Original article

Textile Research Journal

81(1) 101–110

Photocatalytic self-cleaning textiles based ! The Author(s) 2011

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on nanocrystalline titanium dioxide DOI: 10.1177/0040517510383618
trj.sagepub.com

Kaihong Qi, Xiaowen Wang and John H Xin

Abstract
The anatase TiO2 in this study was prepared in an aqueous solution through a sol-gel process with a small amount of acid,
which prevented the loss of the mechanical strength of the cotton fabrics when compared with previous methods. The
application of the anatase TiO2 to textiles, which formed a transparent, thin film of nanocrystalline TiO2 on the fiber
surface, was done via a simple dip-pad–dry-cure process. The adhesion between the TiO2 thin film and the cotton
substrates was high, indicated by good fastness at 20 home launderings. The bending rigidity was increased by 13% and
the air permeability was reduced by 0.76% after TiO2 treatment, which indicated that the treatment did not significantly
influence the fabric handling and the air permeability. The mechanical strengths of the treated cotton fabrics investigated
indicated that the photocatalytic decomposition of the cellulosic chains of the cotton fibers is very limited after 20 h of
irradiation.

Keywords
Photocatalytic, self-cleaning, textiles, titanium dioxide

The nanocrystalline TiO2 coatings that can chemically
break down adsorbed organic contaminants in sunlight
have received much attention1 due to their potential
applications ranging from window glass and cement
to textiles. Self-cleaning paint is currently available in
Europe, and self-cleaning window glass has made an
impact, with several multinational glazing companies
marketing products. In recentt years, some other
TiO2-based self-cleaning products such as ceramics
and plastics have become commercially available.2,3
The nanoscaled TiO2 contained in these products can
decompose organic contaminants and kill bacteria
adhering to the surfaces under UV irradiation.
In order to apply a photocatalytic self-cleaning TiO2
film to soft fibrous substrates such as textiles and gar-
ments, many other properties need to be considered.
First, the titania layer must be very thin and flexible
so that the soft hand feel of the textiles will not be
adversely affected. Second, the titania film must
adhere strongly to the textile substrates because textiles
are often subjected to frequent washing. Third, the
coated titania films must be optically transparent and
colorless so as not to affect the original color of the tex-
tile substrates. Finally, the mechanical properties such as
tensile and tearing strength of the treated fabrics, as well
as fabric breathability, should be maintained.
In recent years, several studies have been published
on textile substrates treated with TiO2 films. Xin et al.4
studied the UV-blocking property of TiO2-treated
cotton fabrics. The treated cotton fabrics possessed
a high UPF rating of 50+ and provided excellent pro-
tection according to the Australian/New Zealand
Standard. Moreover, TiO2 films on cotton fabrics
showed excellent durability up to 55 home launderings.
In a work reported by Nature5 from Daoud and Xin,6
anatase TiO2 nanocrystallites were successfully grown
on cotton fabrics through a hydrothermal process
for 3 h after the fabric treatment using ethanol-based
sol-gel titania. Later, Kiwi et al.7–10 reported the
Institute of Textiles & Clothing, the Hong Kong Polytechnic University,
Hung Hom, Hong Kong.
Corresponding author:
John H Xin, Institute of Textiles & Clothing, the Hong Kong Polytechnic
University, Hung Hom, Hong Kong
Email: tcxinjh@inet.polyu.edu.hk
102
preparation of self-cleaning wool–polyamide, polyester
and cotton textiles treated with TiO2. In their work, the
TiO2 colloidal solution was prepared using an isopro-
panol-based sol-gel process at 0 C,7 or using an iso-
propanol-based sol-gel process at 0 C followed by
hydrothermal treatment at 100 C and 220 C for
16 h,8 and then applying the colloidal solution to tex-
tiles. However, it was amorphous9 TiO2 or rutile8 TiO2
that was attained on the textiles, which were less photo-
active than anatase TiO2.2 Furthermore, the use of
organic solvents in these studies is not desirable, as it
is not environmentally friendly. A TiO2 colloid pre-
pared using an aqueous-based sol-gel process at 80 C
was also amorphous TiO2,9 which was used to fabricate
SiO2/TiO2 coating on cotton. The SiO2/TiO2 film on
the cotton was obtained by immersing the cotton in a
mixture of TiO2 colloid and commercial SiO2 solution,
followed by a thermal treatment at 100 C for 1 h. It is
well understood that long treatment time is not eco-
nomical in industrial applications. Daoud et al.11,12 fab-
ricated and investigated self-cleaning wool utilizing the
chemical modification and coating processes. More
recently, we studied self-cleaning cotton and polyester
treated with single-phase anatase TiO2 nanosols.13–15
These nanosols were synthesized using an aqueous
sol-gel process at a low temperature of 60 C. The UV
absorption study of the TiO2-treated cotton fabrics
revealed a high UPF rating of 50+, which indicated
an excellent UV protection property. The study of
photocatalytic activities of the fabrics treated with the
anatase TiO2 sol revealed that the treated textiles had
excellent bactericidal ability and were capable of com-
pletely decomposing color stains such as red wine and
coffee. However, the tearing strengths of TiO2-treated
cotton and polyester fabrics were reduced compared
with those of untreated cotton and polyester fabrics,
which was attributed to the strong acidity of the sol
and the increased stiffness of the treated cotton and
polyester fabrics.
In the present study, we attempted to further
improve the self-cleaning technology to make feasible
textiles and garment applications with good launder-
ing durability, soft fabric handling and better mechan-
ical strength for TiO2-treated cotton fabrics.
Nanocrystalline TiO2 sol with high TiO2 concentration
and a very low amount of acid was prepared by a sol-
gel process in an acidic aqueous solution at a low tem-
perature of 60 C under mechanical stirring. TiO2 thin
films were produced on cotton fabrics from a colloidal
sol by a simple dip-pad–dry-cure process with a much
shorter time duration compared with the processes pre-
viously reported.7–10 The washfastness was assessed by
analyzing the photocatalytic activities the TiO2-treated
textile fabrics, such as colorant decomposition, and the
degradation of red wine and coffee stains before and
Textile Research Journal 81(1)
after laundering. The fabric handling and mechanical
strengths of the TiO2-treated textile fabrics were also
investigated.
Experimental details
Materials
Titanium tetraisopropoxide (97%), hydrochloric acid
(37%) and acetic acid (99.9%) were purchased from
Aldrich. All of the chemicals were reagent grade. The
colorant Neolan Blue 2G was supplied by Ciba and was
used as received. Softener BD-10076-80 was purchased
from Hangzhou Baldsilicone Co Ltd in China. Desized
and scoured white plain woven cotton fabrics were
used. The cotton fabrics were washed again by nonionic
detergent at 80 C for 30 min to remove any pre-treat-
ment chemicals on the fabrics. Deionized water was
used throughout the study.
Preparation of TiO2 sol
A volume of 300 ml titanium tetraisopropoxide
(Aldrich, 97%) was added dropwise into 700 ml acidic
water containing 0.2% hydrochloric acid (Aldrich,
37%)) and 0.2% acetic acid (Aldrich, 99.9%) under
mechanical stirring. The mixtures were heated to 60 C
and kept at that temperature while being stirred
mechanically for 16 h. The pH value of as-prepared
TiO2 sol is around 2.
Preparation of TiO2-treated fabrics
and TiO2 powders
The as-prepared sol was diluted 10 times using deio-
nized water. Then 1% softener was added into the
diluted TiO2 sol before a finishing process (pH value
of the padding bath is around 5). TiO2 finishing
on white cotton fabrics was done through a
dip-pad–dry-cure process. The cleaned cotton fabrics
were firstly dipped in TiO2 sol for 1 min and padded
with an automatic padder (Rapid Labortex Co Ltd,
Taipei, Taiwan) with a fixed nip pressure to standardize
the amount of TiO2 on each of the cotton substrates (wet
pick-up is about 70%). The substrates were then dried at
80 C for 5 min in a preheated oven (Memmert ULE800
Universal Oven, Memmert, Schwabach, Germany)
and finally cured at 120 C for 3 min in a preheated
curing machine (Mathis Labdryer Labor-Trockner
Type LTE, Werner Mathis AG Co, Switzerland).
TiO2 powder was extracted from the as-prepared sol
by adding adequate amount of 0.3% sodium carbonate
aqueous solution until precipitation occurred. The
formed suspensions were centrifuged at 4000 rpm for
5 min using a Boeco C-28 Centrifuge (Model BOE
Qi et al.
1205-13, Boeckel & Co, Hamburg, Germany), followed
by removal of the liquid phase. The precipitates were
then washed three times with water and finally with
acetone twice before being dried at room temperature
overnight.
Characterization of TiO2 nanoparticles
The structure and morphology of the TiO2 film on
cotton fabrics were investigated using field-emission
scanning electron microscopy (FESEM, JSM-6335F
at 3.0 kV, JEOL, Tokyo, Japan). The crystal phase of
the titania powder extracted from the sol was studied
by X-ray diffraction spectroscopy (XRD, Bruker D8
Discover X-ray diffractometer, Bruker AXS,
Karlsruhe, Germany) operating at 40 kV and 40 mA.
The particle size distribution of titanium dioxide sol
was studied on a particle size analyzer (ZetaPlus,
Brookhaven Instruments Corporation, New York,
USA) by the measurement of the Doppler-shifted fre-
quency spectrum of scattered laser light performed on
an appropriately diluted aqueous sol.
Washfastness of TiO2 film on cotton fabrics
Washing of TiO2-treated cotton fabrics was carried
out following AATCC Test Method 61-2003 Test No.
2A at 49  2 C using AATCC Standard Instrument
Atlas Launder-Ometer LEF (Atlas Electric Devices
Company, Chicago, USA). The washing was carried
out at 49  2 C for 1.5 h, which was equivalent to 10
times of repeated home laundering. The washfastness
of the TiO2 film on cotton fabrics was evaluated by
comparing the decomposition activity of the treated
cotton fabrics to a colorant, coffee, red wine and
curry stains before and after 10 and 20 washings.
Assessment of photocatalytic activities
of the treated fabrics
The photocatalytic activities of TiO2-treated cotton
fabrics were assessed by analyzing the decrease in con-
centration of the colorant Neolan Blue 2G after expo-
sure to UV irradiation. In total 3 g of fabrics were cut
into 1 cm  1 cm pieces. These pieces were placed in
three 250 ml beakers containing 100 ml aqueous solu-
tion of Neolan Blue 2G (0.1 g/l). The beakers were then
exposed to UV radiation produced by Philip UV lamps
(365 nm, Philips TLD 18W/08) while under vigorous
shaking (using an IKA KS260 Basic Orbital Shaker,
IKA Laboratories Ltd., Nesher, Israel). The light inten-
sity on the top of beakers was 1.1–1.2 mW/cm2. Prior to
UV irradiation, the colorant solution with white cot-
ton pieces was kept in dark condition for 2 h under
shaking to establish the fabric absorption–desorption
103
equilibrium. UV-Vis absorption spectra of irradiated
samples were recorded on a UV-Vis spectrometer
(Perkin Elmer UV-Vis spectrometer Lambda 18,
Perkin Elmer, Waltham, USA). The colorant solution
was centrifuged to precipitate cotton fibers at the
bottom of the tube, and the upper clear colorant solu-
tion was analyzed. The change in concentration of the
colorant was estimated at the absorption peak of
630 nm for Neolan Blue 2G. For comparison, the
same test was also performed using untreated white
cotton fabric.
Assessment of degradation of coffee,
red wine and curry stains
The photocatalytic degradation of coffee stains
(Nestle, 1.8 g 100% pure soluble coffee powder/150 ml
hot water), red wine stains (Carlo Rossi California
Red, 11.5% alc/vol) and curry stains (Homei, 0.5 g
100% curry powder/10 ml hot water) were evaluated.
Control fabric and TiO2-treated white cotton fabrics
after 10 and 20 washings were cut into 4.5 cm  6.5 cm
pieces. Two drops of red wine and coffee were applied
onto these cotton fabrics, respectively, using 10 ml med-
ical syringe with the pinhead close to the fabric surface
when dropping. These stained samples were lightly
rinsed for 20 s according to a modified procedure of
AATCC Test Method 61-2003 Test No. 2A at room
temperature without AATCC detergent. This step is
to simulate the hand wiping action often performed
by wearers once their garments are soiled. The rinsed
samples were then dried in air and exposed to light
irradiation for 4 h. The irradiation of all samples were
carried out in a Xenotest Alpha LM light exposure and
weathering test instrument (air-cooled xenon arc lamp,
irradiance 4.5 mW/cm2 at 300–400 nm wavelength,
Xenotest Alpha LM, Heraeus Industrietechnik, Hanau,
Germany). The staining grades of coffee, red wine and
curry stains before and after washings was evaluated
according to AATCC Test Method 130-2000 using
stain release replica.
Mechanical properties of the treated cotton fabrics
The tearing strengths of control and TiO2-treated cotton
fabrics before and after light irradiation with predefined
durations were measured by an Elmatear Digital Tear
Tester (James H Heal & Co Ltd, England) in accordance
with ASTM D 1424-96. The tensile strength of control
and TiO2-treated cotton fabrics before and after 10 h
and 20 h of light irradiation was measured, respectively,
by a Tensile Strength Tester Instron 4411 (Instron Co,
UK) with Instron Series IX Software in accordance with
ASTM D 5034-95. The irradiation of all samples was
carried out in Xenotest Alpha LM light exposure and
104 Textile Research Journal 81(1)

weathering test instrument with details given previously.

The bending rigidity of control and TiO2-treated cotton
fabrics was obtained on Kawabata Pure Bending
Tester—KES-FB2 (KATO Tech Co, Japan) according
to the Kawabata Evaluation System for Fabrics
(KES-F).The air permeability of control and TiO2-
treated cotton fabrics was tested by Air Permeability
Tester M021S (SDL Atlas Inc, America) according to
ASTM D737-96. The obtained experimental data were
the average of five tests and reported as the aver-
age  standard deviation in the corresponding tables in
the following results and discussion.
Results and discussion
X-ray diffraction pattern
The crystal phases of the TiO2 were studied by XRD.
Figure 1 shows the XRD pattern of the TiO2 powder
extracted from the sol prepared in this study. The sharp
and strong anatase peaks (25.4 , 38.0 , 48.0 , 55.0 and
62.0 ) and the broad and weak brookite-associated
peaks (25.4 and 30.4 ) were observed. According to
JCPDS Card No: 21-1272 and No. 29-1360 (JCPDS
Catalogue), the obtained TiO2 particles are predomi-
nantly anatase nanocrystallites with a small content
of brookite crystallites. The presence of rutile can be
qualified by XRD at 27.5 , 36.0 , etc.16 Careful inves-
tigation of the XRD spectra showed no traces of rutile
in the TiO2. It is noted that there is no significant dif-
ference between XRD patterns of TiO2 nanoparticles
and TiO2 films on textiles as reported previously,13 and
hence these data are not shown in Figure 1.
Particle size distribution
The particle size analysis of the TiO2 was conducted by
the measurement of the Doppler-shifted frequency
spectrum of scattered laser light performed on appro-
priately diluted aqueous sol. As can be seen in Figure 2
curve (a), the particle size distribution was broad and
ranged from 25–200 nm, and 70% of the particles had a
diameter of less than 100 nm as shown in Figure 2 curve
(b). The mean particle size was 73 nm.
SEM images of the TiO2-treated fabrics
Figure 3 shows SEM micrographs of TiO2 treated
cotton fibers at low and high resolution. SEM analysis
of TiO2-treated cotton fibers in Figure 3(a) shows that a
TiO2 thin layer has been formed on the cotton fibers.
SEM image at high resolution in Figure 3(b) shows the
surface structure of the TiO2-treated cotton fiber. It is
seen that the surface is porous under high
magnification.
Colorant photocatalytic decomposition
by the TiO2-treated fabrics
The self-cleaning effect of the TiO2-treated cotton fab-
rics was evaluated by the decomposition of the color-
ant, Neolan Blue 2G, in an aqueous solution under UV
irradiation. Figure 4 shows the concentration change of
the colorant for control and TiO2-treated cotton fabrics
during the UV irradiation. The inset located on the
bottom left corner is the absorption spectrum of
Neolan Blue 2G. The absorption spectrum shows that

110
100
AB
90 (b)
80
70
Intensity
Intensity (a.u.)

60
50
40
A
A 30
A (a)
20
B
A
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 Particle diameter (nm)
2 Theat (Deg.)

Figure 2. Nanocrystalline particle size distribution of titania

Figure 1. X-ray diffraction pattern of TiO2 (A: anatase, sol: (a) particle size distribution and (b) particle distribution
B: brookite). percentage.
Qi et al. 105

Figure 3. Scanning electron microscopy images of (a) TiO2-treated cotton fibers at low resolution and (b) TiO2-treated cotton
fibers at high resolution.

ability and the dye itself would not be decomposed by

the level of UV radiation used.
0.07
The durability of the TiO2 film on cotton was inves-
tigated by comparing the colorant decomposition activ-
0.06
ities of TiO2-treated cotton fabrics before and after 10
and 20 washings according to AATCC Test Method
0.05
61-2003 Test No. 2A at 49  2 C, shown in Figure 4.
Concentration (g/l)

0.7 Although the rates of colorant decomposition of the

0.04 0.6 TiO2-treated samples were decreased after 10 and 20
0.5
washings compared with that before washing, they
Absorbance

0.4
0.03
0.3
0.2
0.02 0.1
0.0
400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800
Wavelength (nm)
0.01
0 2
Figure 4. Variations in concentration of Neolan Blue 2G in an
aqueous solution as a function of UV irradiation time for (#)
Control, () TiO2-treated cotton before washing, (~) TiO2-
treated cotton after 10 washings and (!) TiO2-treated cotton
after 20 washings. Inset located on the bottom left corner is the
absorption spectra of Neolan Blue 2G.
the maximum absorption peak of Neolan Blue 2G is at
the wavelength of 630 nm. It can be seen that the col-
orant concentration under UV irradiation was reduced
remarkably by TiO2-treated cotton fabrics before wash-
ing, which indicates that TiO2 under UV irradiation has
high colorant decomposition activity or high photoca-
talytic power. This is considered to be attributed to
predominantly anatase nanocrystallites with high crys-
tallinity as demonstrated by its sharp anatase peaks
with high intensities from the XRD study (Figure 1).
Under the same UV irradiation, the colorant concen-
tration in contact with control remained almost at the
same level during UV irradiation, which means that this
type of cotton substrate has no colorant decomposition
still possess significant photocatalytic power compared
with that of the control substrates. Moreover, the col-
orant decomposition of the treated cotton substrates
after 20 washings was very slightly lower than that
after 10 washings, which suggests that the durability
4 6 8 10 12
can be maintained or is very slightly reduced after 20
Irradiation time (h) washings. This may be attributable to the formation of
covalent bonding at the interface of TiO2 and cotton
fibers as a result of dehydration reactions between the
cellulosic hydroxyl groups and the hydroxyl groups of
titania.17,18
Degradation of coffee, red wine and curry stains
The self-cleaning property of the titania treatment can
be assessed by the degradation of organic dirt such as
coffee, red wine and curry stains. Figure 5 presents the
degradation pictures of coffee, red wine and curry
stains on control and TiO2-treated cotton fabrics
before and after washings under 4 h of light irradiation
in Xenotest Alpha LM light exposure and weathering
test instrument. Table 1 shows the staining grades of
coffee, red wine and curry stains before and after wash-
ings according AATCC 130 using stain release replica.
Grade 5 represents the best stain removal and Grade 1
represents the poorest stain removal. The pictures of
stains on cotton fabrics after 10 and 20 washings
before irradiation were not shown in Figure 5 as they
are similar to those before washing and irradiation.
106 Textile Research Journal 81(1)

(1)

0h Rinsed 4h 10 washings 20 washings

(2)

0h Rinsed 4h 10 washings 20 washings

(3)

0h Rinsed 4h 10 washings 20 washings

Figure 5. Stain decomposition test using (1) coffee stains, (2) red wine stains and (3) curry stains. The images shown in (1), (2) and
(3) are the exposed side of (a) control and (b) TiO2-treated white cotton fabrics at 0 h, after rinsing before irradiation, after 4 h
irradiation of the rinsed samples and after 4 h irradiation of the samples after 10, 20 washings in Xenotest Alpha LM light exposure and
weathering test instrument.
Qi et al. 107

Table 1. Staining grades of coffee, red wine and curry stains

Staining Grades

Stains 0h Rinsed 4 h Irradiation 10 washings 20 washings

Coffee Control 1 2 2 – –
TiO2-treated cotton 1 2 5 4.5 3.5
Red Wine Control 1 2 2 – –
TiO2-treated cotton 1 2 5 4 3
Curry Control 1 2.5 2.5 – –
TiO2-treated cotton 1 2.5 5 4.5 3.5

Table 1 displays that the grades of coffee, red wine
and curry stains on control and TiO2-treated cotton
fabrics at 0 h were scored as 1. After rinsing, the
grades of coffee and red wine stains on control and
TiO2-treated cotton fabrics were 2, and the grades of
curry stains on both control and TiO2-treated cotton
fabrics were 2.5. This shows that the rinse slightly wipes
off stains, especially the solid contents of the stains,
which can also be seen from the pictures in Figure 5.
After 4 h irradiation, coffee, red wine and curry stains
on the TiO2-treated cotton fabrics were discolored dra-
matically, as shown in Figure 5, and the grades of
coffee, red wine and curry stains on TiO2-treated
cotton fabrics were scored at 5 in Table 1, which rep-
resents the best stain removal. On the other hand,
almost no discoloration of coffee, red wine and curry
stains on control samples was observed after the irra-
diation (Figure 5). It can also be seen from Table 1 that
the grades of both coffee and red wine stains on the
control were scored at 2, and that of curry stains on
the control was 2.5. These results clearly indicate that
the TiO2 layer on cotton fabrics can greatly degrade
coffee, red wine and curry stains while control sub-
strates have no decomposition ability at all. In contrast
to the discoloration of coffee, red wine and curry stains
on TiO2-treated cotton fabrics before washing and after
4 h irradiation, there was no significant reduction
observed in the discoloration of these stains on the
treated cotton fabrics after 10 washings and 4 h irradi-
ation (Figure 5). The grades of both coffee and curry
stains on TiO2-treated cotton fabrics were 4.5, and that
of red wine stains on TiO2-treated cotton fabrics was 4,
which represents good stain removal. Although the dis-
coloration of these stains on the treated cotton fabrics
was decreased slightly and the staining grades of these
stains were reduced by 1 grade after 20 washings and
4 h irradiation, the treated fabrics still possess signifi-
cant photocatalytic power compared with that of con-
trol substrates. From these results, it can be concluded
that the TiO2 layer possessed significant photocatalytic
ability and this ability still exists after 20 washings.
Table 2. Bending rigidity study
Bending Rigidity (gf cm2/cm)  Standard
Deviation (gf cm2/cm)
Control TiO2 treated cotton
Warp 0.0612  0.00065 0.0695  0.00029
Weft 0.0373  0.00016 0.0419  0.00019
Average 0.0493 0.0557
Overall change (%) – 13%
Mechanical properties of the TiO2-treated fabrics
To assess the effect of TiO2 treatment on the mechan-
ical properties of the cotton fabrics, several tests were
performed on fabric handling, air permeability, tearing
strength and tensile strength. Bending rigidity is related
to fabric stiffness and difficulty of fabric deformation
under bending. The higher the bending rigidity, the
higher the fabric’s ability to resist bending deformation
and the greater the stiffness of the fabric. From Table 2,
it can be seen that TiO2 treatment slightly increased
bending rigidity in warp and weft directions, and the
bending rigidity was increased by 13% after TiO2 treat-
ment when compared with that of control. This indi-
cates that TiO2 treatment makes the fabric slightly
stiffer, and the softener added into TiO2 decreases the
bending rigidity as a result of the reduction in friction
forces between fibers. The obtained bending rigidity of
the studied textiles as shown in Table 2 indicates that
TiO2 treatment does not significantly affect the fabric
handling.
Table 3 shows the air permeability and standard
deviations of control and TiO2-treated cotton fabrics
according to ASTM D737-96. The air permeability of
the fabric is described as the rate of air flow passing
perpendicularly through a fabric under a prescribed air
pressure differential between the two surfaces of the
fabric. From Table 3, it can be seen that the air
108
permeability of TiO2-treated cotton fabrics is similar to
that of the control. The results indicate that TiO2 treat-
ment has no influence on the air permeability of the
fabric.
To evaluate the effect of TiO2 treatment on cotton
fabric resistance to tearing force and stretching force,
and on TiO2 photocatalytic decomposition of cotton
fibers under light irradiation, tearing strength and ten-
sile strength were investigated. Table 4 shows the tear-
ing strengths and standard deviations of control and
TiO2-treated cotton fabrics before and after light irra-
diation in Xenotest Alpha LM light exposure and
weathering test instrument. Before irradiation, the tear-
ing strengths of TiO2-treated cotton fabrics were
increased by 5% in the warp direction and by 3% in
the weft direction compared with those of the control.
This may be attributed to the softener added into tita-
nia sol for the cotton treatment, which may act as lubri-
cant to ease the inter-fiber and inter-yarn frictions
leading to an improvement in tearing strength. After
10, 20 h of light irradiation, the tearing strengths of
the control and TiO2-treated cotton fabrics were
decreased. After 10 h of light irradiation, the tearing
strengths of both control and TiO2-treated cotton fab-
rics were reduced, respectively, by 15% and 19% in the
warp direction, and by 11% and 18% in the weft
Table 3. Air permeability study
Air Permeability
(cm3/s/cm2)  Standard
Fabrics Deviation(cm3/s/cm2) Reduction (%)
Control 14.44  0.71 – Before irradiation, the tensile strengths of TiO2-treated
TiO2-treated cotton 14.33  0.56 0.76
Table 4. Tearing strength study
Tearing Strength (gf)  Standard Deviation (gf)
Warp
Irradiation Time (h) Control
0 1028  8.0
10 870  12.1
20 823  10.6
Reduction after 10 h compared with 0 h (%) 15
Reduction after 20 h compared with 0 h (%) 20
After 20 h irradiation, TiO2-treated cotton – 1021  9.4
samples were treated again with softener
Reduction after softener treatment again – 6
compared with 0 h (%)
Textile Research Journal 81(1)
direction, respectively, compared with those before
irradiation. After 20 h of light irradiation, the tearing
strengths of control and TiO2-treated cotton fabrics
were reduced by 20% and 28%, respectively, in the
warp direction, and by 16% and 25%, respectively, in
the weft direction compared with those before light
irradiation. In comparison with the tearing strengths
of control fabric subjected to 10 h and 20 h of light
irradiation, the decreases in TiO2-treated cotton fabrics
were slightly higher.
The TiO2-treated cotton fabrics subjected to 20 h of
light irradiation were treated again with the softener, in
order to establish the cause of the reduction. The tear-
ing strengths of this additional softener-treated TiO2
fabric showed 6% reduction in the warp direction and
5% reduction in the weft direction compared with those
TiO2 fabrics before irradiation; comparing the tearing
strengths of the control fabric before irradiation, the
reduction was 1% in the warp direction and 2% in
the weft direction. These results clearly show that the
loss of tearing strengths of TiO2-treated cotton fabrics
can be significantly recovered after additional softener
treatment. Therefore, the loss of tearing strengths for
TiO2-treated fabric after UV irradiation can be attrib-
utable to the degradation of the softener during UV
irradiation. This suggests that the photocatalytic
decomposition of the cellulosic chains of the cotton
fibers is very limited, if it occurs at all, after 10 and
20 h of irradiation.
Table 5 shows the tensile strengths and standard
deviations of control and TiO2-treated cotton fabrics
before and after light irradiation in Xenotest Alpha
LM light exposure and weathering test instrument.
cotton fabrics were similar to those of the control. This
indicates that the tensile strength may not be altered by
Weft
TiO2-treated cotton Control TiO2-treated cotton
1081  11.0 782  12.3 806  11.5
876  11.4 697  9.4 661  9.4
778  5.7 657  7.7 604  9.9
19 11 18
28 16 25
– 764  10.8
– 5
Qi et al.
Table 5. Tensile strength study
Tensile Strength (N)  Standard Deviation (N)
Warp
Irradiation Time (h) Control
0 478  6.4
10 465  9.2
20 453  4.1
Reduction after 10 h compared with 0 h (%) 3 3
Reduction after 20 h compared with 0 h (%) 5 7
After 20 h irradiation, TiO2-treated cotton – 450  4.9
retreated with softener
Reduction after softener treatment – 6
compared with 0 h (%)
the softener. After 10, 20 h of light irradiation, the tensile
strengths of both the control and the TiO2-treated
cotton fabrics were decreased. After 10 h of light irradi-
ation, the decrease in the tensile strengths of TiO2-
treated cotton fabrics was 3% in the warp direction and
5% in the weft direction, while the decrease in those of the
control was 3% in the warp direction and 6% in the weft
direction. After 20 h of light irradiation, the decrease in
tensile strengths of TiO2-treated cotton fabrics was 7% in
the warp direction and 13% in the weft direction, while
the decrease in those of control was 5% in the warp
direction and 10% in the weft direction. When softener
was added to the TiO2-treated cotton fabrics subjected to
20 h of light irradiation, the tensile strengths were reduced
by 6% in the warp direction and by 11% in the weft
direction compared with those of TiO2-treated cotton
fabrics before irradiation, and reduced by 6% in the
warp direction and by 11% in the weft direction
compared with the tensile strengths of the control
before irradiation. These results show that the decreases
in tensile strengths of control and TiO2-treated cotton
fabrics after light irradiation are very similar. The
damage is therefore attributable to UV radiation itself.
Conclusions
Nanocrystalline TiO2 was prepared by a simple sol-gel
process at 60 C in an aqueous media. The XRD exper-
iment showed that the TiO2 obtained is mainly in ana-
tase form. The cotton fabrics treated by nanocrystalline
TiO2 showed significant self-cleaning performance as
demonstrated by the colorant decomposition and deg-
radation of red wine, coffee, and curry stains under UV
irradiation. The TiO2 thin film had good adhesion to
the cotton substrates resulting in relatively high wash-
fastness. The bending rigidity of the TiO2-treated
cotton fabrics was slightly increased. The TiO2
109
Weft
TiO2 treated cotton Control TiO2 treated cotton
480  7.8 270  6.9 269  6.9
464  7.1 253  8.0 255  7.8
446  7.8 243  8.5 234  6.7
6 5
10 13
– 240  8.2
– 11
treatment did not affect the air permeability of the
cotton fabrics. Tearing strength and tensile strength
studies showed that photocatalytic decomposition of
the cellulosic chains of the cotton fibers is very limited
under the irradiation conditions used.
Funding
This work was supported by the Research Grants
Council of Hong Kong SAR Government [grant
number PolyU 5324/08E] and the support of
HKRITA project [grant number ITP/008/07TP].
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