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The Psychological Effects of Music

By Scott Severance

Carl sat in church mesmerized by the music. To those around him, he seemed to be in a
different world. Was he under the influence of music? Was the music controlling him?
Understanding whether it is possible to be controlled by music is essential to grasping the
psychological effects music brings about. If music can be controlling, understanding it is of
the utmost importance.

Definitions
A sound of a certain, definite frequency is called a pitch. Melody is the main part of a
composition, made up of successive pitches. It is the part of the music that is remembered
most specifically. When pitches are played simultaneously in an organized manner, they
create harmony. Rhythm is the pattern of emphases or stresses that occurs in music.
Doroftei (1998) notes that "sometimes rhythm can be imposed without melody, but the
reverse cannot be done" (p. 2). The rate of speed at which a piece of music is played is
called tempo.

Figure 1

In this example, the notes with

stems pointing up are melody
notes. The notes with stems
pointing down are the
harmony. The five horizontal
lines make up the staff.
Music may be represented
graphically by a staff, notes,
and rests. A staff is a series of
straight lines that are horizontal,
parallel, and equidistant from
each other. Notes are written as
ovals and their connected lines
whose placement on the staff
indicates pitch. Periods of
silence are represented by
symbols called rests. Rhythm is
indicated by the shape of the
notes and rests. See Figure 1.
Combinations of pitches that are
pleasing are called
consonances, while
dissonances are not pleasing.
More specifically, dissonance is
those combinations of pitches
that seem to pull toward
resolution to a more consonant
combination. For a combination
to be consonant, it must seem to
rest there, without resolution
(Randel, 1978). This definition
is dependent upon Western
tonal music.
Timbre, sometimes called tone
color, is one of the most
difficult properties of music to
define. Simply stated, it is how
we can tell one instrument from
another, even if they are playing
the same pitch.
Most music is organized into
beats (regular emphases
occurring throughout the whole
piece or a section of it) Some
beats are major (strong) and
some are minor (weak).
Syncopation is the holding of a
note beginning on a minor beat
across a major beat. Closely
related is off-beat rhythm,
where emphasis is placed on a
beat that normally would not
receive as much emphasis. In
this paper, syncopation will also
refer to off-beat rhythms.

General Effects of
Music
Every new style of music has
been greeted with suspicion by
some. The Greek philosopher
Plato wrote, "A change to a new
type of music is something to
beware of as a hazard to all of
our fortunes. For the modes of
music are never disturbed
without upsetting of the most
fundamental political and social
conventions" (p. 333).
Nowhere has this suspicion of
new music been more
noticeable than in the church.
The arrival of Jazz and its
descendants, particularly Rock,
beginning in the 1920s, has
been a topic of heated
discussion in conservative
Christian churches. At first, it
was shunned. Then, ever so
slowly, it started gaining
acceptance to the point that
music today, even in most
conservative churches, would
seem inappropriate to those in
the 1920s. The above
illustrations are only a
beginning to the study of the
effects of music.

Table 1

Elements of Music
Element Disharmonic
of Music Harmonic Use
Melody Pleasing (can Little or no
stand alone) melody (needs
help)
Timbre Pleasant and Harsh; dirty
clear
Harmony Clean, Cluttered; lots of
harmonious dissonant
chords; correct chords; incorrect
intonation intonation
(sloppy)
 Rhythm Clustered about Frequent or
and fully perpetual
sympathetic to syncopation or
the main beat; polyrhythms;
variety monotonous
Tempo Between sixty Too slow or too
and 120 (mostly fast
seventy to
eighty) beats
per minute;
phrased
Words Biblically Repititious;
sound; positive sentimental;
Biblically
unsound
Source: Torres and Torres. Adapted.
One study that compared two different types
of music demonstrated a negative impact upon
the cardiovascular system after listening to
Bruckner's Ninth Symphony, which is
considered disharmonic, while Bach's
Brandenburg Concerto Number Three
positive effect on the listener (Melnikov,
1970). Torres and Torres apply a broad
definition to harmonic and disharmonic music.
See Table 1 for their definition. The next five
sections will examine each element of
harmonic and disharmonic music as defined
by Torres and Torres.

Melody

Melody is the part of music that stands out. It

makes the music memorable. Without it,
something seems to be missing. Music that
does not have much of a melody often lacks
direction.

Harmony

Consonant harmony can produce a wide

variety of effects. Consonant harmony can be
bright or dark, cheerful or melancholy, lyrical
or disconnected, upbeat or slow. Dissonant
harmony, although it sometimes can have
similar effects as consonant harmony, is
usually irritating, agitating, or has one of any
number of other negative effects. It is
important to note that individual dissonances
occur in consonant harmony, as do
consonances in dissonant harmony. This
discussion refers to the character of the
harmony as a whole.

Timbre

What makes the difference between a good

singer and a bad one, assuming both are able
to stay on the correct pitch? One might have a
clear voice, while the other's might be harsh.
The clear voice is more pleasant to listen to,
while harsh sounds are agitating. They set the
listener on edge.

Words

Although words have a definite effect on the

music listener, their main influence is
manifested through rhythm and tempo, which
will be discussed later. For now, the
disharmonic use of words in music (as
classified by Torres and Torres) includes
meaningless phrases and excessive repetition.
Words are often made meaningless by over-
repetition or, particularly in religious music,
irrelevance to the music or message. Words in
harmonic music have easily understood
meaning. They are relevant to the
composition, and are not repeated excessively.

Rhythm and Tempo

Rhythm is the single most influential musical

element. Tempo is very closely related. Kelly
(quoted in Douglas, 1987) introduces this
topic well: "Everything from the cycle of our
brain waves to the pumping of our heart
work [sic] in rhythms. We're a mass of cycles
piled one on top of another, so we're clearly
organized both to generate and respond to
rhythmic phenomena" (p. 42) Douglas says in
the same article that everything we do, from
conversation to bodily functions, is controlled
by rhythm. Clarke (1999) noted that rhythm
has an effect on the listeners' judgment.
Rhythm and tempo have a strong
physiological influence on the body. Melkinov
(1970) writes that a certain composition of
Domenico Modugnio, which has a fast tempo,
raised the heart rate of the subjects in an
experiment by 4.7 beats per minute. It is a
commonly acknowledged fact that many
people listen to music, especially rock and its
related styles, for the "beat"; in other words,
they listen to it for its rhythm and tempo
(Wright, 1999). Obviously, then, they are very
influential.
Rhythm is also responded to by the listener.
Gabrielsson (1982) places the responses into
three categories: experiential ("various
perceptual, cognitive, and emotional
variables" [p. 160]), behavioral (actions
performed as a result of the rhythm), and
physiological. "In a real life situation," he
writes, "the responding person is usually
not aware of the different components of his
rhythm response" (p. 160). More
specifically, affected individuals are rarely
aware of all of their responses, such as
changes in heart rate or respiration, or even
toe tapping. They can become aware if they
think about it. But then, according to
Torres and Torres, their responses are
usually different.
Rhythm and tempo, used harmonically, are
sympathetic to the body. The tempo should
usually correspond to the normal human heart
rate range of approximately sixty to 120 beats
per minute, with most music between seventy
and eighty beats per minute (Torres & Torres).
The rhythm should not detract from the main
beat, and there should be rhythmic variety.
Disharmonic rhythm and tempo are
destructive to the body. Disharmonic tempo is
outside the range of sixty to 120 beats per
minute. Disharmonic rhythm often includes
frequent syncopation (as does almost all
current popular music, and a lot of twentieth-
century art [sometimes called Classical]
music). Monotonous rhythm (the same rhythm
repeated many times) is also disharmonic.

Overall Psychological Effect

of Harmonic and
Disharmonic Music

Table 2

Results of the Study By Schreckenberg

and Bird
Harmonic
Group Disharmonic Group
No  Excess
significant branching of
differences the neuronal
between dendrites
this group
and the  Significant
control increases in
group messenger
ribonucleic
acid

 Significant
decreases in
learning
retention or
memory

 Hyperactivity

 Aggression
(including
cannibalism)

 Lethargy and
inattentivenes
 s
Source: Torres and Torres. Adapted.
Torres and Torres discuss a study by G. M.
Schreckenberg and H. H. Bird (1988) on mice
that demonstrates the widespread effects of
music. At birth, 36 mice were divided into three
groups: harmonic, disharmonic, and a control
group. Around the clock, the harmonic group
was exposed to harmonic music (see
eighty to 85 decibels, the disharmonic group was
exposed to disharmonic music at eighty to 85
decibels, and the control group was kept in a
relatively quiet environment at 75 decibels. Two
months into the study, four mice from each
group were killed and preserved for later study.
The remaining mice were given three weeks of
maze training followed by three weeks of rest
during which no training took place. After the
rest period, they were tested for another three
weeks to determine how much they remembered,
then they, too, were killed and their brains were
studied along with the previous twelve mice's
brains. The results (outlined in Table 2)
demonstrate that "disharmonic music causes 1)
brain nerve damage and 2) behavior degradation"
(p. 27).
Several forms of disharmonic music, Rock being
one of them, seem to be addictive. In an
interview, Schram (1999), an avid popular music
listener, said that he is depressed if he goes too
long without his preferred style of music.
Numerous others have reported this same
phenomenon. However, they deny being
negatively affected. The "withdrawal" symptoms,
such as depression, are probably due largely to
the heightened state of arousal caused by the
rhythm and tempo of disharmonic music. When
some people have changed from disharmonic
music to harmonic music, they report feeling
better overall after initial withdrawal symptoms.
It is also interesting to note that it is possible to
minimize the negative effect that disharmonic
music has, but only while consciously listening
critically to the music and forcing it into the
conscious mind (Torres & Torres).

Conclusion
Music has a very strong, very definite
physiological and psychological effect on people.
Disharmonic music causes a number of negative
behaviors, although according to Torres and
Torres those affected are often "the last to realize
it" (p. 23). But the good news is that everyone
can choose what music they listen to. All it
requires is a basic understanding of harmonic and
disharmonic music.

References
Clarke, E. F. (1999). Rhythm and timing
in music. In D. Deutsch (ed.),
psychology of music (2nd ed.) (pp. 473-
500). San Diego: Academic Press.
Doroftei, M. (1998). Music theory made
clear. Unpublished.
Douglas, C. (1987, November). The beat
goes on. Psychology Today
Gabrielsson, A. (1982). Perception and
performance of musical rhythm. In M.
Clynes (ed.), Music, mind, and brain:
The neuropsychology of music
69). New York: Putnam.
Melnikov, L. (1970). USSR: Music and
medicine. Music Journal, XXVIII
18.
Plato (1963). The republic
Trans.) (Vol. 1). Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press.
Randel, D. M. (1978). Harvard concise
dictionary of music. Cambridge, MA:
Belknap.
Schram, K. B. (1999). Interview by
author.
Torres, C. A. & Torres, L. R. (undated).
Notes on music. St. Maries, ID: LMN
Publishing International.
Wright, J. D. (1999). Interview by author.