Steel Sections

Summary of Steel Sections

Tension Members
Tension members are axially loaded members stressed
in tension.
Tension Members
Examples:
• Web and Chord Members in
Trusses
• Hangers and Sagrods
• Diagonal Bracing for Lateral
Stability
• Lap Slices in an Moment
Connection
Basic Modes of Failures
1. Tensile yielding occurs when the stress on the gross area of the section is
large enough to cause excessive deformation.

The capacity of the tension member is the product of the yield stress and
the gross area.

𝑃𝑛 = Fy A𝑔 ,

where Fy = Minimum Yield Stress

Ag = Gross Area of the Tension Member
Basic Modes of Failures
2. Tensile rupture occurs when the stress on the effective area of the section
is large enough to cause the member to fracture, which usually occurs across
a line of bolts where the tension member is weakest.

The capacity of the tension member is the product of the yield stress and the
gross area.

𝑃𝑛 = Fu A𝑒 ,

where Fu = Minimum Tensile Stress

Ae = Effective Area of the Tension Member
Gross Area vs. Effective Area
• The gross area, 𝐴𝑔 , of a tension member is simply the total cross-
sectional area of the member in question.

• The effective area, 𝐴𝑒 , of a tension member is described as follows:

𝐴𝑒 = An 𝑈,

where An = Net area of the tension member

𝑈 = Shear Lag Factor
Shear Lag Factor, U
The shear lag factor , 𝑈, accounts
for the nonuniform stress
distribution when some of the
elements of a tension member are
not directly connected, such as a
single angle or WT member.
Net Area For Welded Connection
Note that for a tension member that is connected by welds, the net
area equals the gross area.
An = Ag
Net Area For Bolted Connection
The net area of a tension member with fasteners that are in line is the
difference between the gross cross-sectional area and the area of the
bolt holes:
An = Ag − Aholes

1
where Aholes = 𝑛 𝑑𝑏 + 𝑡
8
𝑛 = number of bolt holes along the failure plane
𝑑𝑏 = bolt diameter
𝑡 = thickness
Net Area For Bolted Connection
Effect of Staggered Holes in Net Areas
For tension members with a series
of holes in a diagonal or zigzag
pattern, which might be used when
bolt spacing is limited, there may
exist several possible planes of
failure that need to be
investigated.

1. Line ABDE
2. Line ABCDE
Effect of Staggered Holes in Net Areas
Along Line ABDE

An = Ag − Aholes
1
A n = A g − 𝑛 𝑑𝑏 + 𝑡
8
Thus,
1
A n = A g − 2 𝑑𝑏 + 𝑡
8
Effect of Staggered Holes in Net Areas
For a failure plane where one or more of the failure planes is at an
angle (line ABCDE), then the following term is added to the net width
of the member for each diagonal portion that is present along the
failure plane:

𝑠2
4𝑔

where 𝑠 = Longitudinal center-to-center spacing or pitch between two

consecutive holes and 𝑔 = Transverse center-to-center spacing or gage
between two consecutive holes.
Effect of Staggered Holes in Net Areas
Along Line ABCDE

𝑠2
An = Ag − Aholes + 𝑡
4𝑔
1 𝑠2
A n = A g − 𝑛 𝑑𝑏 + 𝑡+ 𝑡
8 4𝑔
Thus,
1 𝑠𝐵𝐶 2 𝑠𝐶𝐷 2
A n = A g − 𝑛 𝑑𝑏 + 𝑡+ 𝑡+ 𝑡
8 4 𝑔𝐵𝐶 4 𝑔𝐶𝐷
Effect of Staggered Holes in Net Areas
This modification accounts for the increase in strength due to the
added cross-sectional area at an angle in the failure plane.
Gage Dimension, g, in Angular Section
For angles, the gage for holes in opposite
adjacent legs shall be the sum of the
gages from the back of the angles less
the thickness.

𝑡 𝑡
𝑔 = 𝑔1 − + 𝑔2 −
2 2
𝑡 𝑡
𝑔 = 𝑔1 + 𝑔2 − −
2 2
Thus,

𝑔 = 𝑔1 + 𝑔2 − 𝑡
Net Area for Slotted HSS Welded to a Gusset Plate
The net area, 𝐴𝑛 , is the gross area minus the product of the thickness
and the total width of material that is removed to form the slot.
 Shear Lag Factor, U
𝑥
𝑈 =1−
𝑙

where
𝑥 = Distance from centroid of the
connected part to the connection
plane
𝑙 = Connection Length
Block Shearing
In addition to checking the connected ends of tension members for
tensile failure, there exist certain connection configurations where
tensile failure could be accompanied by shear failure such that a block
of the tension member tears away.
Block Shearing
This failure plane usually occurs along the path of the center lines of
the bolt holes for bolted connections.
Block Shearing
This type of failure could also occur along the perimeter of welded
connections.
Block Shearing
This type of failure could also occur along the perimeter of welded
connections.
Block Shearing
Bolted and Welded
Connections
Connection Strength
In considering the behavior of different types of connections, it is
convenient to categorize them according to the type of loading.
Shear Connections
The following connection are subjected to shear loading.
Bolted Shear Connections
The tension member splices shown below subject the fasteners1 to
shear failure.

1Fasteners is a general term for connection device like bolts and rivets.
Welded Shear Connections
The welds shown below must resist shearing forces. Welds are weak in
shear and are usually assumed to fail in shear.
Bolted Shear Connections
The welds shown below must resist shearing forces.
Analysis of Connections
The idea is to solve the force per fasteners or force per unit length of
weld.

The load capacity of the connection can then be found by multiplying

the capacity of each faster or inch of the weld by the total number of
fasteners or the total number of welds.
Major Categories of Connections
Simple Connection
If the line of action of the
resultant force passes through
the center of gravity of the
connection, each part of the
connection is assumed to resist
an equal share of the load.
Eccentric Connection
If the line of action of the
resultant force does not act
through the center of gravity of
the connection, each part of the
connection carries an additional
moment aside from the
resultant force.
Major Categories of Connections
Simple Connection

If the line of action of the resultant

force passes through the center of
gravity of the connection, each part
of the connection is assumed to
resist an equal share of the load.

*Thereis actually a small eccentricity in the connection

shown here but it is usually neglected (too small).
Major Categories of Connections
Eccentric Connection

If the line of action of the resultant

force does not act through the
center of gravity of the connection,
each part of the connection carries
an additional moment aside from
the resultant force

*Moment is the tendency of the member to rotate and it is

the product of force and distance.
Bolted Connections
Type of Fasteners
• Rivets (obsolete)

• Bolts (high-strength bolts: most common)

 Properties of High Strength Bolts

The joints obtained using

high-strength bolts are
superior to riveted joints in
performance and economy,
and they are the leading field
method of fastening
structural steel members.
High-Strength Bolts
Two conditions of bolt installation are used with high-strength bolts.

1. Snug-tight (producing a bearing connection)

For most connections, bolts are tightened only to what is called a snug-
tight condition.

Snug-tight is the situation existing when all the plies of a connection are in
firm contact with each other.
High-Strength Bolts
Two conditions of bolt installation are used with high-strength bolts.

2. Tensioned (producing a slip-critical connection)

• Turn-of-nut method: specified number of rotations of the nut
from snug tight (nut rotations correlated to bolt elongation)

• Calibrated wrench

• Alternate design bolts: specially design bolts whose tops twist off
when the proper tension has been achieved

• Direct tension indicators: compress washer (under bolt head or

nut) with protrusions to a gap that is correlated to bolt tension
Failure of Bolted Joints
1. Failure in a lap joint by shearing of the
bolt on the plane between the
members (single shear)

2. Tension failure of one of the plates

through a bolt hole

3. Failure of the bolts and/or plates by

bearing between the two (excessive
elongation of hole)
Failure of Bolted Joints
4. Failure due to the shearing out of part
of the member (shear tear out)

5. Failure of the bolts and/or plates by

bearing between the two (double
shear)
Bearing Connection
The bolt is brought to a snug-tight
condition so that the surfaces of the
connected parts are in firm contact.

• Slippage is acceptable
• Shear and bearing on the connector
Shear Strength
𝑹𝒏 = 𝑭𝒏𝒗 𝑨𝒃

𝜙 = 0.75

𝐹𝑛𝑣 = Nominal Shear Stress

𝐴𝑏 = Cross sectional area of the
unthreaded part of the bolt.
Group A: ASTM A325, F1852, A352, A354 Grade BC, and A449.
Group B: ASTM A490, F2280, and A354 Grade BD.
Shear Strength
The nominal shear strength, Fnv,
is based on the ultimate tensile
stress of the bolt with several
modification factors.

1. The ultimate shear stress is

taken as 0.625 times the ultimate
Group A: ASTM A325, F1852, A352, A354 Grade BC, and A449.
tensile stress (Fisher et al., 1978). Group B: ASTM A490, F2280, and A354 Grade BD.
Shear Strength
2. There is a length factor of 0.90
for connections no longer than 38
inches (for longer connections,
this factor is reduced to 0.75).

3. If the threads are in the plane

of shear, the reduction of the bolt
Group A: ASTM A325, F1852, A352, A354 Grade BC, and A449.
area is accounted for by using 80% Group B: ASTM A490, F2280, and A354 Grade BD.
of the nominal bolt area.
Shear Strength

The nominal shear strength of

ASTM A307 bolts is based on the
assumption that the threads will
always be in the plane of shear.

Group A: ASTM A325, F1852, A352, A354 Grade BC, and A449.
Group B: ASTM A490, F2280, and A354 Grade BD.
Slip Critical Connection
High-strength bolted connections
may be designed such that slipping
is prevented either at the service
load limit state or at the strength
limit state.

• Slippage is not acceptable

(Proper installation and
tensioning is key)

• Must have sufficient shear and

bearing strength in the event of
overload that causes
Welded Connections
Four Types of Structural Welds
Nominal Weld Strength
• The nominal weld strength, 𝐹𝑤 , is a function of the weld metal or
electrode used.

• The ultimate electrode strength can vary from 60 ksi to 120 ksi, but the
most commonly used electrode strength is 70 ksi.

• The designation for electrode strength is an E followed by two digits

that represent the electrode strength and two additional numbers that
indicate the welding process. The designation E70XX is commonly used
to indicate electrodes with a nominal strength of 70 ksi.
Fillet Welds for Truss Members
The centroid of the welds and the
centroid of the statically loaded angle do
not coincide in the connection shown in
this figure.

If a welded connection is subjected to

varying stresses (such as those occurring
in a bridge member), it is essential to
place the welds so that their centroid will
coincide with the centroid of member.
Fillet Welds for Truss Members
• If the member being connected is
symmetrical, the welds will be placed
symmetrically.

• If the member is not symmetrical, the

welds will not be symmetrical.
Complete-Joint-Penetration
Groove Weld Strength
Partial-Joint-Penetration
Groove Welds Strength
Combination of Welds
If two or more of the general types of welds (groove, fillet, plug, slot) are
combined in a single joint, the strength of each shall be separately
computed with reference to the axis of the group in order to determine the
strength of the combination.