ari thmetic A ccordingly, .

school teachers are respectfully referred to such helpful works

as (1 ) The P hilosophy o f A rithmetic by D r E dw ard
”
, .

B rooks ; (2 ) The H istory o f Mathematics ”

by F lorian ,

B . IN S TR U C TI O N I N A R I TH M E TI C .

Th e nature o f arithmetic makes inquiry into the following

subjects a necessity for teachers o f arithmetic : ( 1 ) Th e Courses
o f Instruction in A rithmetic
; (2) Th e E nds in V iew ; (3)
The Methods o f Instruction ; (4) Written A rithmetic ; (5 )
Mental A r ithmeti c ; and (6 ) The Importance o f A rithmetic .

TH E COU R S E S OF A RI TH ME TI C .

The courses of instruction in arithmetic as in other branches , ,

are determined by at least three important factors : (1 ) Th e

evolution o f arithmetic ( 2) The pupil s possible progress ; ’

and (3) Th e needs o f life and science .

Th e E v o l u t i o n o f A r i t h m e t i c Three degrees o f di ffi culty

.

are distinguishable in the study o f arithmetic : ( 1 ) Th e stage

o f obvious relations when the numbers in question do n o t pass
,

perception and required operations as well as the required

, ,

thoughts are simple ; ( 2) The stage o f rem ote r relations when

, ,

the numbers in question require imagination as a supplement

to perception and the requ ired operations o r their applications
, ,

to life and science are complex and (3) The sta ge o f remotest
,

relations when the numbers in question pass imagination and

, ,

the required operations o r their applications to life and science

, ,
248 PR I NCI PL E S A ND ME THOD S OF TE ACH I NG

are very complex These three degrees o f di ffi culty must be

.

respected (S ee P rinciples of Instruction )

. .

Th e P u p il s P r o g r e s s P sychology discovers three stages

’
.

o f possibility in study ( )
1 Th e stage o f dependence when con ,

crete t hinking predominates very much over abstract thinking ,

and imitatio n (P rinciples o f Kno wledge ) is the rule ; ( 2) The

stage of transition w hen abstract thinking is closely coordinate
,

with concrete thinking and the pupil depends more upon his
,

o wn resources ; and (3) Th e stage of independence when a h ,

stract thinking predo m inates over con crete thinking and the ,

pupil depends virtually upon h i o wn resources These stages

s .

o f possibility must be respected (S ee the F irst S econd and

.
, ,

Third P rinciples of Instruction ) .

Th e N e e d s o f L i fe a n d S ci e n ce Th e needs o f life and

.

S cience cannot affect the order in which the subjects and phases

o f arithmetic should follow each o t her since these are a b so

,

l a tely a matter o f relation bet ween the subject and the pupil
but these needs unless indeed schools owe nothin g to life and
, ,

science can shi ft without arithmetic m ust be recognized in de

,

term i n i n g h o w much arithmetic a pupil should study (S ee .

the F ifth General P rinciple o f E ducation and the F ourth ,

P rinciple of Instruction ) .

The Necessa ry Cou rses of A ri thm eti c If the matte r o f

.

arithmetic must be adjusted to the stages o f the pupil s possi ’

b i li ty ( F irst P rinciple o f Instruction) and to his lot ( F ourth

P rinciple o f Instruction ) there must evidently be t he follo w
,

ing courses of instruction : ( 1 ) Th e E lem entary Course ; (2)

Th e Intermediate Course ; and (3) Th e H igher Course .

I . A E L E ME NT R Y
A R I TH ME TI C .

The distinctive features of instruction in elementa ry arith

metic arrange themselves under three heads ( 1 ) The E nds in
V iew ; (2 ) The Method of Instruction and (3) The Order o f
S ubj ects.
25 0 P RI NCI PLE S AND M E TH OD S OF TE ACH I NG

tion o f the objects observed The required attention is more

.

com plex than it seems it really amounts to perception direct ,

comparison and abstraction (2) The successive abstractions

,
.

in this process of attention supply the pupil s mind with the

,
’

particulars o u t of w hich he sponta neously builds his con cep t

o f the number i n question as o n e three five , ( )
3
,
Th e name
,
.

o f the nu m ber must o f course be associate d with the idea o f

, ,

the number to be taugh t as five ,

”
(S ee F irst .P rinciple o f
Knowledge ) The pupil should be required to write and read
.
,

as well as speak the name of the number which he is lea rning

, ,

although in order to keep the pupil from thinking si m ply signs

,

instead o f numbers the writin g and reading ought to be omitted

,

the first few weeks (4) Th e pupil really defines a number to

.

himself i n h i s conception o f the number formed as j ust ex , ,

plained by counting objects ; but such conceptions should be

,

re i nforced by m any r ecogni ti o ns o f the number learned It is .

’
by m eans of such deductive recognitions that the pupil s induc
tions (conceptions) beco m e his permanent possessions .

Tea chi ng the Con cep ts of Op era ti on When the pupil knows
.

“
of
“
how many a number as four consists ; that is when
, , ,
”
he has learned the number as a quantity he should be led ,
”
to see the possible arrangements o f the units of which the
quantity is constituted In other words objects m ust be so
.
,

placed let us say on a table that the pupil comprehends the

, ,

follo wing abstract tru ths in the concrete

As soon as possible (see P rinciples of Instruction) the pupil

should be required to record his experiments by means o f
signs and figures as in the text The end in view in all such
,
.

elementary exercises (perceptive experiments) is to tea ch the

 AR I TH ME TI C 25 1

con ce
p tsaddition subtraction multiplication and division
of , , ,
.

The systematic treatment o f the numbers from one to a hun

dred and even beyond that in the way just described is
, , ,

sometimes called the Grube Method in honor o f the cele

”
,

b ra ted German who first developed these exercises into a sys

tem (S ee P rofessor S eeley S excellent adaptation o f the Grube
.
’

system to A merican schools ) .

Tea ching Nu m ber L a ngu a g e The A rabic number language

-
.
-

( see page 2 4 3 ) is co m posite A ccordin gly

(see the S econd .

P rinciple o f Instr u ction ) the method o f teaching it is by ,

”
synthesis o f elements The process o f teaching number
.

language should begin as explained in the paragraph o n ,

”
Teaching the N u mber Concepts with the oral names of -

the numbers as o ne two three etc These names should

, , , ,
.

also be written and read as soon as these abstract exercises are

appropriate When the pupil has learned to speak write and
.
, ,

read the elements o f the A rabic number lan guage the follow -

,
'

ing exercises sh o u ld b e taken up in order : ( 1 ) Ten and o ne ,

ten and two etc up to ten and nine shoul d be illustrated by

,
.
, ,

means o f obj ects The names eleven twelve etc u p to

.
, ,
.
,

twenty must of course be added by associati ng them with

, , ,

the names ten and one ten and two etc (2) The pupil , ,
.

should next be taught to count two tens and one etc up to ,

.
,

nine tens and nine the names twenty o ne etc being added
,
-

,
.
,

as before (3) The nu m bers from o ne hundred to one thou

.

sand may be illustrated by means o f bundles o f splints etc ,

.

( )
4 A t any t i m e afte r the pupi l has learned to wri t e nine he
,

may be taught to write t en and t wo ten and one and then , ,

ten to hel p him see the use of zero Thus : 1 2 1 l l O

,
.
, ,
.

This lesson on place value is the key lesson to the A rabic

— ” ”

system o f notation and numeration it is the key lesson to all

the higher number groups (5 ) When the pupil has learned
-
.

to wri t e as far as nine tens and nine he m ust be taught to ,

call the collection o f ten tens o n e hundred writing it 1 O O , .

25 2 PR I NCI PLE S A ND ME THODS OF TE ACH I NG

Th e terms units tens and hundreds should no w be introduced

, , ,
” ”
the nu m eration at first always preced ing the reading o f
the number (6) When t he pupil has lea rned to write numer
.
,

a te and read as far as nine hundred ninety nine he must be

,
-

taught to call the collection o f ten hundred o ne thousand ,

writin g i t 1 l O O O (7 ) F inally the pupil must be taught

.
,

that higher groups as m illions billions etc are formed by

, , ,
.
,

multiplyin g the lower group by o n e hundred instead o f ten .

This concept can be taught m ost conveniently by the follo w

i ng arrangement the sam e figures being used fo r all groups at
,

firs t i n order to simplify the conception Thus .

Mi lli o n s, Th o u sa n d s ,

Of course it must not be forgotte n that while these les

,

sons o u nu m ber—language are being given the G rube exer ,

”
cises are to be continued and the four operations devel
oped into formal addition subtract ion multiplication and
, , ,

division .

Tea chi ng the Nu m ber Op er a ti ons Th e pupil is ready (see .

F irst and S econd P rinciples o f Instruction ) fo r lessons in

form al addition and subtraction as soon as he has m ad e a fai r
star t in the Grube exercises It is better t o teach addition
.

and subtraction together the t wo being natural co m plem ents

, ,

and easily illustrated as com plements Th e pupil is ready for .

‘

lessons in formal multiplication and division as soon as he

knows the req uired tables ”
I t is better to teach m ultipli
.

cation and division together not only because they are nat ural
,
“ ”
complements but also because the sam e tables can be used
,
.

” “
The four Operations and the construction o f the tables ,

must be made the subject of as many observations as may be

necessary for the pupil s understanding and memory (1 ) The
’
.
25 4 PR I NCI PL E S A ND M E TH OD S OF TE ACH I NG
The Mea ns i n E lem enta r
y A ri thm eti c course in ele . The
mentary arithmetic should extend through the pupil s first five ’

years (S ee the F irst Third and F ourth P rinciples of Instruo

.
, ,

tion ) (1 ) S o far as the understanding o f the chil d is in ques

.

tion it m atters very little whether books be used or not since

, ,

writte n language will be used in board assignm ents as w ell as -

in books P robably it would be best for several reasons to

.

use no books the first t wo years great care being ta ken ,

that event to write the questions very plainly in a conspicuous

place so as to save the pupil s eyes A n appropriate book
,
’
.

S hould be used a fter the second year bo t h as a matter o f econ ,

o m y in tim e and as an instrument in the educational transi

,

tion o f the child A s a moral precaution the w ork requ i red

.
,

o f elementary arithmetic pupils bet ween recitations should be

done in school hours and under the teacher s eye (2) The ’
.

questions S hould often be recited without resort to figures in

the perform ance o f the necessary number operations and in -

co mplete sentences but generally the reasoning process should

be expressed only in outline by m eans o f figures and such
supplementa ry words as may be necessary In such a co m .

promise between mental and written ari th m etic the

” ”
,

former will serve as a special discipline in analysis and

la nguage ; the latter will save time and train in practical
speed .

Th e O r d e r o f S u bj e ct s i n E l e m e n t a r y A r i th m e t i c The .

submitted list of subjects is a catalogue o f things to be taught

elem entary arithmetic and so m ewhat in order : ( 1 ) Th e
,

concepts o f the integral nu m bers together with counting , ,

Grube exercises and the necessary nu mber language (2 ) Th e

,
-
.

“
four operations with integral nu m bers together wi th the
”
,
”
necessary tables nu m ber language Grube exercises and
,
-

, ,

concrete problem s (3) Th e concepts o f the common fractions

.
,

together with the corresponding Grube exercises progress in ,

th e four Operations with integers progress in notation and ,

 A R I TH ME TI C 55

n umeration progress in concrete problems and progress in ex

, ,

pl a nation (4) The rules of the four operations w i th common

.

”
fractions together with speed drills and progress in form er
,

subjects (5 ) The concepts o f the decimal fractions together

.
,

with the rules o f the four deci m al operations and progress

in all preceding subj ects (6 ) Th e concepts of the simpler .

denom inate numbers together with the four operations the , ,

necessary tables and progress in all preceding subjects

,
.

I ll u s tr a t i v e L e s s o n s i n E l e m e n t a r y A r i th m e t i c The .

subjoin ed lessons are designed to be il lustrations Of the devel

Op m en t method (observation i nduction and deduction i n ele
) , ,

mentary arithmetic .

Th e C o n c e p t F iv e Tea cher H o w many grain s o f . .

corn have I just n o w pl a ced before you J ames ? J a m es F our ,

.

and o ne T Yes four and o ne o r five P lease pick up five

. .
,
.

books and take them to J ane Count five cracks i n the floor .
,

to uching each place with this pointer Which o f the cracks .

is five M iriam ? Mi r ia m It takes all o f them together to

,
‘

make five T P lease arrange these splints i n fives like th i s

. .
, ,

1th a ,
etc , .

Th e Gru b e Tr e a t m e n t o f F o u r Tea cher What hav e

”
. .

I done H enry H en ry Yo u placed four blocks o n the table

,
. .

T P lease arrange them in a row placing them a little way

.
,

apart fr om each other What can you now say about t he .

four blocks I I F our blocks are o n e and o n e and o n e and

.

o n e block T P lease record what yo u have found o u t

. . .

( H enry writes o n the board as he has been instructe d 4 1 , ,

1 1 T Move the first block against the second

. .

What can yo u now say about the four blocks A nnie A nni e ,
.

F our blocks are t wo blocks and o ne block and one block T . .

P l eas e record right below o u r first record N o w arrange them .

in another way J ames J a m es Thi s wa y four is t wo and

,
. .

t wo but if I place them thus four is three and one

,
T V ery ,
. .

well ; now record your facts Th e blocks as you see are all .
, ,
25 6 P R I NCI PL E S A ND M E TH ODS OF TE A CH I NG

together P lease take o n e away J am es and tell what is true

.
, ,

o f four J a m es F o ur less o n e is three

. . T D odd you m a y . .
,

keep the record at the board to the end o f the recitation .

J ames put back the block w hich you took

, No w Mabel .
, ,

give me t wo blocks and tell what is true o f four and the

,

t wo . JlI a bel F our less t wo is tw o

. T Take three a way . . .

F our .Yes D odd your record is correct

, , N ow put the .

blocks right i n front o f J am es and close together H o w .

— I
many ti es m mean h o w often — can yo u touch a differe n t
blo ck until yo u have touched them all J ames J a m es I can , .

touch four times T Then h o w m any time s one is four

. .
,

J a m es ? J a m es F our is fo u r ti m es o ne
. T H o w m any
_
. .

times can you touch all the blocks at once J am es ? J a m es , .

Only o ne time T F our is how many ti m es four ? J a m es

. . .

F our is o n e ti m e four T P u t the blocks together a gain

. . .

Mabel please take two blocks from the table H o w often can
,
.

you take t wo from four ? M a bel I can do it t wo ti m es T . . .

Then ho w m any t imes does four allo w you to take t wo aw ay

Ma bel Two ti m es T Yes four contai ns t wo just t wo ti m es
. . . .

No w how many ti m es does four “

contain four ? Ma bel
”
.

F our contains four only o n e ti m e T H o w many times does . .

four contain o n e ? M F our contains o n e fo ur ti m es T . .

P lease take these S plints each o f you only fou r and arrange , ,

them as we arranged the blocks Write the records on your .

slate and let me see them when yo u recite again (B y a nd by

,
.
,

when the pupils kno w the meanings of the signs

very well they should be requested to think all the possi
,

b il it ies of a nu m ber and record the facts by means of the

,

signs in an orderly way ) .

Th e N a m e s o f N u m b e r s Tea cher P lease count the . .

splints on the table before you J am es J There are nine ,

. . .

T Write the figure

.
“
nine (H anding another splint to .

J a m es ) H o w many are there n o w ? J a m es Ten T P lease

“

. . . .

write what yo u said J I do not know ho w T Yo u will . . . .

25 8 PR I NCI PLE S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE ACH I NG

M P erhaps th e figure 5 should be plac ed un der the first col

um n and t he figure 1 under the s econ d
,
T Why do you . .

th i nk so Mary ? M Th e second column is a column o f

,
”
tens (the pupil has learned this before) and the figure 1 is ,

T That is a good thought Mary ; but instead

”
o n e ten . .
,
“ ” “ ”
o f putt ing the o n e ten down at once carry it over into ,

the second colu m n a n d add it to the sum o f the second col

,

um n . M That makes eleven tens “ ”

T No w what will . .
,

you do with the eleven tens M ary ”

M E leven tens o r
,
”
,
” “ ” ”
ten tens and o ne ten is the same as o ne hundred and
,
”
o n e ten
(.T his fact was learned in a preceding lesson o n no
”
ta ti o n and numeration ) I must write the o n e te n under the
.

”
tens colu m n and the o ne hu nd r
,
to the left T H ave . .

y ou a
“
hundre d s ”
column to add ? M No S ir T W hat ,
. .

”
right have you to write o ne hundred to the left o f o ne
ten in your ans wer ? M I think it must be put there b e
”

”
cause i t w ould be put there if we ha d a hundreds column
to add T Yo u have answered correctly We must now
. . .

”
try a problem with a hundreds column in it P lease w ork .

these three problems (constructing them ) fo r your afternoon

r ecitation
(S peed
. drills S hould usually follow
-

) .

Tea cher P lease read this proble m ( po i nt

”
B o rr o w i n g . .

ing to the board) F lorence F F rom 6 09 take 2 35

,
. T
. . .

The class may work it P lease go to the board (They

.

work ) (S eeing that the class hesitates after 5 from 9 leaves

.

What is the trouble F rank ? F There is no ten ,

“ ”
.

from which to take three tens ”

T What do people some . .

times do to get money to pay a debt ? F F ather borrowed .

money from Mr J ones to pay for o ur wagon T S uppose

. . .
,
” ” ’
then that you borrow
,
one from our zero s left neighbor .

H o w many tens is the borro wed o n e wor t h ? F It is

“ ” “ ”
.

“ ”
equal to ten tens (T his was
. learned in preced i ng lessons
o n notation and numeration ) T What can yo u do n o w ?
. .

Gra ce Three fro m ten leaves seven (puttin g it down)

. T . .
 A R I TH ME TI C 25 9

Ca n yo u all work your problem now ? (They work but ,

“ ”
F rank forgets that he borrowed o n e fro m neighbor six .
’

”
T H o w did you get four as your last figure F rank ? F
.
, .

I took two from six and had four left E m m a (raising her
,
.

“ ”
hand) F rank should have said t wo from five
.
(F rank .
,

seeing his error makes the n ecessary correction ) T P lease

,
. .

solve the following problems (writing them) and bring them ,

this afternoon ( S peed drills in adding and subtracti ng

.
-

S hould follow The teacher S hould encourage self dependence

.
-

in these young workers ) .

Th e Th r e e Ti m e s Ta bl e Tea cher (standing at the .

board) H o w many times have I written the figure 3 George

.
,

G Only o ne ti m e
. T Then o n e time 3 is h o w many ? G
. . .

On e time 3 is 3 T I will w rite what yo u said (writing

. .

3 X1 T H o w many times have I written the figure 3

.

now ? Cla ss Two t imes . T P lease a dd the t wo 3 s How. .

’
.

many does it make ? C S i x T Then 2 times 3 is h o w . . .

many ? Newto n Two times 3 is 6 . T P lease write it . .

under (3 X 1 (N ewton writes ( 3 X 2 Ca n

o u now take 3 three t i mes and write it down ? F o ur
y ,

ti m es etc ,
.

Taught in this c onstr u cti v e way the multiplication tables ,

will be understood and can be readily reproduced by the ,

pupils These reconstructions should o f course be required

.
, ,
.

The pupil should sp ea k as w ell as wr i te the ta bles until it can be ,

”
done very rapidly forward at first and then back w ard, , .

When these things have been done (by adding and subtract
“
ing) the tables S hould be dri lled into mem ories i e they
, ,
. .
,
”
should be made automatic The figures from 1 to 1 2 m a y .

”
be arranged in a circle (the table figure in the centre ) for -

drill This is the trying stage in the mastery of a multiplica

.

tion table but the w ork m ust be done if the tables are ever to
,

serve their purpose namely economy in multiplication and , ,

division P r o blem s involv i ng the tables as far as known

.
2 60 PR I NCI PL E S AN D M E TH OD S OF TE A CH I NG

S hould be assigned in great numbers until the tables become ,

permanent and serviceable possessions .

M u l t i pl y i n g Where to place the m ultiplier with which

.
,

figures to multiply i n order and how to place the part ial ,

products must be taught as in the preceding lessons by o b

, , ,

servation o f examples thus requiring induc t ion in order to

,
“ ”
think the rule and deductive exercises to fix it The .

rea sons for the steps can be taught a little later by generalizing
”
the concept o f place in notation (Th e m ethods student .
-

should be required to write o ut the recitations as illustrated ) .

D i vi d i n g Where to place the divisor dividend and quo

.
, ,

tient how to proceed i n short division how to proceed in long

, ,

division and h o w to use the multiplication tables in division

, ,

and how to do whatever else must be done must be taught in ,

the same way as above It is believed that long division

.
“ ”

is more complex than short division and that it should

“ ”
, ,

therefore be in troduced a little later Th e teacher should

,
.

work the same problem both w ays side by side on the board ,

so that the pupils can see that long and short division are sim
ply t wo m odes o f getting the same res ult Th e divisor in this .

co n tr a st o f long and short division S ho ul d be less than 1 0at

first (The methods student should be required to write o ut

.
-

the recitation ) .

Sp eed D r ills i n the F o u r Op era ti o ns

-
A mong the most i m .

port ant deductive exercises in arithmetic are speed drills i e -

,
. .
,

practice in rapid adding subtracting multiplying and dividing

, , ,
.

Th e abili ty t o perform these operations rapidly without mis

ta ke is a great practical advan tage .

( )
1 T h e ability to add rapidly w ithout m istake is probably

the least co m m on and th e most i m portant P upils should be .

’ ’ ’
taught to add by 2 s 3 s 4 s 5 s 6 s 7 s 8 s etc and then
, , ,
’
,
’
,
’
,
’
,
.
,

irreg ularly These drills should sometimes be conducted wi t h

.

out the aid o f figures and so m e t i m es w ith figures

, .

( )
2 F inding the sum and di f
f erence o f any t wo numbers is
262 P R I NCI PL E S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE A CH I NG

many thirds do I hold u p no w ? P Two thirds (S imilar . .

q u estions should be used with other divisions cuts breaks , , ,

e tc
. until th e pupil sees ho w to n a m e the parts and why )
, ,
.

Tea cher What might we call o ne or m ore equal parts of a

.

thing ? (No one can tell ) O ne or m ore o f the equal parts of

.

a thing is called a F raction J ames what is a fraction ?

,
.
,

The class may think o f three fourths J ane can yo u sho w -

.
,

me three fourths of this apple (handing her a knife ) ? H arry

-

please take these beans and arrange them i n four equal heaps .

H o w many beans a re there in all ? H o w many are there in

e ach heap ? What may we call o ne of these equal heaps of
beans ? Then what is o ne fourth o f twelve ? Three fourths ?
,
- -

H o w many fou rths are there in all ?

Te r m s o f a F r a ct i o n Tea cher What is one of
”
Th e “
. .

the four equal parts o f this apple called R al ph ? R On e ,

.

fourth T P lease write the word on the board (R alph

. . .

writes one fourth ) Tea cher L et me write it ( Writes it

“ ”-
. .

thus at first and then ,

Into ho w many parts
have I divided this apple class ? C Into four parts T ,
. . .

Which figure S hows i t Clara ? C The figure 4 T That ,

. . .

“
4 is called the D eno m inator (writing the w ord )
”
What .

d o es the denominator sh ow J am es ? H o w many parts do I ,

hold in my left hand ? Cla ss On e T Please point to the . . .

figure which shows ho w many parts I h ave taken R

( alph .

points to the figure above the line ) T That 1 i s ca lled

’

”
. .

the Numerato r Nell what is the nu m erator o f a fraction ?

.
,

( M any drills will be necessary to make the terms learned per

m anent possessions o f t he pupil s unders t anding and memory )
’
.

Tw o Th i r d s a n d F o ur S i x th s
-
Tea cher Into h o w many
-
. .

equal parts have I divided this circle (pointing to it) ? What

is one part called H erbert ? H On e third T What are
,
.
-
. .

t wo parts called ? I I Two thirds T P lease divide each

.
-
. .

third in to t wo equal parts H o w many parts are there in all ?

.

What is one o f your six equ al parts called ? H o w many

 A R I TH ME TI C 2 63

sixths are there in two thirds ? H o w many thirds can you -

make o ut o f four sixths ? S i x sixths (In all these lessons

- -

and there should be many w ith many variations in the means

the pupil should be conducte d from the concrete to the abstract ,

and from the si m ple to the co mplex ) .

Tw o Thi r d s o f Th re e F o u rt h s
-
Tea cher P lease d raw a -
. .

square and divide it into four equal parts B essie ? Wha t is

, ,

o n e of your pa rts called ? Ne w divide each fourth into three

equal parts H o w many parts are there in all ? What is o n e
.

of these s m all parts called ? What part o f o ne fourth is o ne -

twelfth H o w many twel fths does it take to ma ke two thirds -

o f one fourth ?
-
Two thirds o f three fou rths -
I will no w -

show you how to get the same ans wer with figures What .

have I done Walter ? W Yo u have multiplied the numera

,
.

tors 2 and 3 together and w ritten the 6 as a numera tor T

, ,
. .

A nd n o w ? W Yo u have multiplied the denomi na tors 3 and

.
,

4 together and written the 1 2 a s n ew denominato r

,
T What . .

ca n I do to make the six t welfths o n e half ? W D ivide both

- -

numbers by 6 ( B y and by but not at first the device o f

.
, ,

cancelling should be introduced into such problems ) .

D i vi s i o n b y F r a cti o n s Tea cher If J ames can drink t wo . .

pints Of milk a day ho w many d ays w ill it ta ke him to drink

,

six pints J aco b ? J It w ill take him just three days T

,
. .
’
.

H o w did you get your answer ? J I divided 6 by 2 T . . .

Then if J ames co uld drink only a half pint every day ho w

,
-

must you reckon o ut h o w long it will take h i m to dri nk the

six pints ? J I must divide by One hal f T Ple a se try it
.
-
. . .

(J ames kno w s h o w to divide 6 by 2 but cannot divide 6 ,

by i ) T L et me show you J ames This is the problem

. .
,
.

( writ e s 6 if ) It must be w
. rit ten thus ( writes
fX
What did I do to get the 1 2 J You turn ed the divi .

so r
(j ) upside do w n and did what must be,
done in multi
“ ”
plication T Yes ; I inverted the divisor and proc eeded
. .
,

as in m ultiplication What then must we al ways do when the

.
2 64 PR I NCI PLE S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE A CH I NG

divisor is a fraction ? You may all go to the board P lease .

divide seven by three fourths (O ther exercises

-
must of .
,

course be added )
,
.

“ ”
The reason for inverting the divisor when it is a fraction
is to o diffi cult at this point it is a question o f reciprocal re
”
lation and requires abstract reasoning B ut by and by the
, .

pupil must be led to see that if fo r example o n e (3 thirds) , ,

-

contains one ( 3 thirds) just o ne time it m u st conta in 2 thirds

-

,
-

“ ”
as o ften as 2 is contained i nto 3 o r 3 that the i nversion ,
“ ”
( )
o f the divisor g is the quotient o f unity divided by the
,

fraction and that this quotient must be m u ltip li ed by 6 to get

the whole quotient .

D e ci m a l C o n ce p t s Tea cher E mily what is o n e

”
Th e . .
,

o f ten equal parts o f anything called ? E On e tenth T .

-
. .

P lease write it with figures L et me S how the class another

.

way o writing Ti) (Writes

f l
! What have I done ? Georg e .

You wrote the figure 1 with a dot before it T The dot . .

stan ds fo r the 1 0 in 11 6 and is called the D eci mal point ,

.

P lease read this (pointing to F r a nk I think it is three .

tenths T Is three tenths a whole number ? F It is a frac

. .
-
.

tion T What then may we call the 3 with a d eci m a l

. .
, ,
“ ”

point before it H elen ,

I I A decimal fraction T P lease
. . .

read this (writing J a m es (after a little S ilence o n the

part of the class) The o ne is o n e tenth but I do n o t know
.
-

what to call the 2 T If the decimal point before o n e figu re

. .
-

stands fo r 1 0 for what must it stand before two figures (The

,

class comes to a dead halt and the teacher must tel l them ,

that before two figures the decimal point stands for 1 00 before ,

three figures for 1 000 and that therefore 1 2 is read 1 2 hun

,
.

d redth s and 2 35 two hundred thirty fiv e tho usandths A little

,
.
-
.

more drill will fix the mode of decimal notation and numera

tion ) .

The next lesson introduces the decimal operations the teacher ,

workin g examples S howing where to place the decimal point

, ,
2 66 P RI NCI PL E S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE ACH I NG
Th e E n d s i n V i e w i n I n t e r m ed i a te A ri th m
t i c The e .

things to be accomplished in the course o f inte rmediate arith

metic are as follo ws : (1 ) Great proficiency in the subjects taken
u
p in the ele m entary course and
, ( )
2 A dvancement to such
subjects as by reason o f their greater complexity afford harder
disci pline and such as are necessary in the expanded and still
expanding life o f the pupil These points are so obvious that
.

they require no extended development and will be assumed in ,

the following pages .

Th e M e t h o d o f I n s tr u c t i o n i n I n t e r m e d i a t e A r i th m e t i c .

Th e nature o f the n ew subjects to which the pupil is to be i n

t ro d uced in intermediate arithmetic requires as was explained ,

( see page no new method but since ,

arithmetic is to be
developed into a useful art d edu cti o n the form o f reasoning
, ,

that applies general truths to the details of life must be ,

allowed to predominate over induction The Opportunity for .

deductive reasoning as was pointed o u t (see page

,
is very
great Two topics deserve o u r special attention at this time
.

( 1 ) The D evelopment of Concepts R ules and A xioms ; and, ,

( )
2 T h e D erivation of P rinciples and R ules .

Th e D ev elop m ent of Co n cep ts i n I nterm edi a te A r i thm eti c .

S uch concepts as ratio proportion percentage progression

, , , ,

involution and evolution must obviously be developed by

, ,

observation of examples consequent induction and proof

, ,

deductions .

The D ev elop m ent 0f R u les i n I n ter m edi a te A ri thm eti c P upils .

in arithmetic should seldom except in mensuration a nd sev

,

eral other cases be allowed to work by rule

,
“ ”
Work by .

”
rule is almost certain to dwarf the analytic habit so desirable
in good thinking Therefore rules in interm ediate arithmetic
.
, ,

w ith the exceptions as stated should be developed as before

,

by analytic observation o f examples and such induction as

will al ways look for variations in new problems .

The D ev elop m ent of A xi om s A xioms are ge n erally defined

.
 A R I TH ME TI C 2 67

as self evident truths Th e belief has prevai led that axioms

-
.

are absolutely a p ri ori truths i e truths at w hich the m i nd ,

. .
,

arrives wi t hout the inductive process This conclusion is .

probably incorrect It is altogether likely that axioms di ffer

.

from other general truths only in this that they are obviously ,

undeni able and universal Ind u ction is ho wever as it a p .

, ,

pears thei r real origin though the wonderful thing about

, ,

these inductions is the reao to w hich the young min d

arrives so early in l ife Indeed the axioms o f arithmetic are
.
,
”
all present i n the child s m in d before lessons begin Take
“ ’
.
,
“
for example the axiom that Th e w hole is greater than any
,
”
o f its parts S omewhere in childhood nobody knows when
.
, ,

the min d virtually thought the subjoin ed syllogism

Th i s wh o l e is g r t r th
ea e an a n
y of r
i ts p a ts ;
Th i s wh o le is pl e o f a ll wh o es ;
a sa m l
Th e rfr
e o e, a n y wh o e i s l r tr
g ea e th a n a n y of i ts p a rt
s .
”

B u t,although the ch i ld has probably arrived at all the axioms

o f arithmetic by induction long before it could state the syllo

gism it is obviously a S plendid discipline for an intermediate

,

pupil to illustrate the origin o f the various axioms and to state

the syllogism s in w hich they are the conclusion .

The D eri v a ti on of P r i ncip les P rinciples as was shown o n .

,

page 2 45 ca n be developed by induction as i n the case o f

, ,

factorin g and shou ld be so developed ; but as a most effective

, ,

discipline they should also be derived from axio m s i e they

, ,
. .
,

should b e demonstrate d o r proved deductively Take for , ,

.
,
“
exam ple the pr i nciple that D ivi d ing the denominator o f a
,

fraction by any number multiplies t he v alue of the fraction

”
by that nu m ber This truth should first be illustrated in the
.

concrete and developed by induc t ion but it should then be

,

referred to the axiom o ne of w hose derivatives it is and ,

proved by deductive reasoning Th e principle in question .

”
rests o n the axio m that A whole is the sum o f all its parts .
268 PR I NCI PLE S A ND ME THODS OF TE ACH I NG
D ividing the
denominator by any number is the same as di
y iding a w hole into fewer parts each o f which must also be ,

the su m of the smaller parts that w ould have been the results
o f dividing the whole by a larger number and the larger parts ,

must obviously be as much larger as the number by which it

was proposed to divide the denominator A ccordingly D i .
,
” “ ”
v i di n Th e principles o f the
g the deno m i nator etc ,
four
.

operations and those o f fractions and factoring should be thus

, ,

proved in i ntermediate a rithmetic Much o f this work o f de .

duction of course cannot be done before the high school period

, ,
-
.

Th e D eri v a ti on of R u les I t is a great satisfaction to the

.

mind and a great practical advantage to be able to show that

,
.

rules can be gotten from principles j ust as principles can be ,

derived from axioms and a still greate r conquest to be able ,

to get original rules from given principles Take for ex .

,
”
ample the rule for finding the greatest common divisor o f
,

fractions The rule should be developed by tria i e by

. . .
,

observa tion and induction but it S hould also be deduced from

the principle that D ividin g the numerator of a fraction or ,

multiplying its denominator by any number divides the , ,

”
value o f the fraction by that number S uppose the fraction s .

“ ”
to be 7g 2
g ,
and e
T6
t
T h,
e greatest common
—
. divi sor is
wanted i e the largest number that will divide a ll the frac
,
. .
,

tions exactly H o w shall it be done ?

. R eferring to o u r
principle we are told how to proceed in case o f o ne frac
,

tion we must divide the numerator and multiply the denom

i n a to r. H aving t reated all the numerators “ ”
by tri al we ,
“
find the greatest com m on dividing number to be 2 Th e least .

”
common multiple o f the denominators must according to the ,

s t ated principle be the divisor wanted since it conta ins a ll the

, ,

old deno m inators i e divides them exactly Therefore i n

,
. .
,
.
,

the proposed problem the G C D is 3 7 M uch o f this 2

. . . .

work of deduction must by reason of the dependence o f ,

arithmetic on geometry and algebra be deferred to a later ,

2 70 PR I NCI PLE S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE ACH I NG

that they cannot be solved by any mechanical the rul e says

- -

”
SO.

( )
2 S kil l
in computa tion i e brevity o f statement and S peed ,
. .
,

in calculation is the special aim o f written arithmetic The

, .

n u m ber therefore as w ell as the v a r i ety o f problems under each

, ,

subject S hould be adapted to this special purpose When the

, .

number o f problems in the adopted tex t book is n o t adequate -

— and thi s m ust often happen — su lem en ta r proble m s must

pp
.
y
be provided The proficient teacher will have no trouble in
.

the perform ance o f this duty teachers of all grades w ill find
the bo oks o f D r J ohn T P ri nce (A rithmetic by Grades) very
. .

suggestive and helpful .

Th e A n s w e r s t o P r o bl e m s i n W r i tt e n A r i t h m e t i c .

A uthors o f written arith m etics seem to believe that the a n

s wer s o f proble m s S hould acco m pany the text o r if not that , , ,

they S hould at least be found in an appendix Many teachers .

approve o f such text books -

.

This position is open to grave objections ( )

1 P upils will .

work for the answer and ha v ing obtained the given answer
, , ,

they w ill not take the trouble to p r o v e it Of the two habits .

thus formed that of depending on others is a poor preparation

,

for life and that o f neglecting to prove truth is positively

,

dangerous (2) It is certainly possible to do without such

.

answers This h a s been practically dem onstrated in the case

.

o f mental arith m etic where they are seldom found and rarely
,

desired Moreover pupils trained in t o the habit of proving

.
,

their o wn answers from the beginning will not need su ch ,

m ake shifts w hile at the sa m e t i m e

-

, ,
they are forming the ,

valuable habits of self—dependence and truth seeking It is -

.
,

therefore to be la m ented that our school arith m etics contain

,

such objectionable helps .

The question arises Why do o ur authors give these ans wers

, ,

and why do many teachers want such books ? Th e ans wer

consists o f t wo ite ms : ( 1 ) A uthors are required to give such
 A R I TH ME TI C 27 1

helps because the mass o f teachers deman d it ; and (2 ) The

demand grows o u t o f the feeling of d ep enden ce w hich t hrough ,

this very blunder i n text books has become the habit o f so ,

many teachers Moreover tea chers suppose it to be a saving

.
,
”
o f time and labor to have such books This attitude o f te ach .

ers reveals a misconception of the teaching process which is i n -

defensible except i n novices Where books containing a n

,
.

swers have been adopte d the te acher should do the best he can
,

to ignore them .

Th e A s s i g n m e n t o f L e s s o n s i n W r i tt e n A r i th m e t i c
“
.

Th e pupil should know j ust h o w much ground he is expected

to cover D efinite requirement is a stimulus in the prepara
.

tion o f lessons S uch suggestions and preparatory drills as

.

will put the pupil o n the way to help hi m self S hould be con ,

n ected with the assignment o f lessons If the same lesson can.

be assigned to a number o f pupils the stimulus of definite as ,

si gn m e nts will be very effective and the nece ssary suggestions

,
'
will do for the many as well as for o ne pupil Generally it .

will be found best to assign the next arithmetic lessons at the

close o f recitations The tea cher will then know j ust what
.

hints directions and helps may be needed In order to sue

, , ,
.

ceed in these matters the arithmetic teacher m ust evidently

,

study every lesson every time he teaches i t even if that be a ,

hundred times It is not possible for any ordi nary hu m an

.

being to r em em ber the snags switches and pitfalls from year

, ,

to year so well as to be able to dispense w ith thi nki ng the

,

problem over every time .

Th e P r e p a r a t i o n o f L e s s o n s i n W r i t t e n A r i th m e t i c .

Th e lessons should n ever be so long as to m ake it i m possible

to work all the proble m s o r at least all the doubtful ones
,
.

In case o f younger pupils it is safest to require all problems

,

to be worked and o ffered for inspection ; in the case o f older

pupils successful recitation may be taken as su fficient evidence
,

o f preparation A s a moral precaution younger pupils should

.
,
2 72 PR I NCI PL E S A ND M E TH OD S OF TE A CH I NG

work their lessons in school hours and under the te a cher s eye ; ’

older pupils should be required to do some work o ut o f school

hours In all ca ses the teacher should strive to cultivate self
.
,

dependence in his workers .

Th e R e ci t a t i o n i n W r i tt e n A r i th m e t i c The character .

i st i cs o f a recitation in ari thmetic c a n be most conveniently

considered under the following heads : (1 ) Th e Objects o f the

R ecitation ; (2 ) Th e P repara t ion o f the B oard ; (3) The A S
T e Work i ng of P roblems ;
( )
4 h ( )
5
Th e P u pi l l xpla na t i o n ; ( 6) Criticisms ; ( 7 ) The Teacher s
’ ‘ ’

'
P art in P roblems ; (8 ) A ttentio n to the General Truths o f z

A rithmetic ; and (9 ) Th e Importance o f R eviews .

The Objects of the R eci ta ti o n The object s o f a recitation

.
,

whether it be in ari th m etic or any o ther branch are as follo ws ,

( )
1 T o stimulat e the pupil to study ;
( 2 ) T o exercise all the

functions of the pupil s mind ; and (3) To develop the subject

’

in question In short every lesson should count as so much

.
,

discipline and as so much progress in the subject .

The P rep a ra ti on of the B o a r d A t a given signal the pupils

.
,
”
should prepare the board i e they should carefully erase
,
. .
,

whatever interferes with the purpose of the reci tation and ,

write their names at the head o f the board A fter these pre .

li m i na ri es the pupils S hould face the teacher and wait fo r

,

assignments .

Th e A ssignm ent of P ro blem s In ca se o f younger p upils the

.
,

sam e problem should be as signed to the whole class by dicta

t ion The teacher should see to it that the pupils do not
.

“ ”
copy in working the proble m In case o f older pupils a
.
,

different task S hould be assigned to every pupil The ideal .

way o f assigning problems is to write them o n prepared slips

o f paper together with the number of the problem and the
,

page o f the book from which it may be taken and to dis ,

t ribute the papers by lo t This plan is however not always

.
, ,

practicable In such cases the problems may be assigned by

.
,
2 74 PR I NCI PLE S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE ACH I NG
ready for such addi tions and criticisms This exercise is o f .

the highest importance to the discip line and instruction o f all .

The Tea cher s P a r t i n P ro b lem s

’
It may be necessary t o
.

o ffer suggestions to workers at the board and to give d i rec ,

tions to those wh o seem to be unable to proceed The right .

time fo r such help must be determin ed by the circumstances .

Th e tea cher should not work problems fo r pupils except as a ,

last resort an d even then it may be better to work another

,

problem that i n volves the same principles S ometimes it is .

well to let pupils try fo r several days to do a problem the ,

te acher offering such hints as may seem in place The teacher .

should supplement and criticise the pupil s explanation o f ’

problems and add such information as may create interest i n

,

arithmetic .

A tten ti on to the Gen er a l Tru ths of A r i thm eti c Th e impres .

sion seems to prevail that the great thing i n arith metic is to

”
work and explain problems The whole truth is that d efi
.
,

n i tio n s rules principles and axioms must be taught in con

, , ,

n ecti o n with problems B u t these general truths o f arithmetic

.

s hould be developed by induction o r derived by deduction as ,

the case may be in accordance with the methods already de

,
”
scribed n o r should any text statements o f such truths ever
,

be committed unless they are un derstood Th e pupil s o wn .

’

sta tement t he immediate evidence o f his o w n thi nking is to

, ,

be generally preferred Much of this work is most co nv en

.

i ently connected with the assignment o f lessons and reviews .

The I m p o rta n ce of R evi ews i n A ri thm eti c There should o f

.
,

course be formal reviews once a week o r once in t wo weeks

, ,

and monthly tests E very truth ever learned and every power
.
,

of computa t ion ever acquired should thus become permanent

,

possessions In addition to these formal review s and tests

.
,

every recita tion should consist partly o f revie ws and tests .

S uc h connections will not only stimulate thorough preparation

and private review but serve as introductions to a dvances
,
.
 A R I THME TI C 275

In these reviews no help should be o ffered except in extreme

ca ses Th e teacher needs excellent judgment in these as in
.
,

all cases .

6 ME N TAL
. AR I TH ME TI C .

Th e special features o f mental arithmetic are most con

v en ien tly studied under the following heads : ( 1 ) Th e N ature

o f Mental A rithmetic ; (2 ) The P reparation o f L essons ; ( 3)

Th e R ecitation in Mental A rithmetic ; and (4) The Importance

o f Mental A rithmetic .

Th e N a t u r e o f M e n t a l A r i t h m e t i c Mental arithmetic
.

is so named n o t because written arithmetic is only a physical

,

process but because in mental arithmetic the number Opera

,
-

” ”
tions are performed without the aid o f figures Th e real .

difference between these t wo species of arithmetic is this that ,

mental arith m etic is eminently anal y tical and inducti v e while ,

written arithmetic lays more stress on economic abridgments

and deductions These distinctions between mental and writ
.

ten arithmetic may be understood by comparing the two modes

o f solving a problem Take for example this problem If
.
, ,

s of a pound o f butter costs 1 0 cents what will 5

3
; ,
of a pound
cos t
The S o lu ti on i n Menta l A ri thm eti c If o f a pound of but
.

ter costs 1 0cents 7; of a pound will cost 3 o f 1 0 cents or 5

1
, ,

cents and g or 1 pound o f butter will cost 5 times 5 o r 2 5

, , , ,

cents If 1 poun d of butter costs 2 5 cen ts ;l£ o f a pound will

.
,

cost $1 of 2 5 cents o r 6 3
, ; cents and o f a pound will cost 3
,

times cents or 1 8%cents The analytic synthetic steps o f

,
.
-

the solution may be represented in the following drawing o f

physical steps
2 76 P R I NCI PLE S A ND M E TH OD S OF TE A CH I NG

1h lb
cts cts

Wri tten A ri thm eti c

. . . ,

The S o lu ti o n i n . If 3 10g ,
.
25 ,
and
1h . e ts . cts .

10
ni
x I O
£1 : 1 8§ or , 2
— answer ; therefore ,
—

cts

Whether solved by fractions

.

1 82 . proportion the economic or

,

abridgments and the deductive reasoning are obvious In .

the solution by mental arithmetic the a na lysi s o f the problem

allo ws no abridgments and is the first step in the i ndu cti on ,

o f rules .

Th e P r e p a r a t i o n o f L e s s o n s i n M e n t a l A r i th m e t i c As .

far as possible problems should be written o ut before the reci a

“ ”
t a t io n A t all events every problem should be thought o u t
.
,

by analysis Th e teacher and the pupils are equally subject

.

to this requirement Th e lessons must o f course be short .

, ,

enough to m ake such prepa ration possible .

Th e R e ci t a t i o n i n M e n t a l A r i t h m e t i c V arious methods .

have been proposed and used A mong the best ones are the .

following
The Com m o n Metho d Th e teacher reads a problem assigns
.
,

it to some pupil and requires hi m to rise repeat and solve it

, , ,

without the help of a book o r figures It is necessary to insist .

o n precise and concise language and correct pronunciation , .

The method is econo m ic and in the hands of a strong teacher , , ,

w ill be e ffective .

Th e Cha n ce A ssignm ent Metho d Th e number of the prob .

lem and the page o f the book from which it may have been
taken are put o n prepared slips o f paper and the pupils draw ,

papers by lot The teacher reads a proble m announces the

.
,

number and page and expects the pupil that dre w the number
,

to rise and then repeat and solve the proble m as in the com m on
method This m ethod is superior to the common method as
.

an exercise in attention .

The P a r ts Metho d
”
Th e teacher reads and assigns as in
.

the common method ; but when the first pupil has repeated
 2 78 PR I NCI PLE S A ND M E TH ODS OF TE ACH I NG

Th e P r a cti ca l Va lu e of Menta l A ri thm eti c

In practical life .

there are many times when the po wers developed in mental

arithmetic are most serviceable The man who is unable to .

solve questions o f practical arithmetic wi thout pencil and

paper is o ften at a disadvanta ge .

A n E lo qu ent P lea for Menta l A ri thm eti c No words can .

convey a full appreciation o f the i m portance o f menta l arith

metic Only those who experienced the transition from the
.

o ld methods to the n ew can fully realize the supreme value

o f the study Indeed w e believe that the method of mental

.
,

ar ithmetic is the greatest improvement in m odern education

and the world owes a debt o f gratitude to Warren Colburn ,

its author which it can never pay Though there has been a
,
.

recent reaction in public sentiment agai nst the subject we b e ,

lieve that it is merely a wave o f Opinion and that it cannot be

perm anent Mental arithmetic is the great source o f disci
.

pline to the po wer o f thought in our public schools When .

properly taught it gives quickness of perception keenness o f

, ,

insight toughness of mental fibre and an intellectual power

, ,

and grasp that can be acquired by no other primary study To .

omit therefore a thorough course in mental arith metic in the

, ,

common school s is to deprive the pupils o f o ne o f the princi

,
”
pal sources o f thought power .

III . H I GH E R A RI TH ME TI C .

The purpose in hand forbids an extended discussion o f

higher arithmetic A mere outline is all that our li m its will
.

allow and t he outline is respectfully subjoined as a sti m ul us

,

to teachers .

Th e E n d s i n V i e w i n H i g h e r A r i th m e t i c Th e ends in .

vie w i n higher ari th m etic are as follows : ( 1 ) To supplement

the gra m m ar school course ( 2 ) To study such remotest rela
tions of arithmetic as can be better understood after a course
in algebra and geometry ; (3) To equip pupils with such
 AR I TH ME TI C 2 79

special training i n arithmetic as S hall serve S pecial needs o f

life ; and (4) To develop such historical scientific philo , ,

sophi c and professional scholarship in arithmetic as may be

,

deemed important .

Th e M e th o d o f I ns tr u ct i o n i n H i g h e r A r i t h m e t i c The .

development method as employed in intermediate arithmetic

, ,

is virtu al ly the right method fo r higher arithmetic The .

higher phases o f the subject the special purposes i n vi ew and

, ,
.

”
th e personal element o f the teacher must determine the ,

necessary adjustments The pedagogics Of arithmetic is a

.

problem in psychology and economy and must o f course , be , ,

studied from those S pecial stand points -

.

Th e S u bj e ct s o f H i g h e r A r i t h m e t i c The course o f .

higher arithmetic belongs to the hi gh school normal school , ,

business college etc,

.

H igh S cho o l A ri thm eti c The subject o f arithmetic should

.

not be dropped in high schools It should be retained as a .

means o f higher culture and special equipment (1 ) F rom .

the stand point o f culture a regular text book should be sup

-

,
-

“ ”
p l e m en ted with test problems A course o f mensuration
.

should be added aft er geometry the S pecial purpose being to ,

investigate the origin o f rules and to acquire the power to

make original rules 2) F rom the stand point o f equipment
.
-

the high school shoul d offer a course o f commercial arithmetic

in connection w ith book keeping A thorough course in the
-
.

Metric S yste m is desirable

”
.

Nor m a l S cho o l A ri thm eti c Th e normal school should o ffer

.

a course in arithmetic equivalent to that j ust mapped o u t for

high schools The special sta nd point of nor m al schools re
.
-

quires such a course for t wo reasons : (1 ) A s a preparation for

the pedagogics o f arithmetic ; and (2 ) A s an equipment in
teaching arithmetic The history and philosophy of a ri th m e
.

tic should be connected with the pedagogics o f arithmetic .

D iscovery o f prin ciples a nd deductio n o f methods should be

2 80 PR I NCI PL E S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE A CH I NG

the great aim Old methods should be subjected to criticism

.
,

and original methods derived A course in duodecimals is

.

desirable for tea chers and S pecialists in arithmetic .

IV . TH E I MPOR TANCE OF AR I THME TI C .

The importance o f a rithmetic is most conveniently co nsid

ered under the following hea ds : (I ) The Culture V alue o f
A rithmetic ; (2 ) Th e Instruction V alue o f A rithmetic ; (3)
The P ract ical V alue of A rithmeti c ; and (4) The Training o f
Teachers o f A rithmetic .

Th e C u l t u r e V a l u e o f A r i th m e ti c The detachment o f
.

quantity from quality at once distinguishes arithmetic fro m

a l l other sciences The measurement o f quantities and the
.
,

expression o f such measurements by means o f numbers are ,

the grea t concerns o f arith m etic The measurement of q u

.

tities makes analysis synthesis and comparison the necessary

, ,

processes o f arithmetic The possibilities and applications o f

.

these processes must be ascertained by the development method

o f study . Thus we see that arithmetic exercises the mind in
its most complex functions and within a sphere su i g en eris .

Th e tendency o f such exercise is to develop the power o f a t

tention in union with the syllogistic processes B u t although .
,
“ ” ”
the intellect and will are thus exercised somewhat unfeel
“ ” ”
i ngly the heart learns to rejoice in truths
,
There is o ne
.

danger in the study o f arith m etic The Committee of F i f

” “
teen refers to this danger as follows : Th e study o f quan
tity if carried to excess may w arp the mind into a hab it o f
, ,

neglecting quality in its observation and reflection A s there .

is no subsumption in the quantitative j udgm ent but only ,

equality o r inequality (A is equal to o r greate r o r less th an B ) ,

there is a tendency to atrophy in the faculty o f concrete syllo

i st ic reas oning o n the part o f the person devoted exclusively
g
”
to mathematics .

Th e I n s tru ct i o n V a l u e o f A r i th m e t i c The knowledge

.
2 82 PRI NCI PL E S AND ME THOD S OF TE ACHI NG

C H A P TE R IX .

G E OG R AP H Y .

TH E first requisite i n ideal i nstruction is a defin ite co ncep

”
tion o f the subj ect to be taught In th i s chapte r o n geog .

ra h we must therefore in quire into the nature o f geography

p y
before we try to solve the problem o f teaching geo graphy .

A . TH E N A TU R E O F G E O G R A P HY .

The purpose of the chapter li m i ts inquiry into the nature

“ ”
o f geography to four topi cs : ( 1 ) The S ubject o f Geography ,

( )
2 T h e P sychology Of G eography ( )
3 T h e R elation o f Geog
,

T e H i story of Geography
ra h
p y to O ther B ranches and ( )
4 h,
.

Th e S u bj e c t o f G e o g r a p h y
”
Geography as commonly
.
,

defined is a description o f the surface of the earth and its

, ,
”
inhabitants The subject of geography according to this
.
,

definition is ( 1 ) The earth s surface and (2) The eart h s in

,
’
,
’

habitants The earth however is the subject o f geography

.
, ,
”
only in so far as it is the home of man and man only in so ,
’
far as he is the earth s inhabitant B ut the earth as ma n s
’
.
,

habitat consists of land water atmosphere plants animals

, , , , , ,
’
minerals and conditions o f relation and man as the earth s
, ,

inhabitant is subject to changes makes changes in his habitat

, , ,

and employs i t as means to ends These pheno m ena,accord .

”
i ngly constitute the
,
subject o f geography This definite .

’
conception o f geograph y is co m pletely developed in Guyot s
treatise on The E arth and Ma n ”
.

Th e P s y ch o l o g y o f G e o g r a ph y
”
The subject o f geog .

ra h is capable not only o f description but also o f explana

p y ,

tion Geography is therefore really a science S trictly de

.
, ,
.

’
fined Geograp hy i s the sci ence of the ea rth a s m a n s ha bi ta t a nd
,
 GE OGR A PH Y 2 33

f m a n a s the ea rth s i nha bi ta nt A S a science geography

’
o .
,

must first observe and then explain its phenomena .

Obser v a ti on i n Geog rap hy P ossibly there is no other science

.

in which observers are so likely to trespass upon the domain

of related sciences Th e observer in geography should there
.

fore keep in mind this absolute requirement to observe the ,

’
earth only as man s habitat and man only as the ea rth s i n
,
’

habitant Within these bounds however the student must

.
, ,

observe (with senses and j udgment) every nook and corner o f

space and time and record his observations When original
,
.

contribution to the S cience o f geography is the end in v ie w ,

perceptive observation is imperative but in the case of pupils ,

o f geography perceptive observation must fo r obvious reasons

,

be supplemented by conceptive observati on .

E xp la na ti o n i n Geogr ap hy J ust as cumulation is the first

.

step to ward construction i n building a house so observation ,

is only the first stage in science The cu m ulation of facts mus t

.

be supplemented by explanation In other words the facts o f

.
,

geography must be referred to causes laws and cl a sses Th e , ,

.

process o f geographical explanation begins with an i ndu cti v e

inquiry into the relations in question and ends in d edu cti ve ,

classification o f phenomena (S ee P rinciples o f Kno wledge )

. .

Whether original contribution to the science of geography o r ,

acquaintance with the constructe d science be the end in view , ,

the explanatory process is essentially the same Th e only dif .

ference between the geographer and the stude nt o f geography

is this that presumably the former is able to supervise his
,

course while the latter is a pro tege o f supervision

,
.

S p e ci e s o f G e o g r a ph y Th e subject o f geography as
.
,

have seen lies partly in space and partly in ti m e The phe

,
.

n o m en a in question are therefore

( )
1 P hysical P henomena ,

and (2) H istorical P henomena .

P hysi ca l Geog ra p hy .Th e description and explanation o f

the physical phenomena o f geography constitute P hysi ca l
2 84 PR I NCI PLE S A ND ME THODS OF TE ACHI NG
Geograp hy, or P hysi ogr ap hy in the form o f land . Nature ,

water air plants animals minerals and man as well as the

, , , , , ,

planetary relation o f the ea rth is the subject of physical geog ,

ra p hy . Thus it follo w s that special problem s o f geology ,

mete orology botany z Oo lo gy anthropology and astronomy

, , , , ,

when viewed from the stand point of geography are also -

S pecial proble m s o f physical geography A stronomical o r .

,

Mathematical geography is o ften treated as if it were a third,

S pecies o f geography cOo rdi n a te with physical and po l itical

geography .

P o li ti ca l Geograp hy Th e description and explanation o f

.

the changes whi ch man as the earth s inhabitant makes in his ’

habitat and Of the uses to which he puts his habi ta t constitu te

, ,

I Ii stori ca l o r P o li ti ca l Geogr a p hy
,
A ccordingly political .
,

geography treats of man s divisions o f territory his modes o f

’
,

life civilization and activity and the character of the govern

, , ,

ments which he establishes Thus we see that certain prob .

lems o f history when vie wed from the stand point o f geog
,
-

ra h become special problems o f political geography

p y , .

Th e R e l a t i o n o f G e o g r a p h y t o Ot h e r B r a n ch e s Inas .

much as the earth is the subject o f geography only in so far

as it is man s habitat and man only in S O far as he is the
’
,

earth s inhabitant the relation of geography to other branches

’
,

whose subj ect in some aspect or other is also th e earth or man

must be obvious The earth for example is the subject of
.
, ,
“
chemistry but only in so far as it consists o f elements in
,

S o too the earth is the subject of geology

”
co m position .
, , ,

bo tany z o Olo gy mineralogy etc but only in so far as it can

, , ,
.
,

be vie wed fro m the S pecial stand points of these sciences In -

.

the sam e wa y man is the subje ct o f various sciences su ch as

, ,

physiology psychology etc but only in so far as he can be

, ,
.
,

vie wed from th e S pecial stand—points o f these sciences Thus .

it follows that while geography and m any other sciences appar

ently have the same subject they really have only certain as ,
2 86 PR I NCI PLE S AND M E THOD S OF TE A CH I NG

“
of a solar system A bout 1 5 5 6 a F lemish mathematician
.

named Mercator constructed the first map of the whole world

”
upon the projection which bears his name O ther p rojec .

tions kno wn as c oni c p o lyconi c and g lo bu la r came late r

, , , , .

H umboldt was the first to teach geographers to indicate

cli m ate by means o f isotherms to divide the w o rld in to nat
ural regions basing the divisions u pon natural features for
, ,

showing the distribution of life ; to group the plants into a

”
few great families and refer them to climatic conditions
, .

The great R itter made geography Th e S cience of the E arth

in R elation to Nature and the H istory of Ma n ”
H e studied .

“
the trends of the great mountain systems the co m parative ,

areas o f highlands and lowlands the proportions o f co n ti nen ,

tal surfaces to coast lines the disposition o f land a nd water

-

areas together with their in fluence upon climate the d istri b u

, ,
”
tion o f life and the intellectual develop m ent o f the races
,
.

A rnold Guyot a disciple o f R i tter has done much for geog

, ,

ra h
p y in A merica T h e earliest A m erica n text books on geog
.
-

ra hy were little more than catalogues of places etc B and

p y ,
.

by description and explanation were added A mong the most .

popular geogra phies of our ti m es are Warren s B utler s Mi t ’

,
’
,

ch ell s A ppleton s F rye s and R ed way and H in m an s

’ ’ ’
F or
’
.
, , ,

a co m plete vie w o f the history o f geography the reader is re ,

“ ”
ferred to P rofessor F rye s little book The Child and Nature
’
,

from which most o f the foregoing details are quoted .

B . I N S TR U C TI O N I N G E O G R A P H Y .

Threegreat questions constitute the problem o f teaching

geography : ( 1 ) In what order and to what extent are the
subjects o f geography to be taught ? (2 ) What method o f i n
struction is appropriate to each course ? and (3) H o w impor
tant is the study o f geography to education These questions
will be discussed under the following heads : ( 1 ) Th e Neces
sary Courses in Geography (2) The E lementary Course in Ge,
 GE OGR A PH Y 2 87

o gra phy, Intermediate Course i n Geography (4) The

( )
3 Th e ,

H igher Course i n Geography and ( 5 ) Th e Importa nce o f Geog

,

ra h
p y .

I . TH E NE CE S S A R Y COU RS E S IN GE OGR APH Y .

The subjects o f geography should be taken up i n the order

o f their dependence and co m plexity (S ee P rincipl es o f .

Knowledge ) P rogress from subject to subject and phase to

.
,

ph a se should be ad apted to the stages o f the pupil s po ssi b i l

,
’

ity (S ee the F ir st P rinciple of Instruction )

. .

C o m p l exi t y i n t h e E v o l u ti o n o f G e o g ra p h y Th e order .

o f dependence (see P rinciples o f Knowledge) in t he evolution

o f any subject is absolute It must accord i ngly be the tas k of

.

authors and teachers to discover and follo w this order in their

books and instruction It also obviously devolves o n authors
.

and te a chers to ascerta in the stages of complexity in the ev o l u

tion of a subject and to proceed from the simple to the co m
,

plex in te a ching (See the Third and F our th Principles of

.

Kn owledge ) In gedgra phy as i n all studies ea ch subject

.
, ,

has three disti nct stages o f complexity (1 ) Th e stage o f i m me ,

d ia te relations (2) The stage o f remoter relations and (3) The

, ,

stage of remote s t relations .

The S ta g e of I m m edia te R ela ti o ns Th e concrete phase o f a

.

subject is readily comprehended w hen the par ts and qual ities

o f that which is in question are few a n d their dependence o h

v i o u s to the senses Th e co ncrete phase of slope and drain

.

”
age for example is readily understood even by a child when
, ,

the slope and drainage have no obscure pa rts In such cases .

even the la w can be taught to a child .

The S ta g e of R em oter R ela ti ons A bstract phases of a sub

.

jec t are more di ffi cult to comprehend espe c ially if the qua liti es
,

o f that which is in question are numerous and the relations can

be illustrated only imperfectly This is the cas e in the study .

of winds tides currents coas t lines co m merce government

, , ,
-

, , ,

etc E ven when we resort to illustrations such as can be

.
,
2 88 P R I NCI PL E S A ND ME TH ODS OF TE A CH I NG

given by mean s o f relief globes char ts etc these subjects a re , ,

.
,

to o complex for ch i ldren .

The S ta g e of R em otest R ela ti o ns A bstract relations o f a .

subject are very di ffi cult to understand when the parts and
qualities o f that which is in question enter into complex co m
position It is a most di fficult problem for example to study
.
, ,

the trends of the grea t mounta in syste m s the comparative ,

areas o f highlands and lowlands the proportions o f contineu ,

ta l surfaces to coast l i nes the disposition of land and water

-

areas tog ether wi th their influence upon climate the d i stri b u

, ,
”
tion o f life and the in tellectual development of the races
,
.

Th e S t a g e s o f t h e P u p i l s P o s s i b i l i t y The pupil s pos

’ ’
.

si b ili ty is approxi m ately measured by his capacity and o ppo r

tu ni ty (see the F ourth General P rinciple o f E ducation ) but ,

there are general stages o f possibility for every pupil which ,

determ i ne what phase of a subj ect he should study (S ee the .

S econd Third and E ighth P rinciples of Instruction ) S tated

, ,
.

i n logical order; these stages are those of (1 ) D ependence ( 2 ) ,

Transition and (3) Independence

, .

’
The S ta g e of the P up i l s D ep end en ce S o long as the pu pil .

needs supervision in the formation of his concepts and conclu

sions he is a protégé in geography and must be assisted by
, ,

concrete guidance as in object lessons ,

.

T he S ta g e of the P up i l s Tra nsi ti on A s soon as the pupil

’
.

needs supervision only in case o f complexities or for reasons ,

o f economy he is becoming independent and must be required

, ,

to shift for himsel f B ooks maps etc m ust no w becom e reg

.
, ,
.
,

ular means o f supplementing his observations and reflections .

The S ta ge of the P up il s I n d ep endence When stimulus

’
.
,

rather than supervision is all that the pupil needs he must

, ,

be thro wn al m ost altogether upon his own resources A dvanced .

texts atlases cyclop aedias etc must n o w become regular

, , ,
.
,

means and the recitation is hardly more than a spur to

,

original investigation .
2 90 P R I NCI PLE S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE ACHI NG

is rea dy to think principles Indeed it must be obvious to .

,

a ny o n e who will think about it that pupils are not only ,

ready but should be required to thin k the general (not necessa

,

rily the universal ) as soon as they have thought the particul ar .

When for example the pupil has discovered that a mountain

, ,

is very high land he should be led to thin k the definition or

, ,

general truth of mounta ins o r when he has discovered that

, ,

a stream o f w ater flows down hill he should be led to think ,

that all strea m s tend to flo w down hill The teacher that .

neglects such inductions really neglects to te ach .

D edu cti o ns Induction makes i t possible for the mind to

.

classify its acquisitions and to know more in divid uals of a

,

genus than one ha s ever studied S uch insight into genera .

saves labor and confusion in subsequent thought inasmuch as ,

new ind ividuals can be readily classified by means o f obvious

specific properties When for example the pupil has learned
.
, ,

the principle that all the rivers of some particular slope flo w

into o ne bed he needs to know only o ne thing about any new
,

river nam ely that it belongs to th at slope to classify it co r

, , ,

rectly in other respects also This ability to classify by de .

duction is the high prerogative of humanity and the ultimate ,

object o f ideal instruction When this power has been devel .

oped science becomes art and the learner provided the po wer
, , ,
”
h as also become habit is o f age S T hird G eneral
(
, ee .

P rinciple o f E ducation ) .

Th e L e s s o n M e t h o d o f E l e m e n t a r y G e o g r a p h y
-

The .

tasks of elementary geography (see the preceding paragraph)

can be accomplished only by requiring learners to study sub
cts with all the possible functions of the mind in logical suc
je

cession (S ee the Tenth P rinciple o f Instruction ) This re

. .

u i rem en t is virtually fulfilled in what are conveniently te rmed

q
I ndu cti ve d ed u cti v e L essons
-
The conspicuous steps o f an i n
.

d ucti v e deductive lesson are as follo w s : ( 1 ) P erception (2)

-

Conception (3) R epresentation and (4) E xplanation

, , .
 GE OG RAPHY 29 1
”
P er cep ti on Inasmuch as the subject o f geography lies
.

partly in space and partly in time the concrete quality o f ,

whic h in both cases is extension p er cep ti on is the n atural basis

,

o f direct comparisons in geography A part fro m actual per .

ce ti o n these comparisons are likely to resemble beatin g the

p ,
”
air.

Con cep ti o n In the course o f several direct comparisons

.
,
”
the mind by selecting agreements (abstraction ) and think
,

ing them into unity (generalization) arrives at concepts o r , ,

general ideas This complex process in its entirety is te rmed

.

Conception It i m plies memory as the means in holding fast

.

experiences and names ; and in the form o f imagination it

, ,

enlarges the mental horizon in geography thus completing the ,

mind s desired survey o f space The term defini ti on denotes

’
.

two things in this connection ( 1 ) Th e process o f conception

,

itself and (2 ) Th e description o f a concept in words These

,
.

two things should be combined as much as possible in the

order just given .

”
R ep resenta ti o n S ince the
. subject o f geography lies ex
ten ded in space and time these extensions can be physically
,

represented The most realistic representation of geographical

.

kno w led ge are sand moulding and clay modelling or relief

- -

globes the most convenient although the most abstract form

,

o f representation are drawings te rmed Maps and Globes

, The .

i m m ediate purpose of representation in geography is (1 ) To

stim u late observation and (2) To supervise thought Th e
,
.

permanent function o f maps and globes is (1 ) To record geo

graphical observations and (2 ) To serve thou gh i m perfectly
, , ,
”
as a substitute for observation o f the subject o f geography .

A t first only the simplest exercises should be required o f

pupils These exercises should however be introduced as
.
, ,

soon as sound sense dictates and difficulties should be mastered

,

as fast as j udgment and constructive skill can be developed .

F ormal map drills should follo w map maki ng

- -
.
2 92 PR I NCI PL E S A ND M E TH ODS OF TE A CH I NG

E xp la na ti on The
pupil should be required to th i nk causes
.
,

la ws and classes so far as he is able in conn ection with per

, , ,

ce ti o n conception a n d representation in geography Causes

p , , .
,

laws and classes can often be understood by V ery young

,
’
pupils if the teacher s illustrations and questions are skilful
, .

N evertheless the pupil should n o t be pushed beyond his i n

,
”
terest in these matte rs Indeed description (perception con .
, ,

cept i o n representation) should predominate very much over

,

explanation i n elementary geography D eductive exercises .

should be ad ded in order to bring geographical knowledge

into real l ife .

a . U B J E CTS OF E LE ME NTAR Y G E OGR AP H Y

TH E S .

E lementary geography may begin the last part of the second

o r the first part o f the third school year and should cover ,

about three years The progress from subject to subj ect i n

.

elementary geography should at first be synthetic (starting at

home ) and in due time it should be analytic (S ee the S ec
, , ,
.

o nd and F ifth P rinciples o f Instruction ) Th e following o ut .

line suggests the work to be done and the order in which to ,

develop the subjects The pupil should be required to study .

” ’
a simple book such as F rye s P rimary Geography, the
,

third year .

P o s i ti o n D evelop the concepts a bo v e below befo r e behi n d

.
, , , ,

g , f
r i ht le t etc ,
P lace obj ects
. into the relations denoted by
these terms require the pupils to place objects into these rela
,

tions and have them locate objects in such relations

,
.

D i r e c ti o n D evelop the concepts E a st West North S o u th

.
, , , ,

etc. R equire so m e pupil standing in front of the class to point

out and face the E ast West etc H ave the pupils locate o b , ,
.

j ects places etc

,
in the
,
E ast W est .etc,
P lace the pupils at , ,
.

various points i n the room and lead them to see the directions ,

( )
1 from some central point (absolute di r ection
) ( )
a n d 2 from ,

each other (relative d i rection ) .

294 PR I NCI PL E S A ND M E TH OD S OF TE A CH I NG

gether with their sour ces banks b ed cur rent etc In the , , , ,
.

sam e way develop in succession such concepts as p on d (together

with ba y stra i t) la ke sea o cea n etc together wi th their shores
, , , , ,
.
,

b ed inlets outlets uses etc

, , When possible imitate these
, ,
.
,
“ ”
form s in clay and by means of the geographical box U se .

illustrative pict ures G ive and require descriptions in w hich

.

memory imagination and j udgmen t are necessary Identify

, , .

all these form s on globes maps etc L ead the pupil to reflect , ,
.

o n such questions as 1
( ) W hat kind o f fishe s live in the creek

which yo u crossed this m orning ? (2) What causes the cur

rent i n a s t ream ( )
3 W h y do some streams flow faster than
others ( )
4 W h y is it hard for a fish to s w im up stream ”

( )
5 W hat are rapids ( )
6 W hy is sea water unfit for drink -

ing ?
L a nd a n d W a te r Teach other lessons o n land and wate r
.

in the way just indicated .

C lim a te D evelop the concepts o f tem p era tur e m oisture

.
, ,

wi nd etc ,
L ead them to distinguish cli m ates as warm cold
.
, ,

moderate moist dry etc and acquaint them wi th examples

, , , .
,
.

Teach them to reflect on the causes o f various climates and ,

lead the m to see how climate affects health plants an imals , , ,

products habits etc, ,

.

S oil R equire the pupils to handle sa nd sha le cla y lo a m

.
, , , ,

etc. H elp them to so w seed s and plant trees into the various
kinds of soil and t hus lead them t o distinguish soil as fer ti le
, ,

ba rr en etc R equire them to locate the various soils and to

“

.
, ,

reflect o n their causes such as s10pe etc Teach them some , , .

effects of soils on plants trees etc , ,

.

P r o d u c ti o n s H aving developed the conditioning concepts

.

o f climate and soil lead the children to discover the si m pler

,

concepts facts and relations of t he various productions such

, , ,

as flo wers grasses grains vegetables etc Th e following de

, , , ,
.

tails will s u ggest the w ork that can be done and serve as a ,

rough outline t o be filled up as the te acher sees possible and

 GE OGR A PH Y 295

appropriate ( 1) R equire the pupils to name distinguish and

.
, ,

locate the common grasses grains vegetables fruits trees , , , , ,

etc and to study their habits peculiarities and uses Tell

.
, , ,
.

them about the great p rairies o f the West the rice field s o f ,
-

the S outh the potato of Ireland the coffee o f B razil the

, , ,

oranges o f F lorida the tr ees of California etc ( 2) R equire

, ,
.

the pupils to name di stin guish describe and locate the co m

, , ,

mon species o f insects bird s fishes reptiles a nd other ani , , , ,

mals F amiliarize them with the characteristic habits and

.

uses o f these animals Give lessons o n bees spiders butte r

.
, ,

flies fireflies grasshoppers pota to bugs plant lice birds nests

, , , , ,
’
,

migration of birds food of birds habits o f fowls fishes frogs

, , , , ,

snakes monkeys etc Tell the children about inte resting

, ,
.

animals o f other lands .

Peo p le F amil iarize the pup i ls with the industries o f

.

their community and neighborin g localities R equire them .

to name these industries the workers their characteristic tools , , ,

products etc L ead the children to observe the buildings

,
.
,

dress and manners o f people and require descriptions in

, ,

which memory imagination judgment etc are necessary

, , ,
.
, .

R a ce s F ind opportunities to te ach the races o f man de

.
,

scribing them study ing their characteristics Give lessons o n

,
.

the Indians N egroes E squimaux etc

, , ,
.

At this time say the beginning o f the third year the pupil
, ,

should be required to study a simple book and greater stress ,

should be laid on globes a nd maps and the preceding lessons ,

should be reviewed in connection wi t h the following new sub

jects .

Th e F o r m th e E a rt h
the pupil s attention to Calling
’
of .

the app a ren t form of the earth (see the S econd P rinciple o f
Instruction) lead him to think o f it as roun d like a ball o r an
,

orange etc D evelop such proofs a s (1 ) P eople have travelled

,
.

around the earth (2) Th e horizon line is a ci rcle, (8 ) The top

,
296 PR I NCI PLE S A ND M E TH OD S OF TE ACH I NG

of an incoming ship is first seen (4) Other proofs (S ee R ed .

,

way s Manual of
’
R equire pupils to think o f
such questions as the following : (1 ) Why do the ships tha t
sail o n the under side o f the ea rth n o t fall o ff ? (2) H o w does
the inside of the earth look
D is tr i b u t i o n o f L a n d a n d W a t e r U sing relief globes .
,

other globes and maps lead the children to observe ( 1 ) The

, ,

sur face location o f land and water (2) The contour o f the ,

contin ents (3) The primary and secondary continental reliefs

, ,

( )
4 T h e drainage
( )
5 T h e relative proportion of land and
,

water .

M o t i o n s o f t h e E a rth ( 1 ) D evelop the concep ts of time .

,

such as day hour m inute week m onth year as in the exer

, , , , , ,

cises o f arithmetic L ead the children to see the use o f

.

watches and clocks Tell them about sun dials etc (2) B y .
-

,
.

means o f a candle a nd globe o r black ball with a knitting ,

needle as the axis teach the r o ta ti o n of the earth on its axis

, ,

and its effect i e day and night In the same way teach the
,
. .
, .
,

phenomena of the moon and the lunar month (3) With the , .

same means ta king care to incline the axis properly teach the
, ,

rev o lu ti on o f the earth around the sun the orbit of the earth
, ,

the effect of the earth s revolution and the inclination of its ’

axis i e the seasons polar days and nights the location and
,
. .
, , ,

names of the principal circles the zones together with their , ,

peculiarities of cli m ate products people etc (4) A fte r the , , ,

.

above lessons and somewhat in conn ection with them teach

, ,

the equator latitude longitude parallels meridians degrees

, , , , ,

o f longitude etc R equire the pupils to find the latitude

,
.

and longitude o f certain places to locate places whose lati ,

tude and longitude are given to reckon o u t difference s o f ,

time etc ,
.

C o n ti n e n ts Give lessons in the order of the book used

.
,

o n continents studying such subjects as position contour re

, , ,

lief drainage climate productions etc

, , , , .
298 PR I NCI PL E S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE A CH I NG

front o f the class P oint to the place where the sun rises . .

Turn your face in that d i r ecti o n The place where the sun .

rises is called the E a st Where does the sun ri se Ma ry ? Ma ry .

,
.

Th e sun rises in the E ast T Th e class may face the E ast . . .

T P oint to where the sun sets Mary

. That place is called ,
.

the West Where does the sun set J ames ? J a m es In the

.
,
.

West T No w Mary point to the E ast with your right

. .
, ,

hand and to the West with your left hand If yo u should .

n o w walk for ward you would walk to ward the North T ,

. .

J ohn please point to the North

, T If Mary should walk . .

backward she would walk toward the S o u th T E llen

, . .
,

please face the S outh T The class may rise F ace the . . .

E ast ; the West ; the North ; the S outh T A t which w all . .

do I point J acob ? J a co b A t the North wall A t the E ast

,
. .

wall T Mabel please walk West E ast North S outh T

. .
‘

, , , ,
. .

J ames stand against the N or th wall half way from each end
,
.

E llen stan d against the S outh w all etc

,
P eter stand against ,
.
,

the E ast wall etc Mabel stand against the West wall etc
,
.
, ,
.

T J ohn what is the direction from J ames to E llen ; from

.
,

E llen to J ames ; from P eter to J ames from Mabel to P eter,

etc .

A L e s s o n o n M a p M a kin g Tea cher Over what do I -

. .

move my hand J ames ? J a m es Over the table T P lease

,
. . .

run your finger along the N orth edge of the table to p T I -

. .

will n o w draw a line on the black board for the North edge -

of the t able top What have I done J ames ? T S how th e

-

.
,
.

class the E ast edge of the table top J ohn T What d oes the -

,
. .

line that I have just drawn represent Mary JlI a ry It rep ,

.

resents the E ast edge T This line ? P Th e West edge . . . .

T This line ? P The S outh edge

. T (placing a n inkstand
. . .

o n the table to p ) Where is the inkstand Thomas

-
. Thom a s ,
.

It is near the E ast edge of the table T H o w can this be . .

represented o n the board Mabel ? Ma bel B y means o f a ,

.

picture T Yes Mabel o r by means of a mark like this

. .
, ,
 GE OGR AP H Y 29 9

( making a dot o r cross

) T Miriam take this foot rule and . .
,
-

find out how long this desk is Mi ri a m It is four feet long . .

,

T I will draw a line to represent it (drawing a line o n e foot

.

long) P lease measure this line Mi r i a m I t is o ne foot long

. . . .

T P lease measure the width o f this desk A llen

. A llen It ,
. .

is t wo feet wide T H o w long shal l I draw a line to repre

. .

sent the width o f the desk Thomas ? Thom a s I can t tell ,

.
’
.

T Who ca n tell ? J o hn You drew a line o n e foot long for

. .

the four feet ; therefore I think the line should be half as long ,

for t wo feet T That is a good answer Thomas please

. . .
,

draw the line for me No w complete the picture and make .

,

marks to show where the pencil and the book are lying .

Children these drawings which we have made are called

,

m a s
p M
. ollie what is a map T ell,
what yo u think a map

is J ames When yo u take your seats try to make a map

,
.
,

o f your desk top o n your slate -

To morrow yo u may measure .
-

the floor and draw it .

A L e s s o n o n L a n d F o rm s Tea cher (moving the edge o f .

the ruler across the table to p) Is this surfa ce even or uneven -

.
,

Morris ? Morr i s It is even T (pointing to the folds o f a

. . .

coat) What can you say about this surface R uth ? R u th It

.
,
.

is not even T Yes o r u neven T Is the floor even o r nu

. .
,
. .

eve n ? Cla ss It is even T The school yard ? Ma rtha It

. . .
-

is not as even as the floor Thom a s I watched the cows in . .

a very uneven field last S umm er T Wa s the field hilly . .

,

Thomas Thom a s Yes sir T What do you mean .

,
. .

Thom a s S ome places in the field were higher than the others
. .

T S uch high places Thomas are called hi lls

. E m ma what
, , .
,

is a hill E m m a I think a hill is high land T What do

. . . .

yo u think P eter ? ,
T D o yo u see that high hill over toward .

the North ? Cla ss Yes sir Ma ry I see a very very high .

,
. .
,

hill way o ff It is covered with trees P apa took us up that

. .

high hill last summer to pick berries There were big s tones .

there to o I think J ames called them r o cks A nd I sa w a

. .
300 PR I NCI PL E S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE ACH I NG

rabbit run T Well done Mary . S uch very high hills are ,
.

called m o un ta i ns T J ames what is a mountain ? J a m es

. .
, .

A mounta in is a V ery high hill T Yes o r a high elevation . .

,

of land (moving his han d to show) T When you went down . .

to the creek yesterday did you find the creek on a hill J ohn ? , ,

J o hn No sir ; but I sa w a hill to my right and another to

.
,

my left T What shall we call a lo w land between t wo b ills

. .

o r m ountains F lorence F loren ce I think ma m ma calls it a

,
.

v a lle
y .T T hat is
. the right name W hat then is a valley ? .

F loren ce A valley is the lo w land between b ills o r mountains

. .

T Who can describe some valley that yo u have seen

. F ra nk .

I think I can Mr P orter T Try it F rank T Who can

,
. . .
,
. .

tell what use can be m ade of valleys ? T To morrow we .

-

will make little hills and valleys with sand P erhaps you .

will also be ready to m ake a map o f some valley that you

have seen .

A L esso n o n S o i l H aving collected specimens o f soil .

,

the teacher requires the pupils to handle and observe the speci
mens T P lease tell us something about this sa nd F lor
. .
,

ence ? F lo rence This sand is like sugar ; it is no t quite as

.

“ ”
white These little pieces (the teacher says grains ) have
.

little corners that hurt when they get into your shoe T . .

H erbert this ea rth that I have in my hand is called cla y

,
.

P lease tell us something about it H ave you ever tried to .

“ ”
make mud pies T Katie press this lu m p of clay into
-
.
,

the shape o f a ball Tho m as press this lu m p into the shape

.
,

of a little tea cup T Why does your mother no t plan t flowers

-
. .

in sand o r clay Ti lli e I kno w ; they would not gro w T . . .

That is right ; sand and clay are n o t good soi l that is earth , , ,

in which to so w seeds etc Good soil is called fertile soil and ,

.
,

poor soil is called ba rren soil Nellie where does your m other .
,

plant peas Nelli e S he plants the m in the garden T Why . . .

N elli e I think it must be because the garden earth is good

.

I mean fertile— soil T Children look at this seed I will

,
. .
,
.
302 PR I NCI PL E S A ND M E TH OD S OF TE ACH I NG

A L es s o n on In what time o f the

th e S ea so ns . Tea cher .

year do the cherry trees blossom J ennie ? J enn i e In S pring

-

,
. .

( T his answer is probable ) T W hen do the farmers make . .

hay R alph ? R a lp h In S um m er (D evelop the concepts of

,
. .

A utumn and Winter by similar questions and elicit d escri p ,

tions ) T These four times o f the year are called sea so ns

. . .

H OW many seasons has a year class ? Cla ss F our seasons , . .

T N ame the m H o w ard

. T What is meant by the na m e
,
. .

season S allie ? S a lli e The different times o f the year are

,
.

called seasons T H o w do the four seasons o f the year dif

. .

fer from each other Mabel ? T What causes day and night ,
.
,

H oward ? (A lesson o n day and night is presupposed ) .

H owa rd The earth revolves on its axis and the side to ward
.
,

the sun is day but the side away fro m it is called night T
,
. .

The seasons are caused some w hat in the same way L et me .

S how you
( carrying a globe around the light of a ca nd le takin g ,

care to incline the axis properly This is the S u mmer ,

side (stopping at the right point) Tell m e what you see .

,

M abel Ma bel I see that the light falls right against this
. .

spot (po i nti ng it o u t) It is P ennsylvania T What then

‘

. . .
, ,

is the season in P ennsylvania when the sun shines upon

it that way ? R a lp h It is S u m m er (D evelop the other . .

seasons in the same way asking questions to bring out the ,

points D O not introduce too many di fficulties at once GO

. .

slowly ) .

L essons o n the other topics indicated in the catalogue o f

subjects should be given in the same wa y It should be re .

me m bered that the preceding sam ple lessons are only sug
gestions The individual teacher must ever strive to be
.

hi m self as much as possible and to adapt himself to his con ,

crete situations The lessons o n m athem atical o r astrono m

.
e

ical geography shoul d not be taken up to o soon and when ,

taken up they should be care fully planned beforehand by the

teacher .
 GE OGR A PH Y 303

III . TH E I NTE R M E D I ATE COU R S E I N GE OGR A PH Y .

Th e topics that deserve attention in this section are as fol

low s ( 1 ) Th e E nds in V iew in Intermediate Geography (2 )
The L esson Method ; (3) Th e S ubjects ; (4) The P reparation
-

o f L essons ; a n d ( 5 ) The R ecitation .

Th e E n d s i n V i e w i n I n t e r m e di a t e G e o g r a p h y There .

are four ends in vie w in in termediate geography lessons : (1 )

Th e E nlargement o f Concepts ; (2) Th e Multiplication o f
F acts ; (3) Inductions ; and (4) D eductions .

The E nla rg em en t of Con cepts The cumulative process in

.

the generalizations o f the elementary lessons in geography is i n

complete for several reasons ( 1 ) Th e stages of the pupil s de ’

v elo p m en t are not equal to the tasks of complex generaliza

tion ; and (2) The mass of experiences is insuffi cient for

complete generalization A ll the elementary concepts of geog
.

ra h
p y should therefore be developed as fully as possible in the
intermed iate course S uch a concept as dra in a ge for example
.
, ,

should now be enlarged by comparing a greater number of

cases and cases that are complex (S ee the F irst and Thir d
.

P rinciples o f Instruction ) .

The Mu ltip li ca ti o n of F a cts i n I n term edi a te Geog rap hy It .

is evidently i mpossible for a child to learn many complex facts

o f geography in three o r four years B u t in order to think
.
,

the greate r truths o f geography there are t wo requisites : ( 1 )

,

The mind must co m pare a large number of facts and (2) Th e

facts to be compared must have matured concepts for subjects
and predicates If therefore the pupil is not required to com
.
, ,

pare many facts the definitions and principles at which he ar

,

rives w ill be weakly supported and if he is not required to

,

compare complex facts the generalizations which he atte mpts

,

w ill be inferior conquests In accordance w ith this require

.

ment pupils S hould observe many individuals before they fram e

a final d efini ti on o f a continent etc and to compare complex
,
.
,
304 PR I NCI PL E S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE A CH I NG

i ndivid u als before they atte m pt to think complex system s o f

rivers wi nds currents etc (S ee the S econd and Tenth P rin
, , , .

ci les o f Instruction
p ) .

The I n du cti ons of I nterm edi a te Geog r ap hy AS suggested .

in the preceding paragraph the inductions o f in termediate ge

,

o gra p hy should extend to such re m ote relations as w ill tend

to emancipate the pupil ( S ee the E ighth

. P rinciple o f I nstru c
tion ) In accordance with this requirement intermediate pupils
.
,

learn the principles o f continenta l drainage as well as those of

neighborhood drainage the principles o f continental di stri b u
,

tion of life as well as those o f limited areas etc ,

.

The D edu cti o ns of I n ter m edi a te Geogr ap hy Inasmuch as .

the first requisite in valid ded uction is a legitimate major pre

mise the deductions o f intermediate geography as in all grades
, , ,

must begin where induction ends Within this limitation ho w .

,

ever deduction should follow every induction O bed ience to

,
.

this requirement will not only be corrective but the habit will ,

in ti m e emancipate the learner from the common distraction of

particulars and place him in the centre Of his geographical
,

survey This is the supreme end in science ( S ee the E ighth

. .

P rinciple o f Instruction ) .

Th e L e s s o n M et h o d o f I nt e r m e d i a t e G e o g r a ph y
-
In .

a s m u ch as the tasks to be perform ed are the same except that ,

they are more co m plex the inductive deductive plan already

,
-

outlined and illustrated in elem entary geography is to be con

tinned in connection with such modifications as the n a tu re o f
the subjects may demand ( S ee the F ifth P rinciple of I n st ruc
.

tion ) The text book as well as the supplementa ry work

.
-

, ,
“ ”
should be a balance o f description and explanation ( S ee .

the F irst P rinciple of Instr u ction ) More time should be de .

“ ”
voted to map drawing and the constructive method S hould
—
,
“ ”
be combined w ith the i m itative m ethod (S ee the S ixth and .

S eventh P rinciples of Instruction ) .

I nterm edi a te Map D ra wi ng -

( )
1 T h e importance o f map
.
306 PR I NCI PL E S A ND M E TH ODS OF TE ACH I NG

etc . S tudied i n
this way geography will become very realistic,

a nd practical It is di fficult to see how an intelligen t teacher

.

can be satisfied with less than this work In order to succeed .

in these tasks the te acher must o f course study some excellent

, , ,

syste m of map drawing -

.

Th e S u bj e c t s o f I n t e r m e d i a t e G e o g r a ph y ( )
1 T h e .

course in intermediate geography should cover about four

years the period corresponding to the grammar school life o f
,
-

the pupil ( )
2 T h e subjects to be studied are virtually the
.

“ ”
same as in elementary geography only that the i ndividuals ,
”
are more complex and the relations more remote The .

order o f the subjects as w ell as the i r full enu m eration is to

, ,

be sought in the text book used P rofessor F rye s I nterm e

-
.
’

”
diate Geography is possibly o ne o f the best in the market .

o n t he
“ ”
( )
3 S tress should be laid interrelation of physical
a nd political facts Obedience to this requirement will de
.

v elo p intelligence in geographical study and thus brighten the ,

”
pupil s pathway w hile at the same time it honors truth
’
,
.

Th i s interrelation is strongly emph asized in P rofessor F rye s ’

book .

P r e p a r a ti o n o f L e s s o n s Whenever it is nece ssary the.

,

teacher should pave the wa y fo r the lessons which he proposes

to assign This he can do by means o f illustrations apparatus
.
, ,

cabinet specimens photographs etc and by referring the pupils

, ,
.

to supplementary texts as well as reference books The pupil .

should be required to study a lesson assigned in his text book -

to co mpare it with other te xts to use reference books diction , ,

ary etc and to draw

,
.
,
.

Th e R e ci t a t i o n i n I n t e r m e d i a t e G e o g r a p h y ( )
1 Th e .

pupil should not be allo wed to bring his book to class and the ,

teacher should not use a book except as a supplement in re ,

views (2) The recitation should be partly written and part ly

.

oral both in the interest o f language and culture S ometi m es

,
.

it may serve a special purpose to make the recitations wholly

 GE OGR APH Y 307

writte n o r wholly oral or to alternate oral and writt en recita

,

tions .
( )
3 T h e inductive system o f questionin g should be

u sed in developing concepts defini tions and principles ,

The , .

preparation o f the lesson can be tested by co mbining ca techet

ical questions with the pupil s discussion of topics (S ee ’
.

F rye S
’
O utline The topical method S hould predominate
.
’

i n reviews Great enthusiasm can be cultivated in the cl as s

.

by means o f occas ional talks o n geography This is the great .

Opport uni ty o f t he scholarly teacher Occasionally too the .

, ,

regular course should be interrupted by a recitation on current

history S uch a lesson if it be brought into its geographical
.
,

relations will reveal to the pupil the physical ba sis o f histo ry

,
.

The pupils should be invited to critici se the language etc o f ,

.

recitations and to discuss interesting questions (4) D rills on

, .

relief globes and outline maps should precede and accompany

the lessons Of the te xt book The ends in V iew in such drills
-
.

are (a ) to present geographical phenomena to the imagination

and (b) to pave the way through the imagi nation for the under
standing and memory In order to accomplish these tasks
.
,
”
the various features must not only be pointed o u t but de ,

scribed and studied Great pain s should be taken to cul tivate

.

the pupi l s interest in these drills (5 ) R ecitations thus con

’
.

“
ducted will be in accordance wi th the principles o f in stru c
mo m
Iv . TH E H I GH E R COU RS E I N GE OGR A P H Y .

The purpose o f this treatise limits the treatment o f the

higher course in geography to the follo wi ng t Opi cs : ( 1 ) The
Tasks o f H igher Geography ; ( 2) Th e G radation o f the
Course ; and (3) The Methods of Work .

Th e Ta s ks o f H i g h e r G e o g r a ph y The tasks of high er .

geography are as follow s : ( 1 ) To observe the most complex

“ ” ”
individuals (subjects) and to study the remotest relations
(connections ) in geography ; ( )
2 T o develop teachers o f geog

ra h
p y ; and ( )
3 T o develop geography i e to contribut e to ,
. .
,
308 PR I NCI PL E S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE ACH I NG

”
the science of geography The first task is to be attempted
.

in high schools and colleges and in the interests of scienti fic

,

culture the second task belongs to Normal S chools and the

third to t he U niversity (S ee the F irst S econd Third and
.
, , ,

Ninth P rinciples of Instruction ) .

Th e G r a d a t i o n o f t h e H i g h er G e o g r a p h y C o u r s e .

There are three stages in the course o f higher geography ( 1 ) ,

The H igh S chool and College Course ; ( 2) The Normal S chool

Course and (3) Th e U niversity Course .

H igh S cho o l a nd Co lleg e Geogr ap hy In the elementary .

and intermediate courses the most complex physical individ

,

na l s (subjects ) and the re motest relations were beyond the

’
pupil s power In the high school period he becomes mature
.
-

”
enough to attempt an ordinar y text book o n physical geog -

”
ra h y
p . In the college period he can take up co m parative

geography Guyot s E ar th and Ma n and R itter s Co m

.
’“ ” ’

”
a ra t i v e Geograp hy are appropria t e texts
p .

No rm a l S cho o l Geograp hy Th e Normal S chool ought to

.

provide courses in ( 1 ) P olitical Geography (2) Physical Geog ,

ra h
p y ,
and ( )
3 T h e P edagogics o f G eography T h e texts o f .

G uyot and R itte r should be supplementary and F rye s The ’

,
”
Child and Nature deserves the most careful study .

Uni v ersi ty Geog r ap hy The U niversity should provide

.

courses in (1 ) Comparative Geography (2) The Correlation o f ,

Geography and H istory and (3) Original Investigation

,
.

Th e M e t h o d s o f H i g h e r G e o g ra ph y ( )
1 T h e sources .

O f inform ation in higher geography should be m ultiplied as

much as possible (2) The stri ctest logic should pervade both
.

”
preparatio n and recitation (3) The science method i e
.
-

,
. .
,

the laborat ory m ethod must of course predominate i n

“ ”
, , ,

the university work in geography .

31 0 PR I NCI PLE S AND ME THODS OF TE ACHI NG

C H A P TE R X .

H IS TOR Y .

I N AS MU CH as the first requ i site in ideal instruction is a

definite conception o f the branch to be taught this chapter ,

must be an inquiry into ( 1 ) The Nature o f H istory and (2) ,

Instruction in H istory .

A . TH E N A TU R E OF H I S TO R Y .

Th e nature of history is convenien t ly considered under the

“ ”
following heads : ( 1 ) The S ubject o f H is to ry ; (2) Th e
P sychology of H istory and (3) Th e H istory o f H istory .

J OF H I S TOR Y
“
I . TH E SU B E CT ”
.

In the same sense as plants are the subjects o f botany events ,

are the subjects o f history .

Hi s to ry v s N a t u r a l H i s t o ry In i ts widest a ppli ”
”
. .

cation his t ory is the study o f all events impersonal as well

, ,

as personal The di fferences between such impersonal events

.

as the life o f a plant o r an animal and such personal events ,

as the career o f a man or the achievements o f a nation are so ,

great as to j ustify the division in history commonly denoted

by t he ter m s Natural H istory and H istory
” ”
Only those .

events in which p erso ns are in question such as the career o f ,

individuals the development of insti t utions (schools churches

, , ,

states commerce
,
the progress of civilization etc consti
, ,
.
,

tute the subject o f history in its strictest sense .

II . TH E P S YCH OL OGY OF H I S TOR Y .

There are t wo tasks in histo ry : (1 ) The ascertainment of

facts and (2) Inquiry into the relations of facts Therefore
,
.
,

the necessary processes in history are (1 ) Observation and (2) ,

 H I S TOR Y 31 1

E xplan ation .
(Sthe F ifth P rinciple o f Knowledge and
ee

the S econd P rinciple o f Instruction ) .

O b s e rv a t i o n The facts o f histo ry are known ( 1 ) B y o ne s ’

.

own observation i e by direct observation and (2) Through

~

. .
, ,

the medium o f other observers i e by ind irect observation,

. .
, .

Di rect Observ a ti on The witness o f an event ascertain s

.

facts by means o f j udgment combined with perception A .

general for example knows facts by means of hi s senses

, , .

This m ode o f Observation is termed D irect Observ ation Th e .

reliability of dir ect observation depends o n two factors (1 ) ,

The nature of the fact and (2) The character o f the witness
, .

A n ordinary Observ er may correctly ascertai n simple facts but ,

only an expert can ascerta i n the facts in complex events A .

reporter for example might correc tly observe the transactions

, ,

o f a skir mish w hile only the initiate d commander co ul d fully

,

observe the features o f a campaign In any case prej udice .

,

v itiates the process o f observation .

I ndi r ect Observ a ti o n A uthors o f trea tises o n histo ry are

.

rarely actual witnesses Of events They must ascertain facts .

through the medium of witnesses or their records This mode .

o f ascertain ing the facts o f history is te r m ed Indirect Ob ser

vation Indirect Observation presupposes ( l ) The competen ce

.

o f witnesses and , ( )
2 T h e credibility o f doc u ments Th e i n .

compete nce and prejudice o f witnesses and the credulity o f

authors creep so readily into the records of events that all ,
”
history has been called a lie This charge is obviously to o
.

strong but it emphasizes the di fficulty of the histo rian s tasks

,
’

when he mus t ascertain facts ind i rectly .

E x pl a n a t i o n Inquiry into the relations of events is

.

te rmed E xplanation Th e t wo tasks o f explanation are (1 )

.

Th e ascerta inment o f laws (the invariableness in causes and

effects) ; and (2) P revision in accordance with laws The .

necessary proce sses (see th e F ift h Pr i nciple of Knowledge and

the Tenth P rinciple o f I nstruction) are (1 ) Induction and (2)
31 2 P R I NCI PL E S A ND ME TH ODS OF TE ACHI NG

D eduction . The
former process makes history a science the
latter reduces it to practical rules of life .

I ndu cti on i n H i story . Two features o f induction in history

deserve special atte ntion
( )
1 T h e complexity o f the task is very great F acts must .

be ascertained before laws can be discovered (S ee the F ifth .

and S ixth P rinciples of Knowled ge ) Thi s preparatory a scer

.

ta i n m ent o f facts is a di ffi cult task (see preceding paragraph)

”
but a greater di fficulty presents itself in the second premise
o f the inductive argument In the followin g syllogism for
.
,

example the second premise is very ho ld

,

The R omans and other people rebelled agains t Oppression

These nations represent human nature ;
Therefore all nations will rebel against oppression .

The variety o f conditions to whic h the nations o f di fferent

lineage centuries and places are subject by reason o f religious
, , ,

social political physical and other differences makes it seem

, , , ,

i ngly impossible to foreknow what a people will do agai nst

oppression That the task is no t really impossible is assu m ed
.

o n two grounds
( )
a,
Th e remarkable un ifor m ity in human

n ature ; and b The cumulative force o f examples

() .

( )
2 T h e complexity of the task o f ascertaining laws in his

tory as well as the belief in the possibility o f such ascertain

,

ment though its success has thus far been only partial appear
, ,

in the fact that there are three dis tinct theories of history .

( )
a T h e m a ter i a li sti c theory briefly stat ed is that events are
, ,

the direct effects of m an s condi t ions This theory fails to do

’
.

justice to Go d and m a n as causes o f events i t virtually de

nies that freedom is an endow m ent of mind (6) The thei sti c .

theory that events are the direct workings o f Go d also fails

, ,
’
to do justice to the character o f Go d and ignores m an s o b ,

vions participation in events (0) Th e sp iri tu a li sti c theory that

.
,

events are acts o f mind assumes that Go d permits and partici

,

pates in events and that man s conditions are the stimuli i n

,
’
31 4 PR I NCI PLE S A ND M E TH ODS OF TE ACH I NG

known as B iography (the history o f a person) F ragments of ,

H isto ry (the history o f an epoch of time) Compends o f H i s ,

tory (the history of the great events o f a coun try) General ,

H istory (the history o f nations through all epochs o f time) ,

Complete H istory (the history o f all the events o f a nation ),

etc .

I II . TH E H I S TOR Y OF H I S TOR Y .

The history o f history is a most interesting study Ou r .

inquiry must be limited to two topics (1 ) The S tages in the ,

E volution of H istory and (2) Th e P resent S tatus o f H istory .

S t a g e s i n t h e E v o l u ti o n o f H i s t o r y H erodo tus is .

known as the F ather o f H istory ”

In o ne sense this is no t .

true for epic poetry inscription and legends are forms o f

, , ,

descriptive history It is true these forms o f history a re not

.
,

literally credible but as efforts they must be clas sified with

,

descriptive history A ccordingly descrip ti v e history began in

.
,

the very earliest times E xp la n a tory history bega n in modern .

times . German F rench and E nglish historians such as

, , ,

B aumer Guizot and Green tried to trace effects to their

, , ,

causes but rarely attempted anything like prevision It is

,
.

only lately and possibly through the stimulus o f Gu iz o t s

,
’

efforts that explanatory history is becoming p hilosop hy a nd

,

practical guidance .

Th e P r e s e n t S t a t u s o f H i s t o r y Modern scho o l h i sto ri es .

for younger pupils are ra ther descrip t ive than explanatory ,

and when as in the books o f F isher Myers Mo ntgomery

, , , ,

Morris and others explanations are a ttempted they are retro

, , ,

sp ect i v e rathe r than prospective views It is only in univer .

sities that history is beginning to be evolved in to a philosophy

of events the purpose being to develop historians and philo
,

S ophical scholarship It is to be earnestly hoped that o u r

.

school histories may soon be developed into a practical guid

ance study in so m ewhat the same sense as arithmetic grammar,
, ,

and botany are guidance studies .

 H I S TOR Y 31 5

B . I N S TR U C TI O N I N H I S TO R Y .

To meet the requirements o f ideal instruction the te a cher ,

o f history must understa nd ( I ) Th e Courses o f H istory ; 2

, ( )
The Tasks of the Cour ses ; (3) The Methods o f Instruction ,

d (4) Th e Importance o f H istory .

Th e C o u r s e s o f H i s t o ry Th e logical relation o f events

.

is inseparable from their relations in space and time This .

u ncti on imposes upon the student of history the unique

co
nj
n ecessity o f thinking events in space and ti m e in order to

understan d the cour se o f events— as causes and effects it also

helps to determine the phases o f complexi ty in the relations
o f events The consequent series o f subjects and ta sks con
.

st itu tes the cour ses o f history as science These courses (with
.

o u t going into the argu m ent that reveals them S ince the read er ,

is expected to find a parallel argument in the chapter o n geog

a re as follows : ( 1 ) Th e E lementa ry C our se ; 2 Th e
ra h
p y) ( )
Intermediate Course and (3) The H igher Course .

I . TH E A I N H I S TOR Y
E L E ME NT R Y COU R S E .

E ach course o f history has its specific tasks m ethods and , ,

subjects Inasmuch as tasks determine methods and suggest

.

subjects these topics will be taken up i n order

,
.

a . TH E LE ME NTAR Y H I S TOR Y
TA S K S OF E .

The specific tasks of instruction in elementa ry histo ry are

( ) T construct simple event s in the pupil s imagination and
’
1 o

me m ory ; and (2 ) To cause inqui ry into the i m m ediate (o b

vions) relations o f events The performance of t hese tasks
.

virtually satisfies the requirem ents o f ideal instruction (S ee .

the chapte r o n P rinciples o f Instruction ) .

Th e C o n s tru c t i o n o f E v e n t s i n th e P u p i l s M i n d Th e
’
.

pupil must construct the teacher s account o f si m ple events

’

into seeming realities as adults do when they read the account

,

o f N apoleon crossing the A lps S ince th i s process o f imagina

.
3 16 P R I NCIPLE S AND M E TH ODS OF TE ACH I NG

’
tion is the pupil s substitute for perception and the only prac ,

tical s ubstitute it is a specific necessity in history Th e events

,
.

thus constructed in imagination must o f course be impressed , ,

upon the mem ory o f the pupil and made permanent posses
sions o f his mind .

I n q u i ry i n t o t h e R e l a t i o n s o f E v e n t s The conception .

o f events and me m ory are only introductory processes in the

study o f history This introduction however in combination

.
, ,

with s imple j udgment furnishes the pupil s m i nd with the facts

,
’

o f S pace and t i me and thus prepares the pupil to see the co n

,

n ect i o n o f events as parts and as causes and e ffects

,
It is only .

the most obvious (immediate) relations o f events that are

appropriate subject m atter for beginners in history but to re
-

press inquiry o r to require pupils to imagine and remember

,

events without stimulating rational inquiry is to stultify the ,

pu pil s reasoning powers There are many Opportunities even

’
.

in elementa ry classes for si m ple i nduct ion and deduc tion and ,

to miss such Opportunities is to fail as a teacher (S ee the .

S i xth and Tenth P rin ciples o f Instruction ) When for ex .

,
’
ample the pupil has learned the story o f P enn s treaty with
,

the Indians at Philadelphia he should be induced to ask why

,

P enn treated the Indians as he did ho w the Indians kept their ,

word to P enn whether they a lwa ys (la w) kept their promises

, ,

what therefore was the best wa y to get along wi th Indians .

In this series of inquiries S i m ple and natural enough for chil

,

dren the whole pupil (intellect feeling and will) is virtually

, , ,

called into activi ty Thus a l l th e requirem ents o f ideal i n

.

struction are satisfied .

6 . TH E L E M E NTAR Y H I S TOR Y
M E TH OD OF E .

S uitable means and e ffective management of means are the

two essentials o f a good m ethod We must accordingly co n .
, ,

sider at this point (1 ) The Means in E lementary H istory and

T e E v ents Of a R ecitation in E lementary H istory
( )
2 h .
31 8 P R I NCI PL E S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE ACH I NG

corrective they are indispensable to the constructive process

,

that must follow apa rt from such correction all additions are
li kely to be blun ders in archite cture .

Co nstru cti on Th e co nstructive work o f a recitation in ele

.

mentary history consists o f instruction i ntegration and cor , ,

rection (1 ) In the absence o f text books and i n accordance

.
-

w ith the requirements of elementa ry instruc t ion (see P rinci

ples of Instruction) th e teacher relate s additional history to
,

his class using objects pictures relics charts maps etc to

, , , , , ,
.
,

illustrate his narratives and proceeding in such a way as to

,

require the pupils to inte rpret w ha t they hear by comparing

it with experiences The proced u re should be as perfect a su b
.

sti tu te o f actual observation as possible Th e teacher must be .

”
careful to adapt the new matte r which he relates to the
pupi l s interest and present powers H e must also be certain
’
.

o f the atte ntion o f the whole class ( )

2 In idea l instruction .

the pupil s mind is at work as it would be in actual observa

’

tion To make sure of this and to assist the process the

.
, ,

pupil must be required to describe in his o wn way the n ew

struct ur e in his mind In o ther words th i s descriptive process
.
,

is i m portant for three reasons it requires the pupil s attention ’

to the teacher s instruction ; it renders the fac ts learned co n

’

crete in their integration by constructing them in the imagina

tion ; and it is an excellent discipline in language (3) To .

make sure that the s tructure which the teacher is tryin g to

construct in the pupil s i magination and memory is not de
’ ‘

fecti v e and that all the members of the class are bu ilding suc
,

cessfu lly he m ust ask

,
search light or X ray questions
” ” -

,
-
.

It is essential to ideal instruction that the teacher should be a

master in this corrective process .

M p la na ti o n In order to exhaust the possibilities of the

.

recitation in elementary history and to i m prove as well as ,

employ the whole pupil (intellect feeling and will) explana , , ,

tion must be added to review and description (S ee the .

 H I S TOR Y 31 9

F ourth , S eventh , and Tenth P rinciples o f Instructio n ) E x .

planation as was pointed o ut is an inquiry into relations

, , .

The process begins with in duction and ends in deduction In .

elementary history only the obvious (immediate) relations are

,

appropriate subject matter .

S ugg esti on In due ti m e suitable books S hould be brought

.

into the recitation as supplem ents to the teacher s n arratives ’

and explanations The teacher m ay sometimes read what he

.

has alread y told the class o r partly developed in their minds

,

by means o f questions thus leading the pupils to see the use

,

o f books and st imulatin g the desire to read

, H e m a y also
.

sug gest books to be read by the pupils A suitable text b o o k . r

S hould become the basis of the recitations the third year .

Th e S u bj e c t s o f E l e m e n t a ry H i s t o r y The possi
.

b i li ty of i nte resti ng pupils and the working possibilities o f

,

the cla ss determine the choice o f subjects in elementary his

,

tory (S ee Pr in ciplesc f Instruction ) A ccordingly elemen

. .
,

tary history S hould begin w ith interesting biography ( 1 ) .

Inasmuch as local biography is nearest to the child s imagina ’

tion it is the best introduction to history in its larger sense

,
.

( )
2 Th e second half o f the first year should be devoted to

those persons around whom the great events of A merican his

tory cluste r Introducing the class to the most appropriate
.

chara cte rs o f each epoch somewhat in their ch ronological

order and in close association with their geography the te a cher ,

should endeavor especially to develop right concepts and atti

tudes in pupils .

H aving become acq uainted with the representative charac

ters o f A merican biography the pupil is prepared to study
,

co llect ions of persons Those events that stand out co n sp ic

.

u o u s in the various epochs o f A merican history and which ,

must be m ad e the subject o f extended study in later years are ,

pract ically the most appropriate subjects for the second year
in history .
32 0 PR I NCI PL E S A ND ME TH ODS OF TE ACHI NG

P upils introduced in to history i n the way j ust suggested

should be read y to take up such an elementa ry text book as -

Montgomery s the thi rd year L essons should be regularly

’
.

assigned and prepared as supplements to the teacher s instru o ’

tion but the requ i rements S hould not be difficult S uch a

,
.

persu as ive in troducti on to a book is of the greatest importa nce

to a right conception of the functi on o f books in general .

II . TH E I NTE R ME DI ATE COU R S E I N H I S TOR Y .

The cour se of history w hich is appropriate to the average

grammar school pupil is conveniently termed the intermediate
-

cour se .

a . TH E TA S K S ATE H I S TOR Y
OF I N TE R ME D I .

Th e characteristic ta sks o f intermediate hi story are as fol

low s : the conception o f indi viduals (subjects) o f greater com
p l e xi t
y; the multiplication o f conce pts (characte rs event )
s ; ,

and in quiry in to remoter relations Of cause and e ffect .

I m a g i n a t i o n o f C o m p l e x S u bj e cts A ccording to the .

require m ents o f ideal i nstruction the more co m plex phases o f ,

men (and events ) to whom the pupil wa s i ntroduced in the

elementa ry course are appropriate subjects in the inte rm edi ate
course Washingt on for example was kno wn to the elemen
.
, ,

tary pupils as an exe m plary son a heroic youth etc but to , ,

.

the intermed iate pupil he becomes an Officer in the F rench and

Indian Wars the com m ander i n chief i n the R evolutionary
,
- -

Wa r and finally the P resident of the U nited S tates These

,
.

w ars to o w ere known to the elementary pupils but only in

, , ,

their S implest phases The inte rmediate pupil observes strong

.

holds armi es marches battles retreats treaties etc

, , , , , ,
.

A d d i ti o n o f S u bj e ct s Men and events to which the ele

.

mentary pupils w ere not introduced at all must be introduced

i n the intermediate course In other words intermediate h is
.
,

tory deals not only with subj ects o f greate r complexity but ,
32 2 PR I NCI PL E S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE A CHI NG

maps o f battle field s etc made of p ap ier m a ché are especially

-

,
.
,
-

helpful to the pupil .

Th e P r e p a r a t i o n o f L e s s o n s E conomy and discipline .

require that in the case o f intermediate pupils in histo ry the

preparation and recitation of lessons should be distinct events .

’
The Tea cher s P rep a ra ti o n There are at lea st t wo reasons
.

’
why the teacher s mastery o f the subject to be taught should
be as perfect as possible ( 1 ) S uch mastery is likely to enthuse
the teacher so that he works with purpose and energy ( 2)
, .

The teacher must master a subject with all his powers in order
that he may kno w what mental activities to call into service in
his pupils and in what order Kno wing these points he can .
,

form an intelligent plan for the prospective recitation choose ,

the best means and prepare himself to use these mean s most
,

effectively Thus it follows that the teacher o f history must

.

study the pupil s text book in connectio n with other text

’
-

books maps pictures dictionaries encyclop aedias etc think

, , , , ,
.
,

every lesson into its connection with prece ding and following
lessons and plan the recitation to meet all the requirements
,
.

The P up i l s P r ep a ra ti o n A definite lesson having been

’
.

assigned and helpful directions given the pupil should be re

, ,

quired to study his text in connection w ith other texts maps , ,

cyclopaedias and the dictionary The teacher must insist o n

,
.

i m portant d ates n am es places etc E v ery pupil S hould be

, , ,
.

made to feel that every lesson ought to improve his vocabulary

and sentences but no pupil should be allo wed to co m mit the
,
’
text The habit o f thinking the lesson in one s o wn language
.
,

arranging the thoughts o f the lesson into a system and bring ,

ing it into connection with past lessons should be developed ,

in all pupils P rogressive maps and outlines may be required

.

as part of the preparation o f pupils in intermediate history .

Th e R e c i t a t i o n i n I nt e rm e d i a t e H i s tor y The i te m s to .

be considered in this connection a re as follows : ( 1 ) Written

W ork ; (2) O ral Wo rk ; (3) The E xamination of the Writ
 H I S TOR Y 3 23

ten Work ; (4) The A ssignment of L es son s ; and (5 ) R evie w

R ecitations
.

Wri tten Work .

( ) Th
following are obvious merits o f
1 e

written work in recitations it is a stimulus to thorough prep

aration of lessons it is a better test of the pupil s preparation ’

and capacity it enables the teacher to employ more pupils

’
simultaneously it is the teacher s best opportunity to present
“ ”
the thread o f history in the questions which he prepares
for those pupils who are to wri te out the recitation it is a fine
opportunity for the pupil to tell in a connected way what he
knows and thinks ; and it is an excellent supplement to the
regular work in composition (2) The black board is the most
.
-

suitable means for written work in recitations The places at .

the board should be numbered Numbered questions— a logi

.

cal series o f questions the series beginning in revie ws and

,

bringi n g these into connectio n with the advance lesson the ,

whole arrangement se planned as to co ver the ground i n o ut

-

line— carefully prepared by the teacher should be placed b e

low the corresponding numbers over the black board as soon -

as the class is read y for work A s soon as these questions

.

”
have been assigned to the class by numbers the persons to ,

whom the numbers were assigned should be requested to pass

to the board write their name at the top co py the question
, , ,

analyze it into topics and proceed to write o u t the necessary

,

paragraphs (3) The tea cher should spare no e fforts to develop

.

in his pupils right habi ts and tastes in spelling punctuation , ,

capitalization diction sentence qualities plan o f paragraphs

, , , ,

penmanship etc No book should be allowed in the recita

,
.

tion B oth pupils and teachers should cultivate self reliance

.
-
.

Ora l Wo r k While part of the class is reciting at the board

.
,

the teacher puts questions to the other mem bers o f the class,
requires oral ans wers conducts drills o ffers suggestions etc
, , ,
.

A s k ilful teacher ca n make this oral w ork a stimulus to prep

aration o f lessons a discipline in thinking a valuable means
, ,
32 4 P R I NCI PL E S A ND M E TH OD S OF TE A CH I NG

of in struction and an excellent opportunity in the develop

,
’
ment o f the pupil s power to speak .

The E xa m i na ti on of the Wo r k o n the B o a r d When about .

half the time allotted to the recitation has expired and all the ,

w rite rs have returned from the board the examination o f the ,

board should begin Th e writers should read in the order of

.

the numbers o n the board The reading of both questions .

and answers should be distinct forci b le and elegant The , , .

whole class should be requi red to hold themselves in read i ness

to criticise bu t always in strict subordination to the teacher s
,
’

supervision The teacher should supplement correct and

.
, ,

instruct whenever time allows and W herever it is proper In .

the performance o f this task skill i n drawing will be very

helpful and superior scholarship will be an inspiration to the
,

class .

The A ssignm ent of L essons In advanced cl as ses and in .

ca ses where the t eacher can estimate the probabilities t he next ,

lesson may be assigned before the regular work o f a recitation

begins Com m only however it is best to as sign the next les
.
, ,

son a t the close o f a recitation The te acher s assignments .

’

should be very definite The pupil should be directed to the .

various sources o f information and helpful sugges tion s should ,

be added .

A R ev i ew R eci ta ti on In addition to the reviews with which

.

all recitations should begin there should be S pecial reviews as,

ofte n as tim e permits and necessity dictates In these revie w .

recitations the questions o n the board should be a progressive

series i e events should be considered in their chronological
,
. .
,

order The oral ques tions may be put in reverse order for
.

variety and discipline This regressive order is rather di th

.

cult for younger pupils .

S u bj e ct s o f I n t e r m e d i a t e H i s t o r y ( ) A n ordi
”
Th e 1 .

nary text book o n history is the best practical catalogue o f

-

subjects in in termediate history (2) In order to be a sui table .

32 6 PR I NCI PL E S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE ACH I NG
able cour se in higher history Th e follow i ng outline is re .

s ect fu lly submi tted

p
H igh S cho o l H i stor y ( 1 ) O ur high schools should o ffer a
-
.

course in general history as much as may be found in Myers ;

,

a nd,
if time allows a special co urse in Gree k R o m an and
, , ,

E nglish history should be added (2 ) A course in civil gov.

ern m en t also belongs to the high school course in history -

.
~

E very h igh school graduate should kno w enough a b out the

-

Constitution o f his o wn S tate and that o f the U nited S ta te s to

enable him to be a good citizen and if need be a good o fli cer , , ,
.

No rm a l S cho o l H i sto ry
-

( )
1 N ormal schools
. should o f
f er a
very thorough course in the history o f the U nited S tates gen ,

eral h i story and civil government (2) The pedagogics o f

, .

histo ry must o f course be added

, , .

Co llege H i story It devolves o n coll eges to offer courses

.

in general histo ry special courses in the histo ry o f the great

,

nations courses in the various departments o f civics and a

, ,

course in the philosophy o f history .

Uni v ersi ty H i sto ry It belongs to the university ( 1 ) to o ffer

.

an extended course in the ph i losophy o f history ; and (2) to

develop the science and philosophy o f history by original con
t r ib u tio ns . Th e method o f the university must o f course be , ,

scientific i n the fullest sense and implies original investiga

,

tions .

I V TH E I MPOR T NCE OF H I S TOR Y

.A .

It must be admitted that such a cata logue o f events dates , ,

and names as frequently passes for history is perhaps i nteres t

ing enough as reading matter but of no special value in the
-

education o f a man o r woman The fact that histo ry has to o .

commonly co nsisted o f such enumerations and that these are ,

so o fte n simply committed to memory is deplorable enough ,

.

“ ”
B u t histo ry is more than a record of events it is a science ,

a n d as such must be a valuable instrument i n education The .

 H I S TOR Y 32 7

opinions o f Co m pa yre F itch and the Committ ee o f P i f

, ,
”
teen o n this subject are particularly interesting .

Th e C u l tu r e V a l u e o f H i s t o r y
-
Inasmuch as history is
.

a science the necessary method of study calls into service the

,

whole pupil (intellect feeling and will ) The study o f his

, , .

tory as we know from a considerat ion of its method is a most

, ,

excellent means in the training o f the imagination memory, ,

j udgment reasoning conscience patriotism , etc

, , ,
.

Th e I n s tru c t i o n V a l u e o f H i s t o r y
-
A s the science o f
.

events history is a school master of citizens and moral agents

,
-
.

( )
1 H istory is the ci t i ’
z en s school maste r because it teache s
-

him the laws of national life j ust as e ffectively as physiology

teaches the laws o f physical life ( 2) A knowledge o f causes
.

and effects in the moral career o f historical characters is moral

p hilosophy in the concrete .

A S o u r ce o f S a t i s fa c t i o n To thinking men and women

.

the science o f events must be a source o f great satisfaction .

J ust as people who have never viewed the world o f nature

from its mountain tops rejoice with exceeding great joy o n
-

finally beholding the glories and wonders o f earth so do those ,

”
who behold the world as it was and is and shall be rej oice
in the gratification o f their philosophic senses .

Th e Tr a i n i n g o f Te a ch e r s o f H i s t o r y S ince the study

.

o f history can be made such a valuable instrum ent in educa

tion it must be obvious that the responsibility o f teachers o f

,

histo ry is very great This conclusion obta ins added force

.

from the fact that history has so commonly been taught simply
“ ”
as a record o f events and by the rote method It fo l .

lows therefore that teachers of history need a thorough train

, ,

ing (1 ) in history i tself and (2) i n the pedagogics o f h istory

,
.
328 PR I NCI PL E S A ND ME THOD S OF TE A CHI NG

C H A P TE R XI .

DR AWI N G .

TH E true object o f i nstruction is to cause right mental

processes in pupils (S ee the P rinciples o f Instruction ) It
. .

is obvious that in order to cause right mental processes in

,

teaching a ny branch o f study the teacher should know those

,

proce sses Therefore the pedagogics of drawing is concerned

.
,

with two general topics : ( 1 ) Th e Nature of D rawing ; and (2)

Instruction i n D rawing .

A . TH E N A TU R E O F D R A W I N G .

The nature of drawing is most conveniently studied under

the following heads : ( 1 ) The S ubject o f S tudy (2 ) The Psy
ch o lo gy o f D rawin g ; 3 The D efinitio n o f D rawing
( ) and (4)
The H i sto ry o f D rawing .

I . TH E SUB J E CT OF S TU D Y .

In the sense in which arithmetic is the study o f numbers ,

drawing is the study o f linear representation o f forms .

L i n e a r R e pre s e n t a ti o n o f F o rm s It is possible to simu

.

late the real outline of objects so perfectly o n a flat surface that

o n seeing the representation we recognize the intended sem

blance This linear representation of objects is termed D r a w

.

i ng
. Three thin gs in the process o f dra wing require special
attention : (1 ) The L ength o f L ines ; (2) The D irection o f
L ines ; and (3) Marks o f E xpression .

The L eng th of L i n es There are t wo modes o f determining

.

the length o f lines in drawing : ( 1 ) The length facts o f an -

object m a y be observed and represented without the aid o f

meas uring instrumen ts (2) The length facts of an object may
.
-
330 PR I NCI PL E S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE ACH I NG

PSYC HOLO GY or DR AWI NG

11 . TH E .

The ideal method of studying linear repres entation o f forms ,

as well as numbers o r plants o r any other subject consists of , ,

observation ind u ction and deduction (S ee the cha pte r o n

, ,
.

the Nature o f Knowledge ) .

O b s e rv a ti o n i n D r a w i n g Th e first step in the formal .

study o f drawing is observation i e the ascertainment o f fa cts ,

. .
,
.

Two species o f facts must be ascertained i n drawin g ( 1 ) The

F orm F acts o f Objects and (2) The R epresentation F acts o f
-

,
-

F orm .

The F o rm F a cts of Objects-

Th e first thing to do in order .

to draw an object is to become acq uai nted with its outline i e ,

. .
,

with its bounding lines their direction length proportions , , , ,

etc If for exam ple the student should wish to draw a hat
.
, , ,

he must first ascertai n the direction o f the rim lines the -

breadth o f the rim the height and shape o f the crown the
, ,

width o f the band etc ,

.

The R ep r esenta ti on F a cts of F orm It is not enough in

-
.

drawing to kno w the form facts o f an object the representa -

tion facts must also be ascertained In other words the o b

-
.
,

server m ust find out w hat lines will represent the object in
question to the imagination In the ease of a ha t for exam .
,

ple the observer will find that a very smal l nu m ber o f lines
,

virtually represent t he hat comple tely .

I n d u c ti o n i n D ra w in g Two species of law s must be as .

certa i ned in drawing :

( )
1 T h e F orm L aws of Objects and -

( )
2 T h e L a ws of F orm R epresentation -
.

The F o rm L a ws of Obj ects-

It is found by comparison of .

the form facts of objects that all objects are a nalyzable into
-

the various elementary phases o f the sphere the cube the cyl , ,

i nder the cone the pyramid etc These form laws o f objects
, , ,
.
-

must be developed i n pupils j ust as any other law is developed ,

i e by hypothesis and proof

. .
,
Th e development of the con .
 DR A WI NG 331

ce ts of the elementary forms together with the terms and

p ,

definitions that belong to their description is the i ndi sp ensa ,

ble task of pupils wh o would be masters in drawing It is .

only when these concepts have beco m e standards of co mpari

son that objects can be readily classified and represented .

The L a ws of F orm R ep resen ta ti on I t is foun d by compari

-
.

so n o f facts that the leng th di recti o n and re eti ti on o f lines

, p ,

which represent objects to the imagination are subject to law ,

just as the forms o f objects are subject to law (S ee Nat ural .

P hilosophy ) ( 1 ) The relative lengths to be represented can be

.

”
perfectly represented by m eans o f a scale of proportions .

( )
2 T h e appearance of objects o f three dimensions is a
p ers ec
p
tive phenomenon subj ect to the la ws of light and therefore ,

capable o f mathem atically correct representation the main feat ,

ures o f the problem being the point of vision the level o f the ,

eye and the position o f the object (3) The amou nt of light
,
.
,

o r i ts absence ca n b e represente d by such repetition o f lines

,
—

as will simulate the phenomena in question .

Th e discovery o f the laws o f linear form representation has -

made a science of drawing possible and the study o f t hese ,

laws is as indispensable to great success in drawing as the

study o f the laws of nu m bers is to great success in arithmetic .

It is only when these laws have become familiar that the

countless diversities o f object forms can be satisfactorily rep
-

resented .

D e d u ct i o n i n D r a w i n g There are two deductive ta sks

.

in drawing : (1 ) The an alysis o f objects into type forms and -

( )
2 T h e linear representation of objects .

Zyp e F o rm A n a lysi s of Objects

-
Th e first thing to do i n
.

syste m atic drawi ng is to discover the elementary form o r

forms to which the object or imagi nation to be represented
belongs If for example the student wishes to draw a
.
, ,

o blet it is o f the greatest advantage to h i m to see in the

g ,

goblet form the elementary square and circle A part from

-
.
332 P R I N CI P L E S A N D ME TH ODS OF TE A CH I NG

such an alysis every ta sk in drawing is an isolated unclassified ,

experiment .

I / in ea r R ep resenta ti o n of Objects There are two possible .

modes o f linear representation : ( 1 ) The learner may observe

and imitate the representation of an object This mode of .

drawing does not presuppose the analysis of the objects to be

draw n i nto the type forms to which they belong The task -
.

requires perception mem ory i m agination and direct compari

, , ,

son and is t herefore the right thing for beginn ers (S ee the
, , ,
.

F irst P rinciple o f Instruction ) (2) The learner m a y obser v e .

t he object to be drawn analyze it into its type forms and ,

-

dra w it by rational representat ion This task requires a .

“ ” “ ”
kno wledge o f scales o f pre portion perspective and , ,

mathematics and is therefore possible only for mat urer

,

pupils ( S ee the S ixth P rinciple of Instruction )

. .

Th e D e fi n i t i o n o f D r a w i n g The method o f study j u st .

described together with a systematic statement o f results co n

, ,

sti t u tes science A science of drawing is therefore possible

.
,

its subject being li nea r r ep res enta ti on of fo rm s B u t drawing .

,

as a physical realizatio n o f science is also an art Indeed ,

.
,

this is the phase o f drawing commonly in mind when the sub

jcet is mentioned B riefly summed up dra wing is the science
.
,

and art of linear representation of forms The following clas .

s i fica t i o n s are convenient : T

( )
1 h e linear representation of

forms without the aid of m easuring instruments is termed

F ree H a nd D rawing
-

( )
2 R epresentation by m ean s of i nstr u
.

ments is termed M echa ni ca l D rawing B oth free hand and .

-

mechanical drawing become p ersp ecti ve dra wing when distance ,

direction and light are taken into account The special feat
,
.

ure o f perspective dra wing is the process known as fore

”
shortening i e the representation of t wo or three dimensions
,
. .
,
“
by means o f shorter and fe wer lines as determined by point
”
o f vision The terms descriptive artistic industrial archi
.
, , ,

tectu ra l etc na m e the purposes for which a drawing may be

,
.
,
334 PR I NCI PL E S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE A CH I NG

tion .
(S ee the P rinciples o f Instr ucti o n
) Th e following
.

topics therefore deserve attention : ( 1 ) The Nature o f the

, ,

S ubject ( 2) P ossibilities o f the P upil ; and (3) The N umber

o f C ourses .

Th e N a t u r e o f t h e S u bj e c t ( 1 ) .D rawing from pic

”
tures requires observation a nd i m itation The mental func .

tions thus brought into service are perception memory imagi , ,

nation direct comparison interest and atte ntion (2) D rawing

, , ,
.

”
from objects requires the analysis o f the object to be drawn
in to type forms and rational representation
-
Th e mental .

functions thus brought into service are perception direct co m ,

parison (implying memory abstraction and imagination) de

, , ,

du ct i v e rea soning (implying previous inductions and a train

ing in mathemat ics) and attention (imply i ng interest) (3)
,
.

”
D rawing fro m problems as in invention requires rational
, ,

comprehension o f the conditions and rational representation .

The task p resupposes a kno w led ge o f the elementary forms ,

simple and composite and a training in mathematics

,
.

Th e P o s s i b i l i t i e s o f t h e P u p i l ( )
1 T.h e power to imi

ta te (see Courses o f P enmanship) is a characteristic po wer o f

childhood (2 ) The rational representation of objects o f o b ser
.

vation presupposing skill in i m itation as w ell as considerable

,

m aturity in syllogistic thinking is seldom possible before t he

,

latte r part o f the gra m mar school epoch (3) The rational rep
-

resen ta t i o n o f i m agina t ions and problems requires a maturity

in abstr action and mathematics which is seld om to b e found

before the high school epoch
-
.

Th e N u m b e r o f C o u r s e s i n D r a w i n g In view o f the
.

psychology of drawing and the pow ers o f pupils it seems ,

appropriate to arrange three courses of instruction in draw ing

T e elementary o r i m itative course ( 2 ) Th e inter m ediate
( )
1 h , , ,

o r rational course and (3) Th e higher o r special course

,
.
 DR AWI NG 33 5

II . AWI NG
E L E ME NT R Y DR
A .

The following topics deserve o u r attention at this point

e S ubjects o f E lementary D rawing a n d 2 Th e Method
( )
1 T h ( ) ,

o f Instruction .

Th e S u bj e ct s o f E l e m e n t a r y D r a w i n g The p a ssage .

from subject to subject in drawi ng should be from the simple

to the complex and from that which is kno wn to that which
,

is in logical relation with it (S ee F irst and S econd P rinci

.

ples o f Instruction ) Taking these requirements and the pos

.

si b i l i t ies o f the pupil into co nsideration it is believed that the ,

following ground can be covered in about si x yea rs

( )
1 T h e sphere and its obvious resemblances in objects .

( )
2 O ne face o f the cube and its obvious resem b lances .

This ste p includes the square and the rectangle together with ,

such descriptive te rms as straight line right angle etc , ,

.

( )
3 T w o faces of the cube from various points o f vision

and obvious resembl a nces The worker begins with a front

.

view and after choosing a centre of vision completes the t0p

, , ,

face by first drawing reced i ng lines and then choosing a rear

l ine for the t0p face L essons o n the right and le ft faces of
.

the cube in connection with the front face should be added .

The faces may be represented as open and containing interest

ing objects No attempt should be m ade at this time to ex
.

plain the centre o f vision and receding lines The appea l in .

these lessons is principally to the child s great imitative power ’

.

( )
4 T hree o r more faces of the cube from various right and

le ft positions above and below the level o f the eye to gether

, ,

with obvious resemblances In the course of these lessons

.

the pupil should b e taught to recognize and name the three

species of receding lines parallel lines and surfaces S pecial
, ,
.

lessons o n the centre o f vision and the horizon line will be

necessary .

( )
5 E as y composition o f sphere and cube form s together ,

with obvious resemblan ces and applications .

3 36 PR I NCI PL E S A ND M E TH OD S OF TE A CH I NG

( )
6 Th e vertical cylinder in the various right and left posi
tions above and belo w the level o f the eye together with o b
, ,

vi cus resemblances and applications In connection with .

these lessons the child should learn to distinguish plane from

cur ved and round surfaces .

( )
7 Th e horizonal cylinder in the various positions together
,

with obvious resemblances and applications .

( )
8 T h e receding cylinder in various positions together with ,

obvious resemblances and applications .

( 9 ) E asy composition of sphere cube and cylinder forms , , ,

including obvious resemblances and applications E asy prob .

lems may be added .

( )
1 0 L essons o n the hemisphere cone prism etc
,,
may be , ,
.

i ntroduced at this time .

( )
1 1 E asy invention by li n e including dictation su b sti tu
, ,

tion and designing should be gradually introduced but not

, , ,

before the fift h o r sixth year .

Th e M e t h o d o f I n s tr u c t i o n i n E l e m e n t a r y D r a w i n g .

Tw o points deserve our present attention : ( 1 ) The P reparation

for L essons in E lementary D rawing and (2) The R ecitation , .

P rep a ra ti o n fo r L esso ns i n E lem enta ry D r a wi ng ( )

1 T h e .

teacher o f drawi ng should see to it that there is a supply o f

necessary m aterials at hand A black board and its belong
.
-

i n gs paper and its belongings and a collection o f elementary

, ,

forms are am ong the important materials in elementary draw

ing A large assortm ent o f larger and smaller obj ects that
.

obviously resemble the elem entary for m s is a most valuable

equi pment in elem enta ry drawing (2 ) Th e teacher should p ra c
.

tise p la ci ng and d r a wing the objects that are to be used in the

lessons H e should study how to introduce devices calculated
.

to interest children long enough in a given form to teach it

thoroughly H e should plan the steps which he m ust take the
.
,

questions hints etc and try to be prepared for all emergencies

, ,
. .

The R eci ta ti on i n E lem en ta ry D ra wi ng Th e ideal method .

338 P R I NCI PLE S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE ACH I NG
obviously resemble the elementary form, he should be ta ught
to draw Without the teacher s previous representation such
’
, ,

objects as obviously embody the form in question This is .

”
termed draw ing from the object and is a long s tep in ad ,

vance ; the pupil has now learned to draw deductively which ,

is the end aimed at in ideal instruction (S ee the E ighth an d .

Tenth P rinciples o f Instruction ) .

( )
4 In due time the pup i l should be taught to draw from
problems ”
. This task of i nv en ti on i m plies familiari ty with
the lines surfaces a nd possible positions o f the elementary
, ,

forms together with their te chnical description and should

, ,

therefo re not be attempted to o soon When the right time for .

this work has come the teacher may send his class to the
,

board and di cta te by li ne the things to be done There are .

three possible ways o f line dictation : (a ) The teacher may dic

-

ta te the direction lengt h and characte r of the lines and expect

, , ,

the pupils to produce them thus inventing a picture (6) H e

,

may propose a form and dictate substitutions o f l i nes as a ,

c u rve for a straight line This is called invention by line

.

su bsti tu ti on and (0) H e may propose a form and dictate sub

st it u ti o n s o f lines that di ffer not only in ki n d but also in leng th .

This form o f invention is called designi ng by line .

( )
5 E le m entary pupils soon grow tired of o n e form In .

order to keep up the necessary interest in the form i n ques

tion the teacher must resort to various devices such as placing ,

eggs balls birds etc upon near o r into open forms S uit
, , ,
.
, , ,
.

able stories addressed to memory o r imagination are very

e ffective devices Teachers should however be careful not to
.
, ,

make such devices too prominent .

( 6) It is believed that elementary pupils need no text books -

in dra wing before the fifth o r sixth year and even then it is
possible to get along without them .

I ll u s tr a t i v e L e s s o n s Th e follo w ing lessons are subjoined

.

as illus trations o f the method j ust described They are de .

 D R AWI NG 3 39

signed to illustrate the sp i ri t o f the method rather than the

historical details which must be left to the i ndividual teacher
,

un der his particular circumstances .

Th e S ph e r e Tea cher What do I hold in my hand

. .
,

Grace G A ball T The shape o f a ball is called Sp here

. . . .

H ave you ever seen pictures of a S phere H arry I I Yes ,

.
,

si r . T I think I kn ow w hat yo u w ould like to do

. H I .

would like to make pictures mysel f T V e ry well you wil l . .

be able to do so by and by No w look at the ball i n my .

hand and fix its s hape in your memory (Turning to the .

board and looking at the ball) Watch me children ; I wi ll ,

show you how to make a p icture o f this ball (The teacher .

draws a circle and adds a few marks o f expression ) What .

did I do Mary ? M Yo u drew a ring and put little lines in

,

it ; you made a picture of the ball in your hand T Yo u . .

may draw the same picture J ane (J ane steps to the board ,
.

“ ”
o r t urns to her pa p er a nd draws from the picture but looks ,

at the ball to see if her picture resembles the ball ) T J ane . .

,

th is is the right wa y to hold your pencil or crayon (sho w ing

her) (A wkward positions of the body a nd improper ways o f
.

hold i ng the penci l or crayon should be corrected but individ ,

u a li t
y should not be crushed ) T W hat have I done J acob ? . .
,

J You have changed the pict ure into a tennis ball picture by
.
-

making a seam o n it T The class may please try to do what

. .

I did (They do so with a will ) T Think o f some object

. . .

that looks like a ball (The class name apples oranges onions
.
, , ,

etc ) T Watch me pleas e (L ookin g at an apple the teacher

. .
,
.
,

draws it with the stem o n to p ) Mi nni e You looked at the . .

apple in your hand and then m ad e a picture of it I saw ho w .

y o u fixed the stem T That is the right

. w a y to w
. atch M i n ,

nie I will draw a numbe r o f apple pictures and yo u may

.
-

copy them at your seats I w ill look at your work by and by

.
,
”
to see ho w well you can draw ( D ra wing from the obj ect .

should be grad ually associated with drawin g from pictures ) .

340 PR I NCI PLE S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE A CH I NG

Tw o C u b e -
F a ce s . Tea cher . What do I hold in my hand ,

R alph R A box . many faces o f the box can yo u

. T How
.

see if I hold it as I do ? R Two ; the o ne to ward me and .

,

the to p face T Which fa ce do you think I should draw first

. .
,

A lbert A I think I would draw the o n e toward me first

. .

T e teacher heeds the suggestion and draws the front face

( h ) .

T What shall I do n o w ? A I do n o t know

. T Who can . . .

help me ? (No one sees the right thing to do ) P lease watch .

me (The teacher fixes the centre o f vision draw s the m eces

.
,

sary receding lines and choosing the distance back ward com , , ,

pletes the to p face ) What have I done H elen ? H Yo u .

,

m ade a dot dre w lines from the top corners of the square t o
,

that point and then drew another line parallel to the top line
,

o f the square thus co m pleting the t0p face , (L essons o n the .

squa re rectangle paral lel l i nes receding lines and angles are
, , , ,

presupposed in this lesson ) T That is j ust what I have done . . .

( T eachers must not expect perfect

'
ans w ers in these lessons ) .

The whole class may please do o u your papers what I did o n

the board Yo u may also try to draw t wo faces of objects that
.

o u can see o r reme m ber

y .

Th e V e rt i ca l C y l i n d e r T What do I hold in my hand . .

,

Maude M A tomato can (The children laugh ) T The

. . . . .

shape o f this can is called Cylinder (The tea cher writes the .

word and requires the children to copy it ) T H ow much of . .

the cylinder can you see from your seat if I hold it this way ,
'
H arold II I can see half way round the can and the whole
.

to p T W hat is the shape of the top face

. . I I It is a circle . .

T Ca n yo u see t he botto m R ufus

. R I can see only half ,
.

way round the botto m T What is the shape o f the bottom ? . .

R It is round like the top

. T What is the shape from . .

top to bottom Grace ? G It is straight T P lease watch

,
. . .

me What did I do R obert ? R You drew a circle fo r the

.
,
.

to p of the box pa rallel lines fo r the sides and a se m icircle fo r

, ,

the rim o f the bottom T What changes have I made A n . .

,
342 PR I NCI PLE S A ND ME TH ODS OF TE A CHI NG

I II . I NTE R ME DI ATE DR AWI NG .

The importan t features o f intermediate dr awing present

themselves under the following heads : ( 1 ) The S ubj ects o f
Inte rmediate D rawing and (2) The Method of Instruction
, .

Th e S u bj e c t s o f I n t e r m e di a t e D r a w i n g The following .

subjects of study belong to the intermed iate or rational course , ,

of drawing Two thirty minute lessons a week for about four

.
-

years should probably be devoted to this course

( )
1 D erivative forms obt a ined by d i vision of the S phere
,

cube cylinder etc In other words the threa d o f the co u rse

, , .
,

should be the same as that o f the elementa ry course but such ,

figures as can be obtained by o ne two or more divisions o f the , ,

first forms must be studied instead o f the elem enta ry wholes .

F rom the S phere fo r example, we may thus derive the hemi

,

sphere the quarter sphere etc F rom the cube may be derived
,
-

,
.

plinths triangular prisms oblong blocks etc (The methods

, , ,
. _

student should be required to make and name the various

divi sions ) .

( )
2 C onversions into less obvious forms together with recog
,

n i ti o n o f the type forms in the obj ects which pupils meet

-
.

( )
3 C ompositions of the derivative figures the number o f ,

forms to be represented being determined by the number that

may have been studied .

(4) Invention by line and form .

( )
5 T h e ele m ents of map drawing in connection with geog
-

ra h
p y and history and working dra wings in connection with
,

modelling and the elements o f manual training .

Th e M e t h o d o f I n s tr u c t i o n i n I n t e r m e d i a t e D r a w i n g .

( )
1 It is probably not advisable to dispense altogether w ith
”
drawing from the picture in the inte rm ediate course (see the
first three Principles o f Instruct ion ) but drawing from the ,
” ”
obj ect and problem must beco m e the rule .

( )
2 In addition t o such drawi n gs as the teacher may see fit
 DR AWI NG 3 43

”
to use as preparations he must strive to supervise the minds
,

o f his pupils in such a way as to preserve the ideal method

described in elementary drawing .

( )
3 Inasmuch as objects t o be drawn in this course shoul d

first be analyzed into type forms the teacher must study how -

to p la ce object s in the best positions In order to keep up .

proper interest in such tasks there should be an i nte resting ,

co llecti on o f materials o n hand fo r class use and the t eacher ,

should frequently draw i nteresting pictures as a sti mulus to

the pupil s ambition ’
.

( )
4 S ui table text books such as
-
those o f P rofessor A ugs
,

bur g the P rang system etc should be used as supplements

, ,
.
,

in in te rmed iate drawing .

R em a r k The methods st udents should be requir ed to wr ite

.
-

o ut illustrative lessons for i ntermediate work .

IV . H I GH E R DR AWI NG .

The important features of the higher or special c o urse o f , ,

drawi ng present themselves as in the case o f intermediate ,

drawing under t wo heads : (1 ) Th e S ubj ects o f H igher D raw

,

ing and (2) The Method o f Instruction

,
.

Th e S u bj e ct s o f H i g h e r Dra w i n g The following sub .

j ect s belong to the higher course o f drawing T h e course .

r equi res complex reasonings and is designed to fit students fo r

special vocations The tasks o f this course must for various

.

reasons be divided between high schools normal schools, and ,

technical schools
( )
1 D erivative forms obtained by composition o f various
forms In other words the logical thread of the other courses
.
,

is to be preserved but while the thread is a series o f coneen

,

tra ti o n s o n each of the elementary forms in order the other ,

elementa ry forms and derivatives should be corr elated with

the lea ding o n e .

( 2 ) T h e ty pe group s should be converted into the obj ect

-
344 P R I NCI PLE S A ND ME THOD S OF TE ACHI NG

forms of
nature history and imaginati on and objects o f
, , ,

n ature, history, and i magination shoul d be interpreted i nto

the type forms o f which they may be embodi m ents

-
.

( )
3 L andsc a pes historic groups fictions etc
, , , .

( )
4 Inventio n by l i ne form and idea ,
This i s the sp
,
h ere .

o f in dustrial archite ct u ral and hi gh art drawin g

, ,
-
.

( )
5 T h e various species o f map drawing should be made -

the subject o f special study o n the part o f teachers geo gra ,

phers, surveyors etc ,

.

( )
6 T eachers should understand the pe d agogics o f draw i ng .

Th e M e th o d o f I n s tr u ct i o n i n H i g h e r D r a w i n g The .

method o f higher drawi ng is virtually the same as that o f ih

term edia te drawing Th e higher phases of the subject the
.
,

special purposes in V iew and the individ uality o f the teacher

,

must o f course determine the necessary adjustments The

, ,
.

pedagogics o f drawing is a problem of psychology and econ

o m y and m ust obvio u sly be studied from those stand points
,
-
.

S uitable text books are the necessary supplements

-
.

V TH E I MP OR TANCE OF DR AWI NG
. .

To appreciate the importance o f drawing o ne must un der ,

sta nd its e fficiency as a means o f culture and instruct ion The .

following topics deserve special consideration : ( 1 ) The Cul

ture V alue o f D rawing ; (2) The Instr uction V alue of D raw
- -

ing (3) Th e P ractical V alue o f D rawing ; and (4) The

Training o f Teachers of D ra wing .

Th e C u l t u r e V a l u e o f D r a w i n g
-
P roperly taught draw .
,

ing is the possible m eans o f exercising the whole pupil (intel

lect feeling and will) (The methods student should be re
, ,
.
-

quired to prove this statement ) The efficiehcy o f drawing as .

a mean s in the culture of the eye the taste and the han d has , ,

long been known ( 1 ) D rawi ng requires accurate and com

.

p l e te observation and therefore

,
i m proves the eye
( )
2 It re .

quires the most accurate comparisons of distances proporti ons, ,

3 46 PR I NCI P LE S A ND M E TH ODS OF TE A CH I NG

useful and lucrative career in asmuch as superior taste co m

,
”
mands higher wages in the fin ishing o f all goods .

Th e Tr a i n i n g o f Te a ch e r s o f D r a w i n g
. If drawi ng i s
as important as just explai ned it devolves on the publi c
,

schools to offer adequate co urses Teachers accordingly need

.
, ,

the followin g train i ng : ( 1 ) Thorough training i n drawi ng it

sel f S uch training as elsewhere stated is needed i n the a rt
.
, ,

as well as i n the sci ence o f teaching draw ing Without such

.

proficiency the te aching o f dr a wi ng is li kely to be a sorry fail

ure (2) Thorough trai ning in the pri nciples and methods o f
.

te ach i ng drawing is necessary S ince this topic is the bur den

.

o f the present chapte r it is hoped that the matte r may not

,

requ ire fur ther discussion .

 MANU AL TR A I NI NG 347

C H A P TE R XII .

MA N UAL TR A I N I N G .

TH E pedagogics o f manual train ing is concern ed with (1 )

The N ature of Manual Training and (2) Instruction i n Man ,

u a l Training .

A . TH E N A TU R E OF MA N U A L TR A I N I N G .

Manual trai ni n g in the strict sense o f the term woul d

, ,

mean si mply the training o f the hand but as cur rently us ed

with reference to ed ucation the words indicate such employ
,

ment o f the hand as wi ll at the same time train the eye to

accuracy and the mind to attention Th e scientific element o r .
,

the te aching o f science pur e and si mple is not necessarily i n ,

v olved in the expression A s however pure science can

.
, ,

scarcely be ta ught without look i ng some what toward its a ppli

cations so manual training cannot be m a de an e ffecti ve edu
,

ca ti o n a l process except by constant reference to the broad

foundation in the mathematical physical and natural sciences

, ,
”
upon w hich it rests Two subjects deserve our spec i al atte n
.

tion : ( 1 ) The Tasks o f Manual Train i ng and (2 ) Th e H is ,

to ry of Manual Training .

Th e Ta s k s o f M a n u a l Tr a i n i n g In manual training as .
,

defined in the forego ing quotation the pupil is ta ught h o w to

,

u se hand tools in the interes ts of the hand

-
eye and m ind , ,
.

This complex purpose implies (1 ) Instruct ion and (2) E xer ,

cises.

Ma nu a l Tra i ni ng S tud ies The manual trainin g pupil needs

.
-

very definite kno w ledge about the follo wing things : ( 1 ) The
co nstruction of hand tools (2 ) Th e uses to which these tools
-

are to be put, (3) The care w hi ch must be t a ken o f hand too ls, -
348 PR I NCI PLE S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE ACH I NG

( )
4 Th e history o f hand tools (5 ) The choice o f mate rials
-

( p aper wood
,
metals ) according
,
to their qualities and ( )
6 M e ,

cha n i ca l drawing blue prin ts etc , , .

Ma nu a l Tr a i ni ng E xer cises Inasmuch as manual trainin g

-
.

aims at the correlation o f the hand the eye and the min d the , , ,

pup i l must put all instructions into prac t ice E xercise s in .

constru cti on must therefore be assigned It is no t enough

, ,
.

that in these exercises the pupil is required to draw what is

proposed for construction a nd to measure o ff the proposed ,

parts : he must also be required to j ustify his choi ce of tools

and materials and be held responsible for the condi tion o f his
,

tools .

Th e H i s t o r y o f M a n u a l Tr a i n i n g Th e principle o f the .

man ual training school exists in the kin dergarten and fo r

-

that prin ciple we are indebte d directly to F roebel and indi ,

rectly to P estalozzi Comenius R ousseau and B acon B ut it .

, , ,

was reserved fo r R ussia to solve the problem of tool in struc -

tion by the laboratory process and make it the foundation of ,

a great reform in education The initiatory step was taken in .

1 8 68 by M V ictor D ella V o s director o f the Imperial Tech

.
-

n i ca l S chool o f M oscow
”
.

Ma nu a l Tr a i ni ng i n the Uni ted S ta tes The R ussian system .

o f manual training soon found favor in A merica D r J ohn . .

D R unkle president o f the M assachusetts Institute o f T ech

.
,

n o lo in 1 8 7 6 was greatly pleased with the collection o f

gy ,

hand tools and samples o f shop work which he sa w in P hil a

- -

d elphia H e recommended the sys tem and it was adopted by

.
,

the famous B oston institution The second m anual —training .

school i n this country wa s founded as a depart m ent of Wash

i ngto n U niversity S t L ouis M issouri by D r C M V o o d
,
.
V
, ,
. . .

ward The first class was grad uated in J une

. Co n ,

si dera b le progress in manual training has been made in the

” “
S tate agricultural colleges o f the country The most pro .

n o u n ced success has been achieved at P urdue U niversity I n ,

35 0 PR I NCI PLE S AND ME TH ODS OF TE A CH I NG

i ntroduced the system in cer ta in schools (1 ) A mong the great .

ci ties that o ffer courses of manual training are B oston New ,

H aven A lbany New York P hiladelphia S t P aul and

, , , ,
.
,

Omaha .
( )
2 T h e normal schools are almost unanimous in
adopti ng the manual system (3) A mong the colleges and
.

universities that o ffer extensive courses in manual trainin g are

P ennsylvania S tate College L ehigh U niversity Cornell and
, , ,

A tlanta oston N ew York P hiladelphia ittsburgh

( )
4
. B ,
P , , ,

Toledo and other cities o ffer excellent courses o f manual

,

trai ning to girls ( 5 ) A lthough manual tra i nin g i n the public

.

schools o f E urope can scarcely be called educational since the ,

pupils usually make articles for household use the purpose ,

therefore bei ng purely industrial and the mental cultu re re,

cei v ed the mere accident o f a mechanical pur suit yet there ,

are beginning to be approaches to the R ussian idea This is .

probably the tendency now in D en m ark F rance Germany , , ,

N orway S weden etc ,

In Naas in S weden there is a semi
,
.
, ,

nary for the training o f sloyd teachers (6) The prospects o f .

o u r r u r a l schools seem to be brightening It is sometimes .

said that the boys and girls in the country schools have less
need o f this kind o f instruction than those o f to wn o r city
schools fo r the reason that their daily employments about the
,

farm o r in the household gi v e them a readiness i n perform

ing common tasks which the less favored city boy seldom
acquires but while there is truth i n this observation it is also ,

true that t he range o f such employ m ents is comparatively lim

i ted and that they are n o t generally so conducted as to culti
,

vate habi ts of precision and carefulness in the perfor m ance o f

the m . S yste m atic manual training would give to such boys
and girls a variety o f exercises and o f skills which only the
favored few ca n other wise acquire We believe that the nat .

ural aptitude for such exercises fostered as it is by their cir

,

cu m st a n ces would produce even better practical results there

,

than in schools o f the other kind Th e case of S weden fur .

 MA NU A L TR AI NI NG 35 1

ni shes mo st interesting evidence o f the ease and success with

w hich such a syste m can be introduced into rur al schools when
it is once un dertaken and the manifold advanta ges resulting
,

from it B u t whatever may be the fact upon this poi nt it

.
,
’
requires but a moment s reflection to see that the most serious
obstacle to the introduction o f such a system thr oughout the
entire syste m o f schools is at present the lack o f a sufficient
, ,
”
nu m ber o f properly trained teachers This obstacle can be
.

removed The experience o f S weden and o f F rance show

.

conclusively that a body o f teachers can be ve ry rapidly

”
formed . In S wed en it is found that an ordi nary teacher ,

by spending six weeks in o ne year and five weeks in the fol

lowin g year i n a special course o f manual training can acquire ,
”
all that is necessary fo r teaching its ele m ents successfully .

It is earnestly reco mmended (1 ) That the law require every

d i strict in its subsequent erection o f build i ngs for school pur
,

poses to make suitable provisions for a room o r rooms to be

,
” “
used for the purposes o f manual training ; and ( 2) That
provision be made o r authoriz ed fo r the grouping o f rural
schools for purposes o f manual traini ng in such a way that
, ,

either the scholars from schools included i n each group may

go in sections from each school to some one co nveniently lo
ca ted there to receive instr uction in manual train ing o r that
, ,

a special instructor in manual training may be appointed ,

Who se ti me shall be as signed to ea ch school in turn ”

.

B . IN S TR U C TI O N I N M A NU AL TR A IN I N G .

The important feat ures o f instruction in manual trainin g

may be conveniently studied under the follow i ng heads : (1 )
The Courses o f Manual Training ; ( 2) The Methods o f I n
struct ion ; and (3) The Importance o f Manual Train ing .
35 2 PR I NCI PL E S A ND ME THOD S OF TE ACH I NG

I . TH E COU R S E S OF M AN
AL TR AI NI NG U
.

The ends in V iew and the pupil s possibilities suggest three

’

courses o f manual training : ( 1 ) The E lementary (Imitative)

Course (2 ) Th e Intermediate (R ational ) Course and (3) Th e
”
H igher (S pecial) Course ( S ee P r i nciples o f
. Knowledge
and Instruction .
’

Th e E l e m e n t a r y C o u r s e The studies and exercises o f .

all the courses must be select ed as means to ends .

E nds Th e child learns to do a hundred thin gs by doing

.

them long before it can understa nd the theory o f the thin gs .

It is economy in education to give all such lessons not only ,

to gai n so much time but especially also to develop those fun

,

da m enta l ideas and j udgments upon which to build subsequent

training for the hand eye and min d These are the ends
, , .
,

therefore o f the elementary course

,
.

E lem enta ry S tu di es a nd E xer cises In pursuit of the ends .

I n V l eW the first six years o f the child s school life may

’
ro fit
p
-

ably be devoted to the following course of studies and exer

cises in manual training : (1 ) E xercises in kindergarten con
stru cti o n s and inventions B eginners in school may lay .

S plints ,
build with blocks plait fold weave and model , , , ,
.

Many of these exercises can be com bined as busy work with

other lessons (2) E xercises in writing and draw ing as indi
.
,

ca ted in the elementary courses (see pages 1 3 7 There ,

should also be su ch elementa ry exercises in mechanical draw

ing as may prepare the pupil for exercises with hand —tools .

m pl e hand t ools such

( )
8 E xercises in the uses and care of si -

as the jack knife ha m m er gi m let scissors etc In these ex

-

, , , ,
.

croises card board and wood can be worked into various easy
-

structures Th e purpose o f training the m i nd in correlation

.

with the hand and eye should al ways be kept in mind The .

necessary place for work and the appropriate materials and ,

tools are not hard to supply

,
.
35 4 P R I NCI PL E S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE ACH I NG
in v iew in higher courses o f manual training will o f course, ,

determine various distinct studies and exerci ses .

E nds The following distin ct purposes m ay be reco gni z ed

.

in hi gher courses of manual training : ( 1 ) To develop such

superior skill as may be desirable in o ur hi gh school pupils -

provisions for both sexes being made ; (2 ) To prepare pupils

fo r higher i nstitutions j ust as they are prepared in other
studies ; (3) To prepare teachers to tea ch manual training
and to make such apparatus as they may need in teachi ng
other branches ; and (4) To equip men and women for special
vocations in the ind u strial world .

I Iigher S tu di es a n d E xer ci ses ( 1 ) In high schools the les

.

sons i n manual training will di ffer from the i ntermediate

course chiefly in their greate r complexity but also in the cor ,

relation o f various tas ks with lessons in physics and mathe

maties (2) The manual trainin g tasks o f preparatory schools
.
-

must be determined as in ca e o f other studies by reference to

,
s
,

the curriculum o f the higher institution for which preparation

is intended (3) N ormal schools should offer courses corre
.

sp o n d i ng to the work which ought to be expecte d of them i n

the public schools etc In the in te rests o f physiology anatomy

,
.
, ,

psychology physics color work etc there should be courses

, ,
-

,
.
,

i n chart—making clay modelling photography, mechanical

,
-

drawing etc The greatest pains should be taken to make

,
.

the teacher s course an e ffective instrument in his o wn ed uca

’

tion and to fit hi m o r her to teach manual training effectively

, .

o r outline o f courses in higher institutions the reader is

( )
4 F
respectful ly referred to the catalogues o f P ennsylvania S ta te
College Cornell U niversity L ehigh U niversity and the Mas
, , ,

sach u setts Institute of Technology .

II . ME TH OD S OF I NS TR U CTI ON I N MANU AL TR A I NI NG .

The
features th at are of special inte rest at this point m ay
conveniently be treated under the following heads : ( 1) Mate
 M ANU A L TR A I NI NG 35 5

rial E q uipments ; (2) P reparation o f L essons and (3) R ecita

tion o f L essons .

M a t e ri a l E q u i pm e n t s Th e introduction o f manual train .

ing into o ur schools requires (1 ) a room suitably equipped

with work benches etc (2) the tools adapted to the purposes
-

,
.
,

in han d and (3) a supply o f card board wood etc

,
-

, ,
.

The Ma nua l Tr a i ni ng R o om In country districts eco nomy .

requires that a shop be fitt ed up in such a way as to a cco m m o

date pupils o f all ages In towns and cities a special labora
.

tory should be provided for the schools o f each grad e the ,

pupils o f such schools coming for their lessons at set ti mes ,

and to a teacher in charge o f such shops Normal schools .

,

colleges etc require a series of rooms for courses i n carpentry

,
.
, ,

turnery moulding etc the ends in View determi ning the

, ,
.
,

S pecial provisions .

Ma nu a l Tra i ni ng Too ls In district schools the common .

hand tools in carpentry j oinery etc must su ffi ce

-

,
Inas ,
.
,
.

much as the same shop ca n be made to su ffice fo r the various

schools o f o n e grade towns and cities can afford to purchase
,

a greater variety o f tools Th e special purposes o f manual .

training in normal schools and special schools must determ i ne

the variety o f tools to be used .

Wo rki ng Ma teri a ls A ll manual training laborato ries must

.
-

o f course be supplied with suitable paper fo r drawings blue

, ,

prints sloyds etc with soft medium and hard w o o d a da pted

, ,
.
, , ,
.

to the purposes i n hand ; and with such other materials as

teachers may require .

P r e p a r a t i o n o f M a n u a l Tr a i n i n g L e s s o n s Manual -
.

training lessons require preparation on the part o f tea chers

and pupils .

( ) T
’
The Tea cher s P r ep a r a ti o n 1 h e working m ate rials .

must be selected and put into available shapes The teacher .

should also be perfectly familiar with the natural history the ,

physical qualities and industrial values o f the materials to be

,
35 6 PR I NCI PL E S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE ACH I NG

used in all lessons (2) The ideal tea cher o f manual training
.

inspects hi s equipments daily studies the powers o f the tools ,

with which he must deal and keeps every instrument i n ,

working condi t ion (3) E very lesson should have a definite

.

end in V iew The teacher must ascertain this end in the

.

present progress of the pupil and plan such exercises as shall ,

serve as m eans to the end in view Th e successive recitations .

must hang well to gether and consti tute a perfect series from ,

the simple to the co m plex To this end the lesson plan must .
-

so combine tools i n various constructions as to develop the

highest manual skill in connection with the best trainin g for
the eye and mind (S ee Goss ) . .

The P up il s P rep a ra ti on ( ) It is not to be expected

’
1 o
. f
elementary pupils that they prepare assigned lessons since ,

they need constant supervision ( )

2 P upils of gram m ar .

schools high schools and special schools must be required to

, ,

d o various things between recitations N ormal school stu .

-

dents fo r example should be required to prepare w orking

, ,

drawings blue —prints etc according to assigned proble m s

, ,
.
, ,

and to finish charts for various pedagogical uses paper ,

S loyds etc ,
Th e ti m e and labor thus de m anded o f pupils
.

should not be too great and proper di fferences should be o h ,

served in m as culine and fe m inine assignments .

R e c i t a t i o n o f M a n u a l Tr a i n i n g L e s s o n s Th e plan o f
-
.

manual training recitations is determined by the ends in V ie w

-

i e by the tasks of the various grades

. .
,
.

E lem enta ry R eci ta ti o n S ince the tasks o f the elementary

.

grade are chiefly those of the kindergarten drawi ng form , ,

study etc ,
the lessons must o f course be i m i ta ti v e in essence
.
, , , .

In other words the teacher illustrates and the pupils imitate

, .

I nter m edi a te L essons ( )

1 W ith intermediate
. pupils theory
must be combined w ith i m itation In other words the teacher .
,

m ust illustrate the use and care of the tools t o be used te st ,

the pupils knowled ge of working materials etc point out

’
,
.
,
35 8 PR I NCI PLE S A ND M E TH ODS OF TE ACH I NG

l
Th e U t i i t y of M a n u a l Tr a i ni n g . F rom
an industri al
stan d point manual training needs no apology The history
-
.

o f i t s introduction and progress is its su fl i ci ent defence .

Th e Tr a i n in g o f Te a ch e r s o f M a n u a l Tr a i n i n g
. Th e
importance of manual trainin g and its rapid introducti on i nto
o ur schools call for trained tea chers and especially fo r te ach
,

ers trained i n the pedagogics o f the subject (S ee H am s .

’

Manual Training B ench Work in Wood

” ”
,
by Goss and
, ,

Industrial E ducation 1 88 7— 8 9 P ennsylvania Comm is

, ,

S l OIl .
 PH YS I OL OGY 35 9

C H A P TE R X III .

P H YS I OLOGY .

TH E ped agogics o f physiology is concern ed with two topics

( )
1 Th e N ature o f P hysiology and ( )
2 Instruction in P hy,

io logy .

'
A . TH E N A TU R E O F P H Y S I O L OG Y .

Three general topics deserve o u r present attention : ( 1) The

S ubj ect o f Physiology ; ( 2) The P sychology o f P hysiology ;
and (3) The H istory o f Physiology .

Th e S u bj e c t o f P h y s i o l o g y In the widest application

.

o f the term physiology denotes the study o f the organs func ,

tions and health o f the human body

,
.

Org a ns of the B o dy The body is a composite structur e

.
,

every part of which has some special o ffice to perform It is .

in this sense o f the term that we speak o f the stomach the ,

liver the teeth etc as the organs o f the body In a very

, ,
.
,
.

general way the organs o f the body may be classified as bones ,

muscles and nerves ,

.

F uncti o ns of the B o dy The work for which an organ o f

.

the body is designed is termed i ts function It is in this sense .

that we speak of mastication salivation deglutition digestion

, , , ,

assimilation etc In a very general way the functions o f the

,
.

body may be classified as locomotion conservation and sen , ,

sation .

H ea lth of the B o dy When all the organs o f the body per

.

form their o ffices effectively so that life continues in perfec

,

ti on the body is said to be healthy Th e condition as statis

, .
,

tics S ho w depends especially upon heredity environm ent

, , ,

food sleep exercise clothin g and menta l life Th e fact that

, , , ,
.

p hysical health has so much to do with o ur general success

36 0 P R I NCI PL E S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE ACH I NG
makes the preservat ion o f health and its improvement the
first concern of education .

Th e P s y ch o l o g y o f P h y s i o l o g y Th e learner becomes
.

acqua i nted with the facts o f the body by o bserv a ti on he dis ,

covers the laws of his physical life by i ndu cti o n and makes ,

these his rules of cond uct by d edu cti o n .

Th e H i s t o r y o f P h y s i o l o g y The study o f physiology

.

began in the ear liest ages o f the world b ut it wa s not until ,

modern times that physiology beca m e a branch of study in

o ur public schools Its recent introd u ction into all the grades
.

o f o ur schools is a great step in advance The masses are .

thus put into possession o f kno wledge that in the most p ra c

tical sense is power indeed The world at large is comin g to
.

see the importance o f such knowledge and teachers are re ,

quired to give the same evidence o f physiological train ing

as o f training in other branches .

is I N S TR U C TI O N I N P H YS I O L O G Y
. .

Teachers o f physiology S hould understand the following

features o f the work : ( 1 ) The Courses o f Instruction ; (2)
Th e Methods o f Instruction ; and (3) The Importance o f
P hysiology .

C o u rs e s o f P h y s i o l o g y The d emands of culture and the

.

needs of life require three courses in physiology The inter .

ests of general education require a common school course in -

physiology ; the needs of teachers and psychologists must be

supplied in S pecial courses ; the medical profession needs as
extensive a course as can be found .

Com m o n S cho o l P hysi o log y ( 1 ) The co m mon school course

-

.
-

in physiology should begin in the pupil s earliest years and ’

continue through all grades Th e firs t years should be de

.

voted to such facts as children ought to know Th e subj ects .

’
to be taught m ust be left to the teacher s j udgment though ,
’
elementary text books should give direction to the teacher s
-
36 2 P R I NCI PL E S A ND ME TH ODS OF TE ACH I NG

C ultu re V alue
-
of P hysiology ; (2) The Instruction V alue o f -

P hysiology ; and (3) Th e L ife V alue o f P hysiology -

.

Th e C u l tu r e V a l u e o f Ph y s i o l o g y
-
The teacher who
.

understands hi s bus i ness can make physiology the means o f

superior culture The study o f physiology is an ideal o ppo r
.

tu ni ty i n the development o f right habits o f observation i n ,

duction and deduction To be o f any value all the observa

,
.

tions must be accurate and many conclusions at which the

,

pupil arrives by induction as well as the life —rules at which

,

he arrives by deduction must undergo continual correction

,
.

S ince the concrete welfare o f the pupil is constantly at stake

in these necessities they tend to develop no t only the intellect
,

but also the heart and will .

Th e I n s t ru c t i o n V a l u e o f Ph y s i o l o g y
-
A s a consequen ce
.

o f the close relatio n betwee n the body and the mind the ,

knowledge o f the body is often a preparation toward a better

understanding o f the mind Many o f the mysteries o f life .

so dreadful to the un i nitiated disappear in the light o f physi

ology .

Th e L i fe V a l u e o f Ph y s i o l o g y
-
The study o f physiology
.

tends to save life to promote health and happiness to improve

, ,

mental and physica l labor and to decrease immorality , .

 PH YS I CA L CU L TU R E 363

CH A P TE R XIV .

P H YS I CAL C ULTUR E .

TH E ped agogics of physical culture has to do with two gen

eral problems : (1 ) The Nature o f P hysical Culture a nd (2) ,

Instruction in P hysical Culture .

A . TH E N A TU R E O F P H YS I C A L C U L TU R E .

An exhaustive inquiry into the natur e o f physical develo p

ment is impossible at this point W e to pics however de .
, ,

serve o u r atte ntion : (1 ) The Necessity o f Physical Culture ,

and (2) The H istory o f P hysical Culture .

Th e N e ce s s i t y o f Ph y si ca l C u l t u r e The instinctive .

prompting to play disappears when the bo dy matur es ; its

mission has then been performed It must however not be .
, ,

inferred that when the body h as arrived at its maturity phy

si ca l activity is no longer necessary In this m atter as i n
.
,

others the guardianship o f the body is merely transferred

,

fro m instinct to reason Inquiry into the process of physical

.

life confirms this th eo ry The process o f physical life consists

.

o f two complementary processes commonly denoted by the

terms assimilation and elimination and this com plementary ,

relation must be maintained in maturity as well as in the

stages o f development The agencies in the maintenance o f
.

this co m pleme ntary relation are nutrition and repair museu ,

lar activity and neurosis The remarkable thing in this

,
.

complex agency is the fact that m u scu la r a cti vi ty is the indis

pensable condition o f nutri tion and repair and o f normal
neurosis ( S ee P hysiology ) A system o f m uscu la r exer cises
. .

must accordin gly be devised for the develop ment a nd health

, ,

o f the body .
36 4 PR I NCI PLE S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE A CH I NG

The R ela ti o n
f Mi nd The mind as psycho
o the B o dy a nd .
,

physics te aches is in the closest sympathy with the body

, .

A bnormal neurosis is always a mental misfortune Th e .

mental life o f a person whose physical health is per fect is

generally also normal , and much o f a man s success can ofte n ’

be traced directly to a fine physical syste m A ccordingly the .

,

importance o f physical culture is to be measured n o t only by

its physical but also by its i ntellectua l and m ora l con se
,

u en ces
q .

Th e H i s t o r y of r e S ystematic physical
P h y s i ca l C u lt u .

culture probably attained its highest possibilities in ancient

times The preservation o f nations then depended very much
.

upon physical prowess in personal combat as in G reece and ,

R ome Then to o Greece

.
,
paid so much attention to pure
,

gymnastics because the beautiful was worshipped as the highest

manifesta tion o f the div i ne Th e ascetic misconception of
the relation o f the body and mind led the Middle A ges to
des pise the body and ignore its just claims It was n o t until .

L ocke s time that educators began to understand the true

’

relation o f the body and mind The Ph i la nthro pi n i sts laid .

“ ”
great stress o n physical culture The new education a c .
,

cep ti n the teachin gs of C hrist and t he conclusions o f physio

g
logical psychology has for so m e years squarely faced the
,

problem o f physical culture in o ur schools Th e recent i ntro .

duction o f physiology in to the schools and the provisions ,

m ade by normal schools and special schools for the training

o f teachers will do much toward the intelligent general intro

,

duction o f physical culture The o ld preju d ice against the.

body is fast disappearing from the minds of the general pub

lic as may be seen in the increased interest o f all classes in
,

gy m nasiums and athletics Th e time is fast approach ing

.

when we shall require all teachers to give as m uch evidence

o f their fitness to teach physical culture as reading and arith

metic It is to be hoped ho wever, that in the almost violent

.
,
366 PR I NCI PL E S A ND M E TH OD S OF TE A CH I NG

others meant more especi ally for the upper and lower lim bs
and fo r the neck .

P r i n ci pl e s o f P h y s i ca l C u l t u r e In physical culture as .
,

in other studies the courses o f exercises an d the methods of

,

work should be selected as me a ns to ends A knowled ge o f .

the follo wing principles is essential to intelligent selection in

these matters .

1 .The rig ht i dea l i n p hysi ca l cu ltu r e i s to d ev elop the bo dy

i nto the b est i nstr u m ent of li e .

In the statement o f this pri nciple the term life is to be taken

in i ts largest sense the sense in which it was used i n the F ifth
,

General P rinciple o f E ducation (page To be the be st

instrument o f life in the largest sense the body must have ,

hea lth strength ski ll and g ra ce

, , ( 1 ) H ealth is the condition
, .

o f normal mental life as set forth in the first part of this chap
,

ter.
( )
2 S trength i s the indispen s able equipment o f labor and

endurance (3) S kill the ab ility to do a thing quickly and

.
,

well is an economic advanta ge without which no o ne can suc

,

cessf ully compete i n the arts o f life

( )
4 G race it is true is .
, ,

not a physical n ecessity It is however a great social a dv a n .

, ,

tage an d as such often has practical and moral consequences

, .

Moreover there is conscious happiness in the possession o f a

,

fine body especially when this possession is combined with

,

the best refine m ents .

In order that health strength S kill and grace may prove a

, , ,

blessi ng the body must be made the servant o f i ntelligence ,

refinement and highest purposes A part from right habits

,
.

o f subordination physical advanta ges often prove to be a

,

curse .

2 I t i s throug h corr esp on di ng exerci ses i n m uscu la r contr a c

.

ti o ns a nd exp a nsi ons tha t a ll d esi r a ble p hysi ca l v i rtues m us t b e

contraction and expansion are the only possibilities o f

S ince
musc ular activity all the possibilities of physical cul ture must
,
 PH YS I C L CU L TU R E A 36 7

lie a long these lines It is through obedience to the laws o f

.

ha bi t that the possibilities o f physical culture must be realized .

In other words the exercises o f any system o f physical cul

,

ture should be exercises in those th ings which are to become

the virtues o f the body A cco rdingly health must be devel.
,

Oped through normal use of the organs in question strength ,

ca n be developed only by a long course o f strong contractions

and expansions skill results fro m practice in rapid move

,

ments and grace is the rewar d o f cultivated self possession

,
-

in muscular movements Th e will must be requi red to sub .

ordinate all exercises to the dictates o f in telligence a nd re

fin em ent .

( )
3 The n a tu r a l sta g es o f d ev elop m ent m ust be resp ected i n
p hysi ca l cu ltu r e .

E xperiment seems to show that the natural series o f play

interests is a manifestation o f the trend of the needs o f the
maturing body It has also been proved tha t the series o f the
.

pupil s possibilities co in cides with the series of his i nterests

’

and need s Thus we learn that in order to adapt exercises to

.

individual pupils the teacher must study individual interests .

Inasmuch as there is a general si m i larity o f individual interests ,

a true system o f exercises ca n be founded upon the general

trend o f play interests Th e earlier physical movements are
-
.

generally i m i ta ti v e the later ones ra ti o na l and origin al A

,
.

thread o f concentrations each emphasis being the centre o f cor

,

relations seems to ru n through both the imitative and the

,

rational series o f the physical activities of the body In other .

words Nature seems to have special epochs of development

,

for the various parts of the body but will not while laying , ,

stress o n any particular part neglect the other parts o f the ,

body The parts to which Natur e attends successively are

.

those which seem to fall behind in the race o f symmetrical

development This suggestion of Nature must ever there
.
,

fore be the teacher s guide in dealing with individual pupils

,
’
.
3 68 P R I NCI PL E S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE ACH I NG

C o u rs e s E x e r ci s e s
following outline is based
of . The
upon the principles of physical culture and is designed to be ,

a guide to teachers
Cou rses f
o E xerci ses .

I Imitation Course
. .

1 Contractions and expansion s o f leg muscles

. .

( )
1 N ormal .

( )
2 S trong .

(3 ) Quick .

( )
4 G raceful .

2 Contractions and expansions of arm muscles

. .

S ame as above .

3 Contractions and expansions o f body muscles

. .

S ame as above .

II R ational Course
. .

Complex contractions o f muscles .

2 The physiology of exercises

. .

III P rofessional Course

. .

1 S uperior attainments in muscular culture

. .

2 Th e theory o f physical culture

. .

3 The p edagogics o f physical culture

. .

Th e M e t h o d o f I n s tr u c t i o n
In ideal instruction the .

recitation presupposes preparation These t wo topics deser ve .

o u r attention ( S ee P rinciples
.
) .

P r ep a ra ti o n i n P hysi ca l Cu ltu r e T e possibil ities for

( )
1 h .

good o r evil are so great in physical exercises that the teacher

must make the very best preparations H e should choose .

exercises as means to definite ends i n the syste m which he

m a y have adopted The ability to illustrate the exercises to be
.

assigned is indispensable in the imitative course The physi .

Th e fi r t ur i ui t b l
s co se s s a e fo r l r gr d
o we a es , th e seco n d for h i gh l
sch o o s ,

a nd th e th i rd f r l d
o r no m a an S
p eci a l h l
sc oo s .
37 0 PR I NCI PLE S A ND ME TH ODS OF TE ACH I NG

the S wedish the military and the P reece systems P robably

, , .

the S wedish and the military systems shoul d be combined i n

higher courses to produce the best resul ts The best syste m .

for public schools is the P reece system ; it ai m s at proper

physical habits and is decidedly moral and aesthetic The .

most gratifying results have been obta ined in many cities .

The P reece manual for teachers published by C W B ardeen , . .

,

S yracuse New York is very complete a nd deserves a place

, , ,
’
in every teacher s library .

Th e I m p o rt a n ce o f P h y s i ca l C u l t u r e S ystematic phy .

s ica l culture is not absolute ly nece ssary in country districts

where pupils find many Opportunities outs ide o f school hours

to develop their bodies a nd yet there are reasons why such
,

a system as the P reece o r the S wedish should be introduced

into every rural school Improper h abits of walking sta nd
.
,

in g sitting breathing etc are alarmingly common even in

, , , .
,

the rura l s chools In towns and cities systematic physical

.

culture seems indispensable Opportunities for playing etc .

,
.
,

are harder to find school grounds are o ften quite too small
, ,

and the o ut door hours to o few In the interests o f body ,

-
.

mind and morals city schools an d town schools should adopt

, ,

some system o f physical culture (S ee Necessity of P hysica l .

Culture ) .
 S I NGI NG 37 1

C H A P TE R XV .

S I NGI N G .

TH E problems with which the pedagogi cs o f singing is co n

cerned are as follows : (1 ) The Nature o f S inging a nd (2 ) ,

Instruction in S in ging .

A . TH E N A TU R E O F S I N G IN G .

The necessary knowledge o f the subject to be taught i s the

first concern o f the ideal teacher It is assumed that i n the
.

case o f singi ng the teacher should un derstand the following

phases o f the subj ect : ( 1 ) The P roduction o f Tones (2) Th e
R epresentation o f Tones ; (3) R ead i ng ; and (4) Th e H i story
o f S i nging .

Th e P r o d u c ti o n o f To n e s In si nging we have to do
.

with sounds j ust as in painting we have to do with colors .

These sounds o f the voice are termed Tones The tones i n .

question are the results o f physical vibration and they differ ,

in the number o f necessary vibrations in extent o f time in , ,

quality o f voice in stress o f voice etc The production o f

, ,
.

tones is therefore concerned with (1 ) P itch (2) Time (3) , ,

Quality (4) F orce etc

, , .

P i tch. The distin ction o f higher and lower tones is te rm ed

P itch. In the production of tones o f definite pitch the mind ,

is not conscious of the n umber o f necessary vibration s o f the

vocal chords but only o f such vocal co Ordin a tio n as will re
,

sult in the desired pitch This co Ord ina tio n consists o f di ffer
.

ence in the tension of the vocal chords and depends fo r much ,

o f its success o n faithful practice F o r fuller explanation the

.

reader is referred to Nat ural Philosophy .

37 2 PR I NCI PL E S A ND M E TH OD S OF TE ACH I NG

Tim e The
prolongation o f a tone is termed its Ti me
. .

Th u s we speak o f long and short tones o f slow and quick

, ,

time Two thin gs are necessary in the production o f tones of

.

definite length namely control o f the vocal chords and

, ,

j udgment i n the measure o f the tones in question A s in the .

cas e o f pitch practice tends to make perfect

,
.

Qu a li ty The di fferences o f voice denoted by the words

.

sweet mellow brilliant etc are termed Quality o r Ti m

, , ,
.
, ,

bre S ome o f these qu al ities are voluntary possibi l ities ;

.

others are individual di fference s over which the persons

in question have almost no power S ystematic voice cul t .
-

ure will however do much to improve the qualities o f a ny

, ,

voice .

F or ce Th e di fferences o f stress denote d by the words so ft

.
,

medium loud etc are term ed F orce The variations i n

, ,
.
,
.

question are volunta ry possibilities limited only by the physical

po wers o f the si nger .

R hythm In a metrical succession o f tones the system o f

.

“ ”
accent and time is termed R hythm Th e word time is .

“ ”
often synonymous w ith rhythm Thus when we speak o f .
,
”
three fourths time we mean a succession o f tones i n which
-

thr ee quarter notes (o r equivalents) fo rm the measures

regularly with one accent to each measure and in regular
position It thus follows that rhyt hm is a derivati v e o f time
. -

and force .

Melo dy R hyth m ical succession o f single to nes is termed

.

Melody The word tune is a popular substitute as in the

.
”
,
”
sentence H e cannot keep a tune
,
.

H a rm o ny S im ultaneous tones o f such di fference in pitch

.

as satisfies the aesthetic sense are said to be H armonious .

One pulse o f such harmony is ter m ed a Chord Th e syste .

m atic construction of successive chords is termed Composition .

Th e fundamental pitch in melody and composition is termed

the Key S ystematic progress from the key is termed the
.
 37 4 P R I NCI PLE S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE ACHI NG
”
its description (2 ) D i fference in time is generally repre
.

sented to the eye by means o f di fferences in the form of the

notes ”
fl
'
eren ces in quality ”
and force ”
are gener
.
( )
3 D i
ally represented to the eye by means o f technical terms o r
equivalent signs as con exp ressi o ne p i a nissi m o p f etc (4)
, , , , ,
.

”
R hyth m is represented to the eye by means o f the divi
“ ” ”
sion o f the staff in to measures composed some what reg
”
u la rl o f longer and shorter to nes the theme o f a song
y ,

determining whether the measures are to be iambs trochees , ,

anapests dactyls o r some other arrangement D ifference i n

, ,
.

rhythmic speed is indicated on the staff by m eans o f technical

’ ” ”
marks as in the case o f quality an d force
,
A rtistic pro .

n u n ci a ti o n is supervised by S imilar means .

R e a d in g In its entirety singing from notes consists o f

.

two com plemen t ary phases i n the following order : ( 1 ) Instruo

tion and (2) R endition
,
.

”
I nstr u cti on Th e process of singing from notes begin s
.

“
with the singer s mental construction of the tune repre
’

”
sented o n the staff Th e conditions o f success in this pro
.

cess are (1 ) the singer s mastery o f the system of representa

’

tion and (2) the power to construct mentally that which is

,

represented physically The form er task is possible for the

.

common mind the latter is the prerogative o f talent .

R en di ti on Oral construction begins where instruction ends

.
,

”
and completes the process o f singing from notes inasmuch as ,

it is the mind s mode of expressing its contents and co nvey i ng

’

its moral messages Th e condi tions o f great success are (1 )

.

intellectual mastery o f means ( 2) spirituality and (3) exercise

, ,
.

Th e H i s t o r y o f S i n g i n g The p u rpose in hand forbids

.

extensive reference to the history o f singing The subject .

,
”
however demands so m e attention Th e place which sing
,
.

ing now occupies in o u r schools will be better understood by

reference to its history The following topics will therefore
.
, ,

be briefly considered : ( 1 ) Th e development o f singing as a

 S I NGI NG 37 5

study ; (2) Its institutional services ; and (3) Its introduction

into schools .

The E v olu ti on of S i ngi ng .S imple melody without nice ,

discrimi nation bet ween the different degrees o f pitch was prob ,

ably the limit o f musical attai nment fo r a long period o f time

in the earliest history o f the race The Greeks reduced
.

musical intervals to mathematical ratios introduced the ch ro ,

matic scale and distingui shed the maj or a n d minor inte rvals
,

in the diatonic scale H armony was born much later In .

the sixteenth century music was cultivated with great devotion

”
and success i n Italy Oratorios and operas were the fruits
.

o f this devotion Operatic music culminated in Italy in

”
R ossini o f the present century .Then fOllo wed the German
masters H aydn Weber and others F rance was n o t far b e
, , ,
.

hind and produced such m en as A uber Meyerbeer and H a l

, , ,

ev E ngland and E nglish singers co me last in the list of

y
.

great efforts in the history o f music .

The I nsti tu ti ona l S erv i ces of S i ngi ng S inging like its i n

.
,

st ru m en ta l as sociate has ever be en the welco m e guest o f society

, ,

the indispensable hand m aid o f religious worship the S pirit o f ,

valor in war the divinest ideal o f art and a mighty friend o f

, ,

ed ucation The m ost ancient as well as the most modern

.

peoples have held music in the highest esteem (S ee General .

H istory and H istory o f E duca tion ) .

The H i story of S i ng i ng i n S cho o ls P robably all civilized

.

nations paid some attention to sin ging in schools A mong .

the Oriental nations the E gyptians and the J ews laid great
stress on singing as means of cultur e S inging was an essen .

tial element in the schools o f Greece and Greek philosophers ,

had much to say about the m erits o f music R ome followed .

somewhat in the footsteps o f Greece S inging belonged to the

.

curriculum o f the early Christian schools and was the queen ,

o f the celebrated seven

“
liberal arts o f the Middle A ges
”
.

Modern education has given an honorable place to singi ng .

37 6 PR I NCI PL ES A ND ME TH ODS OF TE A CH I NG

In Germany F rance and other E ur op ean states s inging has

, ,

become a common school study A merica is ready to make

-

s i nging a common school study In many cities singing is

-
.

taught as systematically as read ing and writing The normal .

schools o ffer sui table courses in sin gin g and school boards are ,

waking u p to the i mportance o f singing as a means in educa

tion The prospects are that S inging will become a un iversal
.

study in o ur schools .

B . IN S TR U C TI O N I N S I N G IN G .

The speci a lpedagogica l i nterests o f singing are co nveniently

considered under the followin g head s : (1 ) The Necessary
Courses ; (2) S ingin g i n the P ublic S chools ; and (3) Th e
Importa nce o f S i nging .

I . COU R S E S I N S I NGI NG .

Th e natur e o f singing together with the requirements o f ,

cul tur e and the d emands o f life determine the courses o f ,

singing (S ee P rinciples ) B ut since the requir ements o f the

. .

subject and o f culture are satisfied by progress from the si m ple

to the complex etc i n the development o f lessons only the
,
.
, ,
“ ”
demands o f life deserve special consideration at this point .

Th e follo w ing topics accordi ngly deserve attention (1 ) S ing

ing for the Masses (2) The Course of S inging for Teachers
and (3) The Course for S pecialists in S inging .

S i n g i n g fo r th e M a s s e s Instruction in singing shou ld .

begin in the concrete i e with sim ple melodies The songs for
, . .
,
.

chi ldren as F roebel suggests should be selected with special

, ,

reference to their value as a means in the general cultur e and

discipline o f the pupil The nature o f singing requires that
.

the first technical i nstruction should consist of exercises i n (1 )

pitch and the natur al scale (2) time and simple rhythm (3) , ,

timbre and (4) force E xercises i n representation and reading

,
.

should be combined with lessons o n pitch rhy thm tim e etc , , , ,

.
37 8 PR I NCI PLE S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE A CH I NG

Th e P r e p
r a t i o n o f L e s s o n s A n i deal school requi res
a .

preparation on the part o f both teachers and pupils .

The Tea cher s P r ep a ra ti on

’
It is not enough that the
.

teacher o f singing has taken a course in singing and the peda

”
o
g g i cs of singing T h e best teachers believe in
. daily study
as a source of inspirat ion power and economy It is o f the
, , .

utmost importance that the tea cher o f si nging fix upon some

”
special end fo r each recitation that he plan the necessary ,

steps before the recitation that he select the best means ,

( black board
-
charts,
and ,
that he settle upon the most
effective method of using his means in the atta inment o f his
ends .

The P up i l s P r ep a ra ti o n ( ) ormal preparation o f les

’
1 F .

sons is n o t to be expected of beginners in singing (2 ) When .

“ ”
pupils in singing are old enoug h to study notes form ally ,

lessons may be assigned as in other branches (3) In higher .

and special courses the teacher must o f course insist on p ra c , ,

tice between recitations .

Th e R e ci t a t i o n i n S i n g i n g The nature o f the subject

.

determ ines the tasks of the recitation in singing while the ,

needs o f the pupil determ ine the right method of work .

Ta sks of the R eci ta ti on i n S i ngi ng L essons o n pitch scales .

, ,

ti m e melody representation reading etc must consist o f ( 1 )

, , , ,
.
,

instruction to reach the pupil s intellect and feelings and ( 2 ) ’

,

exercises for the pupil s voice and will In the accomplish

’
.

ment o f the form er t ask the t eacher is su bject to the principles

o f ordinary instruction in the latter he is subject to the law
“ ”
o f the formation o f habit inasmuch as voice culture co n
,
-

sists essentially i n forming right habits o f voluntary utter

ance .

The R eci ta ti o n Method i n S i ngi ng ( )

1 Th e scientific .

method o f in struction is as applicable to singing as to other

studies The pupil learns the facts o f pitch tim e force rep
.
, , ,
“ ”
resen ta t io n etc by observation
. he passes from facts to
, ,
 S I NGI NG 37 9
“ ”
laws by ind uction and back to practical methods by de
,

duction (.2 ) In the development o f right habits o f pitch ,

force etc the pupil must be required to do whatever is to b e

,
.
,

come habit un t il it actually becomes habit These necessary .

repetitions must be so varied and adapted to the i nterests o f

the pupil as n o t to weary him A skilful us e o f the black .

board charts part songs etc will generally succeed in sus

, , ,
.
,

ta ining the pupil s interest (3) The lessons should be as con

’
.

crete as possible fo r elementary classes representation (staff ,

notes etc ) may lead in higher classes fi ne technique is the

,
.

final concern i n sin ging (4) A mong the best systems of no .

ta t io n
”
are those employed in the Normal M usic Course ”
,

published by S ilver R ogers Co 5 0B ro m field S treet B o s

,
.
, ,

ton F or detailed instruction o n method the reader is

.
”

referred to the Teachers Manual of this course o r to the

” ’
,

Mason S ystem published by G inn,

Co B oston .
,
.

III A . I MP OR T N CE
OF S I NGI NG .

S inging has long been regarded as a valuable educational

means .

Th e C u l t u r e V a l u e o f S i n g i n g
-
A course in singi ng .

tends to develop the whole pupil (1 ) It br ings a valuable .

contribution to physical development by fortifying the lungs

and givi ng suppleness to all the vocal organs These organs .

are less liable to the many grave maladies which might affect
them especially in early years i f they have been subjected
, ,
”
to regular exercise ( 2 ) B y this
. means we provide for the
education o f the ear ; we cultivate and refine a sense which
along wi t h vision plays a preém in ent part in the in tellectual
”
existe n ce o f the child S in gi ng affords fine opport u nities fo r
.

the cultivation o f memory imagination and thought (3) Its , ,

.

effects o n the sensibilities are very remarkable This is due .

fundamentally to its rhythm by means of which all species ,

o f emotion can be combined with thoughts and transformed

38 0 PR I NCI PLE S A ND ME TH OD S OF TE ACH I NG

into volitions Th e mind te nds to express its sweetest senti

.

m ents and its loftiest aspirations in song S inging touches the

.

heart as al m ost nothing else can do and thus becomes the ,

vehicle o f social patriotic moral and religious influence

, , ,
.

These moral possibilities make it important to adm i t w ithin

the school only the works of a pure and exalted sentiment ,

and as much as possible the productions o f the great m a sters

, ,
.

Th e I n s tr u c t i o n —V a l u e o f S i n g i n g The knowled ge o f
.

pitch time qualities of voice force rhythm melody and

, , , , , ,

harmony is virtually a partial conquest o f such branches as

reading poetry etc This knowledge is also to be desired for
, ,
.

its o wn sweet sake as a source o f happiness It may thus .

become for young people the most powerful preservative agai ns t

the dangers o f other pleasures .

Th e D i s ci pl i n a r y V a l u e o f S i n g i n g The ch ild loves.

music S inging is therefore o n e o f the surest and most sal

.
, ,
”
utary means o f discipline which can be employed A song .

introduced at the right moment into a sleepy languid school , ,

o r it may be into o n e agitated and dis turbed acts like elec ,

t ri ci ty Music has the gift o f calming children and at the ,

same time o f urging the m to activity by an agreeable excita

”
tion . R hythm promotes self control in physical m ovem ents
-

develops unity of action in large numbers and stimulates good ,

mood It i s an excellent recreation giving repose from s erious

.
,

studies and preparing the spirit o f the pupils fo r subsequent

,

tasks .
 A PPE N D I X .

R EFER EN CE BOOKS FOR COLLA TERA L

R EAD ING .

YCHOLOGY PS .

P y h l gy i E d u c t i
s c o o n R rk A e ri B k C
a p ny on . oa . m ca n oo om a .

App li atic f P y h l gy t T
on o hi g
s H ilc o oS ll o ea c n . a m an . m a .

App e p tirce L on
g D C H e th
. C
an e . . . a o .

P ri nc ip l f P y h l gy
es o Js H e ry H lt
c o o C . a m es . n o o .

P y h l g y f C h i l d re
s c o o o Tr y D C H e th C n . a ce . . . a o .

S tu d i es of Chi l d h d S lly oo . u .

Th I nf t Mi d
e an P y nD A p p l et
. C r e er . . on o .

Th e Ye r
r e f Ch i ld h
a s o d P r C W B rd ee oo . e ez . . . a n .

P R I N CI P LE S OF TE AC H I N G .

L eo na rd a n d Ge rt rud e . P esta lozzi . D C H eath . . Co .

E m i le R ou sse u
. D a . . C H ea h
. t Co .

Ed u ti f M
ca on o Fr b l A L ll C
an . oe e . . ov e o .

L e tur
c t Ki d e rga rt e r
es o P b dy
n D C H e th C n s . ea o . . . a o .

E voluti f D dd S i th R d M N lly C
on o o . m . an , c a o .

E d u ti n
ca oSp r E d u t i l P ub l i h i g C p y
. en ce . ca o na s n om an .

Ph i l p h y f E d u ati
o so o R kr Ap p let
c C on . osen a nz . on o .

Ph i l p h y f E d u ti
o so o T t C W B rd ca on . a e . . . a ee n .

Ph i l p h y f Te h i g
oso o T p ki Giac C n . om ns . nn o .

S i
c en c e f E d u ti
o H r b t D C H e th
ca on C . e ar . . . a o .

Outl i f P e d g gi
n es o R i C W B rd ee
a o cs . e n . . . a n .

S tu di i P d g gy
es n M rg
e aS i l r B ur d e tt
o .C o an . ve ,
o .

A M u l f P d g gi
an a o e S i l r B urd e tt
a o C c am . ve , o .

E ssenti l f M th d D
a s o e D C H th o C . e . . ea o .

L e tur
c Te h i g
es o n J ac E L K ll gg
n C . os e . . . e o o .

True Ord e r f S tu di e o Hi t S n s . u na m
’
s o s .
38 4 APPE NDI X

ME THOD S OF TE A CH I NG .

A ri thm eti c .

G rub e Meth o d o f A ri th m eti c S eely . . E . L K . e llogg Co .

P sych o lo gy o f Nu m b e r D ewey . .

P h i l oso p h y o f A ri th m e ti c B rooks . . No rmub l i h i al P s ng Co m

y
p an .

El e t f Pe d
em n s o a go g y . Whi te . Va n Antwe rp B r gg , a Co .

N r al Meth d
o m o s of Tea ch i ng . B r ooks .

Com p osi ti o n .

n
L a gua ge L sso s e n . Ba r nes . Am eri ca n B oo k Co m p nya .

l
E em en a L sso t ry e ns i n E n g i sh , Pa l rt s I . a nd II . K n ox . Gi n n
Co .

P r ti l Le n i L gu ge C kli A eri B k C
ac ca sso s n an a . on n . m ca n oo om

p y an .

Tr ti
ea P tu ti n Wil
se o n unc A eri B ak C p y o . son . m ca n oo om an .

H w t Wri t Cl e rly
o o A bb tt eR be rt B r th e r
a . o . o s o s .

A ly i f L ett r Wri ti g T w d A eri

na s s o e B k C n . o nsen . m can oo om

p y an .

El eme t f R h e t ri
n s o d C p i ti H i llo S h ld C
c an om os on . . e on o .

C p i ti
om osd R h et ri on Q k b
an A e ri B k C o c . ua en os . m ca n oo om

p y an .

P r ti l E le ent
ac ca f R h et ri m G g Gi nn
s o C o c . enu n . o .

D ra wi ng .

1 E
. le ent f Dr wi g S i p li fied A g b rg E d u ati n l P b
m s o a n m . u s u . c o a u

li h i g C
s np ny om a .

Sy t f D r wi g
s em Whi t I i
o Bl k
a T yl r
n C . e . v so n , a em a n , a o o .

Sy t f D r wi g
s em M tg
o ry I i n B l k e n Tayl r
a n . on om e . v so , a m a ,
o

Co .

Geograp hy .

Th e Ch i d l a nd Na ture . F rye . Gi nn Co .

B r o ok s and B rock B a si ns . F rye . Gi n n Co .

Tea ch ers Ma n ua l o f Geo graph y F rye

’
Co . . Gi nn .

Tea ch e r s Ma n u l o f Geo gra p h y D C H ea th Co

’
a R ed wa y . . . . .

E lem e n ts o f Pe d a go gy Whi te Va n A n twe rp B ra gg Co . .

, .

G e o gr a p h i ca l S tu d i es R i tter V a n A n t we rp B ra gg
. Co .
,
.

Co m p a ra t i v e G eo gra ph y R i tter Va n A n twer p B ra gg Co . .

,
.

Ph ysi o gra p h y H uxley . L o nd o n 1 881 .

, .
38 6 APPE ND I X

Obj ect L essons .

r
P im ry Obj t L e n C lki A e ri B k C p y
a ec sso s . a ns . m ca n oo om an .

M u l f Obj t T h i g C lki
an a o A ri ec B k C p y ea c n . a ns . m e ca n oo om an .

C l r i th S h l R
o o n B r dl ye M i lt
c B r dl y C
oo p y oo m . a e . on a e om an .

Fi r t B k f B t y Y
s oo D A pp l t
o C
o an . o u m a ns . . e on o .

N tur l H i t ry Obj e t L e
a a Ri k
s o D C H e th C c sso n s . c s . . . a o .

Ch il d B k f N ture H k A e ri Bo k C p ny
’
s oo o a . oo er . m ca n o om a .

l — lt
H ea h L esso n s . r
Wa lke Am e i ca n B o o k Co m p a ny r . .

N H o w to Get S o n g B la i ki e tr . .

W H OW t o Tea ch Ph si o o g B la i sd ell y l y
Gi n n Co . . .

t
A H i n s fo r Te a ch e s o f P h si o o g r y l y
B o wdi tch D C H ea h . . . . t Co .

P hysi ca l Cultu re .

Ph y i l Culture P r
s ca C W B r d en . eece . . . a e .

Pr gr e i e G y n t i D y Ord e E b k S i l e r B urd ett

’
o ss v m as c a s rs . ne u s e . v ,

C o .

M u l f S h l Gy
an a ti
o S t A e ri
c oo B k C m na s cs . m ar . m ca n oo om

p ny a .

A e ri i ed Del rte Culture B i h p Ch aut uq Cen t y

m ca n z sa . s o . a ua -
ur

P re ss .

R ea di ng .

H o w t o Tea ch R ead i ng . H a ll . D C H ea h
. . t Co .

tl M th d i R
Ra i o na e o n ea d i n g . Wa rd . Sil e r ur tt 00
v ,
B de .

M u l f S y th ti
an a o n e c R ea d i g n . P olla rd We t rn Publ i h i ng
. s e s

H u e o s .

R di g
ea Fi n A rt
n as a e . L ego u ve . B os t o n, 1 88 7 .

M tery f B k
as K o oo s . oop m a n . Am e ri ca n B o o k Co m pany .

Ed u ati l Mu i C ur
c o na s c o se . Ma son Gi n n
. Co .

N r
o m a l C ur e f Mu i i o s o s c n th e S ch o o R o o m L ym l . an . Si l erv ,

B urd tt C e o .

T h r M u l fM i Tufts a n d H o lt Si l e r B urdett Co
’
3 . e ac e s an a o us c . . v ,
.

S i n e f E th e ti G P Pu t ’
4 . c e c D yo s cs . a . . . na m s S o ns .
 APPE NDI X 38 7

a
-
r No r l C ur e i S p elli g D t S i lve r B urd ett C
m a o s n n . u n on .
, O
.

e
t Ad d S p e ll r
v a n ce P ll r d W te r P ub l i h i g H u
e . o a . es n s n o se .

S i e tifi A l p h b t V D V t r Fu k W g ll C p n y
o
o c n c a e . an e en e . n a na s om a .

h
s Th O t h ép i t
e r o A lfr d A yr
s .D Ap p l e t n C e es . . o o .

Th eo ry of Pe nm a nsh i p . Sp en ce r . I v i so n , B l
e m a n Ta ylo r & Co
ak , .

Ve rti lca E di ion t of Sp en ceri a n P enm a n sh i p Am eri ca n B o o k

.

Co m p a n y .

Ve rti al Pe
c n m a n sh i p . Me r i ll
r . Ma y rd Merr i ll C
na ,
o .

H o w t o Tea ch Wri ti n g . App leton . A ri

m e B k C
ca np ny oo om a .
39 0 I ND E X
idea s befo re nam es a n d sign s 5 9 ,
id ea s b efo re truth s 5 9 i d ea l o f ,

ed uca t i o n 38 ; i d ea l i n structi o n
, , 7 5 ; i n te re sti n g i n stru cti o n 6 9 ; ,

l i i t ti
m a o n s o f m en a tl
ty §38 li i t ti ca p a ci
fd l p t 44 ,
m a o ns o ev e o m en ,

p i ty 33 th e ti 46 ; t l p i ty 34 e t l
’
m a n s ca ac ,
m a m a cs, m en a ca ac ,
m n a

i
sc en c s, e 47 ; tur f e d u ti na 33 34 ; e o tur f k wl dge ca on, ,
na e o no e ,

45 ; atur e fn 33 o tur l i
m a n, 46 e d f th Wh l e
na a sc en ces, n e s o e o

p up i l i i tru ti
n 7 0; rd e r f f t
ns c on, f i 63 ; r d r f
o o ac s o sc e n ces, o e o

p ri i p le
nc f i s o 64 p rt i ul r b f r g e r l i d
sc en ce s, 61 p a c a e o e en a ea s, ar

ti l
cu a r bef r g r l tr th 6 1 ; p h i l p h y 6 5 p h y i l
o e en e a u s, o so ,
s ca ca

p aci t y f o 3 4 p h y
m an, i l i 46 p l y 3 5 r
s ca
p i i p l 41
sc en ces, a ,
nc es, ,

5 9 6 7 ; pri
,
i pl f ultunc 41 ; p ri i p l
es o f i c tru ti 6 7 ; r e, nc es o ns c on ,

p r i n i pcl f k es owl d g e 5 9 ; p r
nog r e e5 4 5 8 p y ,
h l g y f o am m s, ,
s c o o o

49 p up i l i p ti 37 ri gh t th d f i tru ti
’
i
sc en ce , s em a n c a on, m e o o ns c on,

71 ; lf ti i ty i d u ti 35 ; lf up r i i 37 ; i
se -
ac v n e ca on , se -
s e v s on, sc e n ce,

p i ty 34 f d u ti 40 p i
’
45 p i f
s ec es o p i
m a n s ca ac ,
s ec es o e ca on, s ec es

o f k wl d g
no 45 ep ifi e, eth d f i tru ti 7 4 ; p e i fi
s ec c m o s o ns c on , s c c

s yll gi ti f tur f th i e
o s c ea 5 1 ; ti ul t i g t h p u p i l 36 ;
es o e sc n ces, s m a n e ,

u e i f le
s cc ss o n o 68 up e r i i g t h p up i l 35 yll gi 5 0;
sso n s, s v s n e ,
s o sm ,

s y t i lf ti i ty 35 36 th e l gy 49 ; w rk 35
s em n se -
ac v , ,
o o , o ,
.

M e th o d s of Te a ch i n g
A ri th m eti c ,
r wi g 328 ge grap h y 282
240 co m t
p o si i o n , 1 69 d a n ,
o ,

gr r 204 h i t ry
am m a ,
u l tr i i g 347 e t l ulture
s o ,
31 0 m a n a a n n ,
m n a c ,

79 ; bj t l o 8 9 ; p h y i l g y 35 9 ; p h y i l
ec e sso n s , ulture 363 ; s o o ,
s ca c ,

re di g 1 06 ; i gi g 371 p elli g 1 45 ; wri ti g 1 31

a n , s n n , s n ,
n ,
.

A r i th m e ti c
A n a lysi s of n u m b e rs
r n nu b r 242 ; ur e , 2 42 ; co m p a i so of m e s, co s s

of ri th a ti 247 ; ultur lu
m e r t ti 280; d d u ti i
c, c e va e of a i hm e c, e c on n

arith eti 245 ; d fi i ti f ri th ti 246 ; h i t ry f ari th

m c, e n on o a m e c, s o o

m e ti 246 ; i p rt
c, f ri th ti 280; i d u ti i ri th
m o a n ce o a m e c, n c on n a

m eti 244 ; i tru ti n lue f ri th ti 2 47 ; l gu g f

c, ns c o -
va o a m e c, an a e o

n u b r p r ti 242 tur f ri th ti 240 tur f

m e -
o e a o n s, na e o a m e c, na eo n um

b r 240 u b r p r ti
e s, 2 41 b r ti i ri th ti 244
n m e -

o e a o n s, o se v a on n a m e c,

p r ti l
ac lu f ri th eti 281 p y h l gy f ri th eti 244 ;
ca va e o a m c, s c o o o a m c,

subj t f ri th ti 240 243 y th e i f ber 241 t i n

ec o a m e c, ,
s n s s o n um s, ra

i g f t
n h r
o f ar i th et i
ea c 28 1 e s o m c, .

E lem enta ry A ri thm eti c

Bo rr o wi n g, 2 5 8 ; ca i n g, 2 5 7 ; rry co ncep ts o f o p e ra ti o n 25 0; d eci ,

m al f r t ac i o n s, 2 64 d om i na e en t n um b er s 26 5 ; d i v i d i n g 2 60; d i
, ,
 I ND E X 39 1

v i si o n b y fra cti o ns el e ent ry r t

, et
2 63 ; n ds i n v i w i n m a e
a i h m e i c,

24 9 ; ex e r ci se s 25 3 r t e t rube tr t t
f a c i o n co n c p s, 2 6 1 ; G ea m e n o f
-

fo ur 25 5 ; i llu str t l n n t
”
,
a i v e esso s, 2 5 5 m ea s, 2 5 4 ; m e h o d o f i n

st ru cti o n 2 49 m ult,
ly n n e u b er u be r
i p i g , 2 60 a m s o f n m s, 25 6 n m

co n cep t s 249 ; n u m b e r l a n gua ge 2 5 1 ; n u m b er o p e ra ti o n s 2 5 2 ;

,
-

,
-

o r d e r o f subj e cts 25 4 ; p ro b l e m s 2 5 3 sp eed d r i ll s i n fo u r

“
, op ,
-

era t i o n s 260; ta b l es 2 5 9 ; term s o f a fra cti o n 262 ; t wo th i rds ” -

, , ,

a n d fo ur si xt hs 2 62 -
t wo th i r ds o f th r ee fo urth s 2 63
,
- -

,
.

I nterm ed i a te A ri thm eti c

Axi o m s 26 6 ; co n cep ts 26 6 ; end s i n v i ew 266 ; m eth o d o f i nter
, , ,

m e d i a t e ar i th m e t i c 2 66 ; o r d e r o f subj e ct s 269 ; p ri nci pl e s 26 7

, , ,

pro blem s 2 69 ; rules 2 66 268

, , ,
.

Wri tten A rithm eti c

An swe rs assi gnm en t o f le sso ns 2 7 1 a ssi gnm ent o f p rob lem s
, , ,

2 7 2 ; cri t i ci sm s 273 ttenti o n to genera l truth s 2 74 ; i p o rt nce

,
a ,
m a

o f r ev i e ws 2 7 4 ; o bj e cts o f r e ci t ti n 2 72 ; p rep r in g t h e b o r d
,
a o ,
a a ,

2 72 ; p rep ri ng lesso n 2 7 1 ; p r b l e s 2 69 ; p u p i l s e x p l n a t i o n
’
a s, o m ,
a

o f pr o b l e m s 2 7 3 ; pl a n o f r e ci t t i o n 2 7 2 ; te a ch e r s part i n p r o b
’
a ,
,

lem s 2 74 wo rk i ng o f p ro blem s 2 7 3
, ,
.

M enta l A ri thm eti c

r r
B o a d wo k , 27 7 ; ch n c a ssi gn m
-
of pr ble 2 7 6 ;
a e n ent o m s, co m m o

t
m e h od of re t t l
ci a i o n , 2 7 6 ; d i sci p i n e o f m t l arith eti 2 77 ; en a m c,

rt
i m p o a n ce o f m ent l ar t e
a i h m ti c, 2 7 7 n a ture f e t l rith eti o m n a a m c,

2 75 p rt t h d
a f i g i
s
”
g p r
m e b l e 2 7
o 6 p l f o e t l a ss n n o m s, ea or m n a

ari th eti 2 78 ; p r ti l lue f

m c, t l rith ti 2 78 p rep
ac ca va o m en a a m e c, a

r ti f le n 2 7 6 ; re i t ti n 2 7 6 ; i le t eth d f l i g
a on o sso s, c a o ,
s n m o o so v n

p r b
o l e 2 7 7
m s, lut i f p r b l e 2 7 5
so on o o m s, .

H i gher A ri thm eti c

E nds i n vi ew
, 2 7 8 ; h i gh sc h o o a i h m i c, 2 79 ;
-
l r t et m et h o d of in
s tru ti nc o ,
2 7 9 ; n o m a sch o r l
o a i h m i
-
c, 2 79 ; su l r t et bj e cts o f h i gh er
a ri th t m e i c, 2 79 .

Co m p o si ti o n
Ca p i tl
a s, 1 8 2 ; co s c i g a co m n tru t n p i ti
os o n ,
1 77 , 18 0; co rr e ting a
c

co m t
p o si i o , 1 79 , 2 0 n
1 ; c i i ci si g a rt n co m p o si ti on, 1 78 ; c m u ul ti g a n
39 2 I ND E X
t ri l 169 1 79 1 9 6 ; d i ti 1 80; figur f pee h 1 81 ; fi
m a e a s, , , c on , es o s c , n

i h i g t u h e 1 7 8 1 82 ; i p rt
s n o c f
s, p i ti ,
202 i t m o a n ce o co m os on, n s ru c

ti ion p i ti
n co m 1 79 ; h i l e e ut i
os 1 77
o n, tur f m ec a n ca x c on, na e o

co m p i ti 1 6 9 ; utl i
os 1 7 1 t 1 7 6 ; pl
on, f otru ti 1 70 n es, o an o co n s c o n, ,

1 80 2 00; p ri i p l
,
f i tru ti 1 8 2 ; p u tu t i
nc es o 1 82 ; e l ns c o n, nc a on, s ec

ti f ubj e t 169 1 79 1 9 5 p i e f p i ti n 1 70; tru

on o s c s, , ,
s ec s o co m os o ,
s e

t re f e te e 1 81 t te i
u o s n p i ti 1 82
n c s, as n co m os on, .

E lem enta ry Com p osi ti on

An e cd o tes 1 9 1 ; co m m i tti ng 1 88 ; d escri b i ng o bj ects 1 9 0; d e
, , ,

scr i b i n g a cti o n s 1 9 0; d e scr i b i n g p i ctur e s 1 9 1 ; e lli p ses 1 8 6 ; i m i

, , ,

ta t i o n 1 8 7 ; n a m e s o f o bj ects 1 8 5
,
n a m es o f acti o n s 1 86 ; n a rra , ,

t i v es 1 9 1
, o ri gi n a l sen t en ces 1 8 6 1 89 ; p o e m s 1 8 8 si m p l e sen , , ,

ten oes 1 86 ; si m p le letters 1 89 sto ri es 1 9 1

, , , .

I nterm edi a te Com p osi ti on

Acq ui si ti o n o f styl e ,
rre t 19 9 acq ui si ti o n o f v o cabul a ry ,
197 co c

i g
n p i ti
a 20
co m 1 u ul ti g t ri l 1 9 6 ; d i ti 1 94
os on, c m a n m a e a s, c on,

fi gure f rh t ri
s o 1 9 4 ; le tte r 193 rigi l r i e 1 9 5 p l
e o c, s, o na e xe c s s, an

of tru ti 200; p try d p r e 1 9 4 l ti f bj e t

co n s c on, oe an os ,
se ec on o su c s,

195 ; te e q u l i ti 1 94 ; ub t
sen nc -

f re d i g l e
a 19 2 ;
e s, s s a n ce o a n sso n s ,

styl 1 9 9 ; y p i f l
e, 193
s b ul ry 19 7 wri tten r i
no s s o esso n s, v o ca a , ec

t ti
a i v ri u
ons tud i 1 9 2 ; wri ti g
n a o p i ti n 2 0
s s 0 e s, n a co m os o , .

H igher Com p osi ti on

Ai m s ,
202 r q ui i t
e s es, 20
2 .

D ra w i n g
Co ur f d r wi ng 333 ult e lue f d r wi g 344 ; d ed u ti
ses o a , c ur va o a n ,
c on

in d r wi g 331 defi i ti f d rawi g 332 f r f t f bj t

a n ,
n on o n ,
o m -
ac s o o e c s,

330 f r l w f bj t 330 h i t ry f d r wi g 333 i du ti

o m -
a s o o ec s, s o o a n ,
n c on

i d r wi g 330 i p rt
n a n e f d r wi g 344 i tru ti i d r w
,
m o a nc o a n ,
ns c on n a

i g 333 ; i tru ti
n ,
lue f d r wi g 345 ; l w f f r p
ns c on v a -
o a n , a s o o m -
re re

t ti
se n a 331 l g th f l i
on, 328 l i r r ep r e t t i f f r
en o n e s, n ea es n a on o o m s,

328 ; l i e r rep r t ti f bj t 332 ; rk f e p r i

n a ese n a on o o ec s, m a s o x ess o n ,

32 9 ; th d f tud y 330; tur f d r wi g 328 ; b r ti

m e o o s , na e o a n ,
o se v a on

i d r wi g 330 p
n a i b i l i ti
n f t h p u p i l 334 p r t i l
,
o ss lu f es o e ,
ac ca va e o

d r wi g 345 p y h l g y f d wi g 330 r p r
a n , s t ti f t f
c o o o ra n , e ese n a on -
ac s o

f r o m 330; tr i i g f d wi ng te h e r 346 ; typ f r

, a n n ly i o ra -
ac s, e -

o m a na s s

f bj e t 331
o o c s, .
39 4 I NDE X

H igher Geograp hy
Co ll eg ge gr p h y 308 h igh h l ge gr p h y 308
e o a th ,
-
sc o o o a , m e o ds

of h i gh e r ge gr p h y 308 r l h l g gr p h y 308 t k
o a ,
no m a -
sc oo eo a , as s of

h ig h e r ge gr p h y 30 7 u ni e r i ty ge g r p h y 30
o a 8 , v s o a , .

G ra m m a r
An a lysi s tru ti f e te e 207 ; ur e f gr
,
207 co n s c on o s n n c s, co s s o am
m a r, 2 1 0; ultur lu f gr c r 2 37 d d u ti i gr
e va-
r e o am m a , e c on n am m a ,

20 6 ; h i t ry f g r s or 208 ; i p rt f gr
o r 237 iam m a ,
m o a n ce o am m a ,
n

d u ti c i gr
on r 206 ; i tru ti i g a r 21 0; i tru
n am m a ,
ns c on n r m m a ,
ns o

ti n lu f gr
o -
va r 238 ; th d f tud y 2 05 ; tur f
e o am m a ,
m e o o s ,
na e o

gr am m ar 2 04 ; b r ti i gr
, r 205 p r i g 207 p r
o se v a on n am m a , a s n ,
ao

ti l lue f gr
ca va r 239 ; p y h l gy f g
o r 205 b
am m a , s c o o o ra m m a ,
su

j t f gr
ec o r 204 t h er f gr
am m a r 2 39 , ea c s o am m a , .

E lem enta ry Gra m m a r

A dj ecti v e s 2 15 ; ad v e rbs 2 1 6 ; ca ses 21 9 co m pa ri so n 2 20 co n
, , , ,

j u ncti o n s 21 8 d ed ucti o n s o f elem en ta ry gra m m a r 21 2 ele m ents

, ,

o f a sen t en ce 22 1 ; i llu stra ti v e l esso ns 2 1 4 ; i n d u ct i o n s o f el e

, ,

m enta ry g ra m m a r 2 1 1 i rr eg ul a r v e rb s 2 21 m eth o d s o f i n struc

, ,

ti o n 214 m o di fiers 2 1 7 n o un s 215 o bj ects o f elem en ta ry gra m

, , ,

m a 21 1
r, o b se r v a ti o n i n e l e m en t a ry gra m m ar 2 1 4 p r ed i ca te o f ,

a sen ten ce 21 7 prep o si ti o ns 2 1 8 ; p ro n o un s 21 8 regul a r v erb s

, , , ,

221 rules o f gram m a r 222 subj ects o f elem enta ry gra m m ar 2 12 , ,

subj e ct o f a se n ten ce 2 1 6 ; t en se 220 v e r b s 2 1 5 , , ,

.

I nterm ed i a te G ra m m ar

Abb re v i a ti o n s i n p a si g , 2 2 6 ; a n si s, 228 ; a r n
v ia io s in aly bb re t n
a na ly r r r ut
si s, 2 30; d i a g a m s i n g a m m a , 2 31 ; d ed c i o n s, 2 2 3 ; d e fi

l t
n i ti o n s, 224 ; e c ec i c a n a ly l t r
si s, 2 30; ec ec i c p a si n g, 22 7 ; e n

th y t te t i
m em e s a ly i 229 ; e th y e e t t
m en s t i
n ana s s, n m m s a em e n s n

p r i g 22 5 ; rr r i
a s n ,
ly i 232 ; rr r i p r i g 228 ;
e o s n a na s s, e o s n a s n ,

e ri i y t
x e c ses 233 ; f l
n ynt 233 ; f r f ly i
s n a x, a se s a x, o m s o a na s s,

2 28 f r f p r i g 22 5 g r
o m s o ti l d ri p ti 230 i p rt
a s n , am m a ca e sc on, m o

a f e er i
n ce o i x y t 2 34 i d u ti i i t r d i t gra
c ses n s n ax, n c o ns n n e m e a e m

m a r, 223 ; i fl ti 2 24 n th d f i tru ti 234 ; bj t f

ec o n s, m e o o ns c on, o ec s o

a na ly i 233 ; bj t f p r i g 228 ; bj t f i t r ed i t
s s, o ec s o a s n , o ec s o n e m a e

gr am m a r 223 ; ri gi l e t e 234 ; p r i g 225 p r p r ti n

,
o na s n en c s, a s n ,
e a a o

o fl 2 35
e sso n s , p r p rt i f r l d w ri tt o ly i 232 p
o on o o a an en a n a s s, ro

p rt
o i f r
on ol d w r i tt
o ap r i g 2 2 7
an ; r i t ti 2 35 re l ti en a s n , ec a on , a on

o f n ly i
a ad ynth i 2 32 rul
s s an 224
s i pl t t nt i es s, es, s m e s a em e s n
 I NDE X 39 5

a na ly i 2 29 s s, si m pl e te e t i
st a m n s n r
p a si n g, 2 26 ubj e t f i t r
s c s o n e

m e di t gra e am m a r 223 ; te t b k
,
x -
oo s o f in m di ter e at e gr r 234 am m a ,
.

H igher Gra m m a r
H i gh -
sch o o lg ra m m a r
eth o d s o f i nstru cti o n 237 n o rm a l
,
236 ; m ,

sch o o l gra m m a r 2 36 ; o bj ect s o f h i gh e r g ra m m a r 2 36 ; p re p a ra

, ,

to ry sch o o l gra m m a r 237 subj ects o f h i gh e r gram m a r 236

, ,
.

H is t o r y
Co ur f h i t ry 31 5 ulture lue f h i t y 327 d ed u ti i
se s o s o ,
c -
va o s or ,
c on n

h i t ry 31 3 ; d e fi i ti n f h i t ry 31 3 ; h i t ry f h i t ry 31 4 ;
s o ,
n o o s o , s o o s o ,

i p rt
m oe f h i t ry 326 ; i d u ti i h i t ry 31 1 31 2 ; i
a nc o s o ,
n c on n s o , ,
n

stru ti i h i t ry 31 5 i tru ti n lu f h i t ry 327 tu e

c on n s o ,
ns c o -
va e o s o ,
na r

o f h i t ry 31 0 b r ti
s o ,
i h i t ry 31 1 p y h l g y f h i t ry
o se v a on n s o ,
s c o o o s o ,

3 1 0; p i s f h i t ry 31 3 ; ubj t f h i t ry 31 0; t
ec es o s o h er ,
f s ec o s o ,
ea c s o

h i t ry 32 7 t h
s o ,ri f h i t ry 312 eo es o s o , .

E lem enta ry H istory

Co n s tru ti f e e t 31 5 ; i q ui ry i t th rel ti f e e t
c on o v n s, n n o e a on o v n s,

31 6 ; i l
m ea n s t ry h i t ry 31 7 ; e th d f i tru ti
n e em e n a s o ,
m o o ns c on,

3 1 6 r i t ti n 31 7
ec ubj t f ele e t ry h i t ry 31 9 ta k f
a o , s ec s o m n a s o , s s o

ele e t ry h i t ry 31 5
m n a s o ,
.

I nterm ed i a te H i story
Assi gn m en t o f le sso ns 324 i m agi nati o n o f com pl e x lesso n s 320
, ,

i n q ui ry i n to re m o te rel a ti o n s o f ev en ts 321 m ea n s o f i n stru cti o n , ,

32 1 ; m et h o d o f i n stru cti o n 32 1 ; o ra l reci t a t i o n s 323 ; prep a ra , ,

ti o n o f l esso n s 322 ; reci ta ti o n 322 rev i ews 324 ; ta sk s o f i nter

, , ,

m e di a t e h i sto ry 32 0; wr i tte n r e ci ta t i o n s 323

, ,
.

H igher H i sto ry
Co ll g h i t ry
e e s o , 32 6 h i gh -
l h i t ry 326 n r al h l h i
sch o o s o , o m -
sc oo s

t ry 326 ; t k
o ,
as s of h i gh e r h i t ry 325 ; uni e r i ty h i t ry 326
s o , v s s o ,
.

M a n u a l Tr a i n i n g
Co ur se stru ti n 35 2 ; ulture alue 35 7 ; e er i e 348
of ins c o , c -
v ,
x c s s, ,

35 2 h i t ry f u l tr i i g 348 i p rt e 35 7 i tru ti
s o o m an a a n n ,
m o a nc ,
ns c on ,

35 1 i tru ti lu 35 7 ; u l tr i i g r
ns c on v a -
35 5 t ri l
e, m an a a n n — oom
,
m a e a

eq ui p t 35 5 ;
m en s, u l tr i i g i th U i t d S t t 348 ;
m an a a n n n e n e a es,

m eth d f i tru ti 35 4 ; p r ti l lu 35 8 ; p r p r ti n f
o s o ns c on, ac ca va e, e a a o o

le n 35 5 ; p r p t f u l tr i i ng 349 ; pup i l p rep r

sso s, os ec s o m an a a n ,
’
s a a
39 6 I ND E X
tio n o f esso n s, l re i t ti 35 6 ; tudi e 347 t k f u l
35 6 c a o n, s s, as s o m an a
tr i a n i ng , 347 t h r f u l tr i i g 35 8 ; t h r p r p
ea c e s o m an a a n n , ea c e
’
s e a

r ti
a on of l esso n s, 35 5 ; t l 35 5 w rk i ng t ri l 35 5
o o s, o m a e a s, .

E lem enta ry M a nu a l Tra i ni ng

E nds i n Vi ew ,
35 3 ex e rci ses , 35 3 ; re i t t i
c a on, 35 6 ; s tudi e s, 35 3 .

I nterm ed i a te M a nua l Tra i ni ng

E nds in V i e w, 35 3 ; ex e rci ses , 35 3 ; s tud ie s, 35 3 .

H i gher M a nu a l Tra i ni ng
E n ds i n v i ew, 35 4 e xerci ses , 35 4 s tud i e s, 35 4 .

M en ta l Cu lt u re
Im a gi n a ti o n, 8 3 ; m em o ry , 80; per eptic o n , 79 ; s ensib i l i ty , 85 ;
th ugh t
o ,
8 4 ; wi , 8 6 t o 88 ll .

O bj e ct L e s s o n s
Co lr
o , 93 ; co ur se o f o bj e ct l esso n s ,
91 ; end s in vi ew 89 ; fo rm
, ,

t ry f bj t l
9 1 ; h is o 9 0; i p rt
o f o ec e sso n s, m o a n ce o o bj e ct l e sso n s ,

104 i tru ti i bj t l
ns 91
c th d f i tru ti 1 04
on n o ec esso n s, m e o o ns c on,

m eth d f tud y 9 0 ture f bj e t l

o o s 89 ture tudi
,
na o o c e sso n s, na s e s,

102 p art 9 9 ; q u l i t i e 10
s,1 ubj e t f tud y i bj e t le
a s, s c s o s n o c sso n s,

89 .

Color
A n a lysi s o f co m p o u nd s , 95 b ro k en col o rs ple e t 9 5,
96 ; co m m n s,

co ur f l se o esso n s, r i
96 ha m o n es, 9 6 ; i p rt f ml rl o a n ce o co o -
esso n s,

98 ; i tru ti ns c on i l r 96 ;
n co o s, m e th d f i tru ti 9 7 p rep
o s o ns c on, a

r ti f l
a on o esso n s, 9 7 r i t ti ec a on, 97 le f l r 9 4 l r p e
sca s o co o , so a s c

t ru 94 t
m ,
s an d rda l r 94 co o s, s y th i f l r 9 5
n es s o co o s, .

F orm
E l em e nta ry fo r m s, 92 ; e m b o d i m en t o f fo rm s , 91 im p rt o a nce o f
t ea ch i n g fo r m s, 93 m eth o d o f te a ch i ng fo rm s ,
92 .

N a ture S tud i es
Bo t y
an ,
102 ;ur f le n 1 02 ; ulture lue 1 03 ; i p rt
co ses o sso s, c -
va ,
m o

a n ce o f ture tud i 1 03 ; i tru ti

na slue f tur tud i
e s, ns c on v a -
o na e s e s,

104 m e th d f i tru ti 1 03 ; p r ti l lu f tur tud ie

o o ns c on, ac ca va e o na e s s,

104 zo ol g y 1 0
o 2 ,
.
39 8 I NDE X
neti c m eth o d 122 ; Po llard m eth o d 12 2 ; scrip t lette rs 1 1 9 sen
, , ,

t en ce b u i ld i n g 1 1 8 ; tea ch e r s p re p a rati o n o f l esso n s 1 1 8 ; tea ch

’
, ,

i n g a b il i ty 1 1 7 tra n si t i o n to v i si b le wo rds 1 1 6 vo cab ul a r y 1 1 5 ;

, , ,

w o rd m eth o d 12 1
”
.
,

I nterm edi a te R ea d i ng
An a lysi s 1 24 ; d ev el opm e n t o f li tera ry ta ste 1 2 9 ; elo cu ti o na ry
, ,

ex erci ses 1 2 7 ; e n u n ci a ti o n d ri lls 1 2 7 ; fluency 1 09 ; i n d ucti v e

, , ,

d i sco v e ri e s 1 1 8 la n gu a ge l e sso n s 1 18 li sp i n g 1 2 8 m en ta l p h a se
, , ,

o f r ea d i n g 1 2 8 ; st a m m e ri ng
,
128 ; su p p l em enta ry rea d i ng 12 9 ; , ,

sy n th e si s 1 1 7 ,
.

S i ng i ng
Co ur e s sngi ng in si ,
37 6 ; c ulture lue -
va , 37 9 ; d i sci i a y v a ,
pl n r lue
38 0; fo rce o f to n e s , 37 2 ; h a r y ft m on o o ne s, 37 2 ; h i st o o f si n g ry
i n g , 37 4 ; i m p rto tru ti i i gi g 376 ;
a n ce o f si n gi n g , 379 i ns c on n s n n ,

i tru ti n
ns c f i gi ng 38 0
o -
va lueel d y 372 oth d f i t
s n ,
m o ,
m e o o n s ru c

t i 37 8
on, na ture
f i gi g 37 1 p i t h f t e 37 1 p rep r ti
o s n n ,
c o on s, a a on

o f l 37 8 p r d u t i
esso n s, f t e 37 1 p ub l i ho l ingi g c on o o n s, c sc-
oo s n ,

377 p u p i l p re p r t i f le 37 8 ; r i tati n 37 8 ; r e i t
’
s a a on o sso n s, ec o , c a

ti t k 378 ; re d i g f t 374 ; rep re t ti f t

on as s, a n o n o e s, sen a on o o n e s,

37 3 rh yth e 37 2 i gi g f t h e 376 i gi g ”
ft m o o n s, s n n o e m a ss s, s n n

f t h e r 377 p e i li t i i gi g 377 ; t e h e r preparati ’

o ea c s, S ca s s n s n n , ac s on

o f le 37 8 ; ti
sso n s, f t ne 372 m e o o s, .

S p lli
e ng

Co ur e f l n 1 67 ; d i i p l ine f p lling 1 68 h i t ry f E g
s o esso s, sc o s e ,
s o o n

l i h rt h gr ph y 145 ; i p rt n e f p elli g 1 67 i tru ti

s o o a ,
m o a c o s n ,
ns c on

i n s p lli g 1 49 ; n ture f p elli g 1 45 ; b r ti i p lli ng

e n ,
a o s n ,
o se v a on n s e ,

1 5 0; ri gi o f lp h be t 1 45 ; p h y i l tru tur
n o a f w rd 1 48
a , s ca s c e o o s,

pr ti l lu f p lli g 1 68 p r p r ti f le
ac ca va e o s 1 5 0 p ri n
e n ,
e a a on o sso n s,

c i pl f i tru ti
es o 1 65 ; p y h l g y f p ll i g 1 49 ; r i t ti
ns c on, s c o o o s e n , ec a on,

15 2 re re ti 1 60 rel ti e ri t f r l d wri tt p lli g

c a o n s, a v m e s o o a an en s e n ,

1 6 2 ; rul f p ll i g 1 5 1 ; p e i e
es o s f p ll i g 1 5 2 1 5 5 ; p ell i g
e n , s c s o s e n , ,
s n

b k 1 6 7 ; p lli ng t h 1 6 0; p lli g r f r
oo s, s e 1 47 ; u ppl e
m a c es, S e n e o m s, s

m en a t ry d e i e 1 5 9 tr pp i g 1 5 9 ; bul ry le n 1 67
v c s, a n , v o ca a sso s, .

Ora l Sp elli ng
A d v a n ta ges 1 6 4 assign i n g wo r d s 1 5 5
, , ; m ea n i ng of r
wo d s, 15 7 ;
p re li m i n a ri es 1 5 5 ; sp ell i ng t h e wo r d s
, ,
15 6 .
 I ND E X 39 9

Written Sp elli ng
Ad v a ntages 1 62 ; a ssigni ng le sso ns 1 5 4 ; a ssigni ng wo rds
, , ,
15 2
co rr e cti o n s 1 5 4 prel i m in a ri es 1 5 2 ; sp ellin g th e wo rds 1 5 3
, , , .

W ri ti n g
A rt i sti c penm a nsh i p t l letter , b ned
1 43 ; ca p i a e s, 1 42 ; co m i m ov

m e n t s 1 40; co ur se s
,
rt e r bl u l t e f p
i n w i i n g, 1 36 ; d si a e q a i i s o en

m an s h ip 1 33 ,
l ry lue ele e t ry ur e 1 37
d i sci p i n a va , 1 43 ; m n a co s ,

fig eur s , 142 fi ge r e e t 1 39 ; f re
n m ov e m t 1 40;
n s, o -
a rm m ov m e n s,

f r
o m ele e t 1 32 f r le
m n s, 141 h i gh r
o m ur e 1 42 ; hi t ry
sso n s, e co s , s o

o f w ri t i g 1 34 h l d i g th p
n ,
1 39 i p rt
o n f pe en h ip en , m o a n ce o nm a s ,

1 43 i n tru ti s i w ri ti g 1 36 i te r ed i te
c on n ur e 1 38 eri t
n ,
n m a co s ,
m s

o f l
s an ti g wri ti g 1 35 ; e ri t f rti l wr i ti g 1 35 ; eth d
n n ,
m s o ve ca n ,
m o s

o f i tru ti n 1 37 1 38 ;
ns c o ,
tur f wri ti g 1 31 ; ph y i l t f
,
na e o n ,
s ca ac o

wr i ti g 1 31 p i ti
n ,
t d e k 1 39
os p y h l gy f wr i ti ng 1 31 ;
on a s , ; s c o o o ,

sh d i g 1 42 ;
a n ,
ll l ett r 1 41 p i g 142 ; tru ture f ri p t
sm a e s, s ac n ,
s c o sc ,

1 32 t k f wri ti ng ur e 1 37 1 38 ; te h er f pen n h ip
as s o co s s, ,
ac s o m a s ,

1 43 ; wh l e o e ent 1 40
-
a rm m ov m s, .