astern ‘conomy ‘dition Heat Transfer Principles and Applications©) cea Dupre HEAT TRANSFER .- Principles and Applications CMe ocean) Enas, BINAY K. DUTTA Ex-Chairman West Bengal Pollution Control Board Kolkata PHI Learning Privctie Limited Delhi-110092 2015Contents Preface Notations 1, Introduction 1.1~ Modes of Heat Transfer "val Conduction A412 Convection “1.13 Radiation 1.2. Heat Transfer Equipment 1.3. Systems of Measurement, Units and Dimensions 1.3.1 English Engineering System 1.3.2. The International System (SI) of Units (The Systéme Internationale (SI) de Unités) 1.4 Examples of Unit Conversion ae State Conduction in One Dimension 2.1 The Basic Law of Heat Conduction—Fourier’s Law 2.2. Thermal Conductivity 2.3 Steady State Conduction of Heat through a Composite Solid 24 Steady State Heat Conduction through a Variable Area 2.4.1, The Cylinder 2.4.2 The Sphere 2.5 Steady State Heat Conduction in Bodies with Heat Sources 2.5.1. The Plane Wall 2.5.2 The Cylinder 2.5.3. The Sphere 2.6 Average Temperature of a Solid 2.7 Application of Conduction Calculation Short Questions Problems References and Further Reading 3. Heat Transfer Coefficient 3.1 Convective Heat Transfer and the Concept of Heat Transfer Coefficient 3.2 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient 3.2.1 Heat Transfer between Fluids Separated by a Plane Wall 3.2.2 Heat Transfer between Fluids Separated by a Cylindrical Wall 50-97 50 37 37 59iv CONTENTS 3.3. Heat Transfer from Extended Surfaces—The Fins 14 3.4 Thermal Contact Resistance 80 3.5 Critical Insulation Thickness 82 3.6 Economic (or Optimum) Insulation Thickness 85 Short Questions 89 Problems 90 References and Further Reading 7 4, Forced Convection 98-148 4.1 Forced Convection in Systems of Simple Geometries 98 4.1.1 Flow over a Flat Plate 99 4.1.2 Thermal Boundary Layer 100 4.1.3 Flow across a Cylinder 101 42 Dimensional Analysis 103, 4.2.1. Statement of Buckingham Pi Theorem 103 4.2.2. Dimensionless Groups in Convective Heat Transfer to a Fluid Flowing through a Circular Pipe 104 4.3 Dimensionless Groups in Heat Transfer 105 44 Experimental Determination of the Heat Transfer Coefficient 107 4.5 Correlations for the Heat Transfer Coefficient—Intemnal Flows 108 4.5.1 Laminar Flow through a Circular Pipe 109 4.5.2. Turbulent Flow through a Circular Pipe 109 45.3. Flow through a Non-circular Duct 110 4.6 Correlations for the Heat Transfer Coefficient—External Flows ui 4.6.1 Flow over a Flat Plate ML 4.6.2 Flow across a Cylinder 113, 4.6.3. Flow past a Sphese 116 4.64 Flow across a Bank of Tubes 19 4.6.5 Heat Transfer Coefficient in a Packed and a Fluidized Bed 121 4.7 Heat Transfer with a Variable Driving Force—Cocurrent and Countercurrent Operations 122 4,8 Momentum and Heat Transfer Analogies 136 Short Questions 142 Problems 143 References and Further Reading 147 5. Free Convection 149-169 5.1 Qualitative Description of Free Convection Flows 149 5.2 Heat Transfer Correlations for Free Convection 151 5.2.1 Free Convection from a Flat Surface 152 5.2.2. Free Convection from a Cylinder 155 5.2.3. Free Convection from a Sphere 160 5.2.4 Free Convection in an Enclosure 160 5.3. Combined Free and Forced Convection 162 Short Questions 164 Problems 165 References and Further Reading 169CONTENTS pans Condensation 6.1 The Boiling Phenomenon 6.2 Hysteresis in the Boiling Curve 6.3 The Mechanism of Nucleate Boiling 6.4 Correlations for Pool Boiling Heat Transfer 64.1 Nucleate Boiling 6.4.2 Critical Heat Flux 64.3 Stable Film Boiling 65 Forced Convection Boiling 6.6 The Condensation Phenomenon 6.7 Film Condensation on a Vertical Surface 6.8 Turbulent Film Condensation 6.9 Condensation Outside a Horizontal Tube or a Tube Bank 6.10 Condensation Inside a Horizontal Tube 6.11 Effect of Non-condensable.Gases 6.12 Dropwise Condensation Short Questions Problems References and Further Reading 7. Radiation Heat Transfer 7.1 Basic Concepts of Radiation from a Surface 7.1.1 Blackbody Radiation 2 Planck’s Law 3 Wein’s Displacement Law 4 The Stefan-Boltzmann Law 5 Kirchhoff’s Law 7.1.6 Gray Body 7.2. Radiation Intensity of a Blackbody 7.3 Spectral Emissive Power of a Blackbody over a Hemisphere 7.4 Radiative Heat Exchange between Surfaces—The View Factor 7.5 View Factor Algebra 7.6 Rate of Radiation Exchange between Blackbodies 7.7 Exchange of Radiation between Diffuse Gray Surfaces 7.7.1 Radiation Exchange in a Gray Enclosure 7.7.2. Radiation Exchange in a Two-surface Gray Enclosure 7.7.3 Emissivity Factor 7.74 A Gray Enclosure with Re-radiating Surfaces 7.7.5 Use of the Network Diagram to Calculate Radiation Exchange 7.8 Radiation Shield 7.9 Radiation Combined with Conduction and Convection 7.10 Absorption and Emission in a Gaseous Medium 7.10.1 The Absorptivity and Emissivity of a Gas 7.10.2 Radiation Exchange between a Non-luminous Gas and Black Surface of Enclosing Walls 7.11 Greenhouse Effect Short Questions Problems References and Further Reading v 170-206 170 174 174 178 178 179 180 186 190 191 194 197 200 201 202 202 203 205 207-274 208 209 210 212 213 216 217 220 222 222 229 237 239 240 242 243 244 245 254 257 261 261 265 267 268 269 274a CONTENTS Héat Exchangers 275-360 8.1 Construction of a Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchanger 275 8.1.1. The Shell 277 8.1.2 The Tubes 27 8.1.3 The Tube Sheets 228 8.14 The Bonnet and the Channel 279 8.1.5 The Pass Partition Plate 29 8.1.6 Nozzles 280 8.1.7 Baffles 281 8.1.8 Tie Rods and Baffle Spacers 282 8.1.9 Flanges and Gaskets 283 8.1.10 Expansion Joint 283 8.2 Process Design Considerations 283 8.2.1 Fouling of a Heat Exchanger—The Dirt Factor or Fouling Factor 284 8.2.2 Log Mean Temperature Difference Correction Factor 285 8.2.3 Temperature Distribution in Multi-pass Exchangers and Temperature Cross 291 8.2.4 The Caloric Temperature 293 8.2.5 Individual and Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients 293 8.2.6. Pressure Drop Calculation 298 Double-pipe Heat Exchanger Design Procedure 300 8.3.1 Energy Balance and Heat Duty Calculation 301 8.3.2 The Design Procedure 302 Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchanger—Design Procedure 306 The Effectiveness NTU Method of Heat Exchanger Analysis 317 Other Types of Shell-and-Tube Exchangers 321 8.6.1 Floating-head Exchangers 322 Heat Exchanger with a U-bundle 324 Reboilers and Condensers 324 The RODbaffle Exchanger 326 8.6.5 Air-cooled Exchangers 327 8.7 Classification of Shell-and-Tube Exchangers 327 8.8 Materials of Construction 329 8.9 Cleaning of Heat Exchangers 331 8.10 Heat Transfer in an Agitated Vessel 332 8.10.1 Heating and Cooling Arrangements 332 8.10.2 Thermal Design of an Agitated Vessel 335 8.10.3 Correlations for Individual Coefficients 336 8.11 Compact Heat Exchangers 339 8.11.1 Plate Heat Exchangers 340 8.11.2 Spiral-plate and Spiral-tube Heat Exchangers 347 8.12 Other Common Heat Exchange Devices 350 8.13 Pipe Tracing 351 8.13.1 Steam Jacketing 351 8.13.2 Electrical Heating 352 8.13.3 Steam Tracing 352 8.14 Heat Transfer Fluids 353 Short-Questions 354 Problems 356 358 References and Further ReadingCONTENTS vii oration and Evaporators 361-420 Types of Evaporators—Their Construction and Operation 361 9.1.1, Natural-circulation Evaporators 361 9.1.2 Forced-circulation Evaporators 366 9.1.3 Falling-film Evaporators 369 Climbing- or Rising-film Evaporator 371 Agitated Thin-film Evaporators 372 9.1.6 The Plate Evaporator 373 9.2 Evaporator Auxiliaries 374 92.1 Vacuum Devices 374 92.2 Steam Traps 377 9.2.3. Entrainment Separators 381 9.3 Principles of Evaporation and Evaporators 382 9.3.1, Single- and Multiple-effect Evaporators 382 9.3.2. Capacity and Economy 385 Boiling Point Elevation (BPE) 385 Temperature Driving Force 387 Heat Transfer Coefficient 388 93:6 Enthalpy of a Solution 389 ie ‘Single-effect Evaporator Calculation 389 9.5 Multiple-effect Evaporators 395 “9.5.1 Classification Based on the Mode of Feed Supply 395 9.5.2 Comparison between the Forward and Backward Feed Modes 397 9.5.3 Effect of Boiling Point Elevation in a Multiple-effect Evaporator 398 9.5.4 Multiple-effect Evaporator Calculations 400 9.6 Evaporator Selection ail 9.7 Vapour Recompression au Short Questions 415 Problems 418 References and Further Reading 419 AUasteady State and Multidimensional Heat Conduction 421-464 10.1 Mathematical Formulation and Initial and Boundary Conditions 422 10.2 Techniques of Analytical Solution 428 10.3 Types of Boundary Conditions 435 10.4 Determination of the Average Temperature of a Solid 443 10.5 Numerical Calculation of Unsteady State Heat Conduction 443 10.6 Unsteady or Steady State Heat Conduction in a Multidimensional Solid 450 10.7 The Graetz Problem 454 10.8 Similarity Solution 455 10.9 Numerical Solution of Heat Conduction Problems 460 Short Questions 461 Problems 461 References and Further Reading 464viii CONTENTS _Dsiounary Layer Heat Transfer Wa M2 3 4 Ws 116 The Equation of Continuity ‘The Equation of Motion Boundary Layer Flow over a Flat Plate 11.3.1 Differential Equations for Laminar Boundary Layer Flow 11.3.2 Solution of the Boundary Layer Equations 11.3.3 Boundary Layer Thickness and Drag Coefficient 11.3.4 The Momentum Integral Equation Forced Convection Heat Transfer in Laminar Boundary Layer Flow over g Flat Plate 11.4.1 Boundary Layer Temperature Equation 11.4.2 The Energy Integral Equation Application to Free Convection Heat Transfer Heat Transfer in Turbulent Boundary Layer Flow 11.6.1 Mean and Fluctuating Quantities 11.6.2 The Concept of Eddy Viscosity 11.6.3 The Prandtl Mixing-Length Theory 11.6.4 The Prandtl Analogy 11.6.5 The von Karman Analogy Short Questions Problems References and Further Reading Answers to Selected Problems Index 465.51, 465 n sn 414 6 49 4 483 49 495 498Notations Seo icaenns mapas There are not enough symbols in the English and Greek alphabets to allow the use of each letter for representing just one quantity, Consequently, some symbols have been used to denote more than one entity, but their use should be clear from the context. In the following list of symbols used in the text, all the subscripts made use of for a given symbol have not been shown as their meaning should again be clear from the context. Description Symbol, Unit a heat transfer area per unit length of each pass in a heat exchanger m a, shell-side flow area, heat exchanger ov 4 area of heat transfer or exchange im b breadth, of a fin m B baffle spacing, heat exchanger m Bi Biot number, AU/k, ha/k (a = radius) _ c velocity of light, 2.998 x 10° ms ° clearance between two adjacent tubes (Fig. 8.12) m & specific heat ksikg °C Cy, Cy, Cs, Cy integration constants = Op drag coefficient fur skin friction - Cy constant, Eq. (6.6) - a diameter, characteristic length m Dy hydranlic or equivalent shell diameter mn Ds inside diameter of a shell m E emissive power of a body Wim? Ey hemispherical total emissive power of a blackbody — W/m” En monochromatic emissive power or spectral emissive power of a blackbody Wim? ym Ev, directional spectral emissive power Win sr f Fanning’s friction factor a F factor that modifies ‘liquid only Reynolds number’ Re, to a two-phase Reynolds number = altNOTATIONS fraction of the radiant emission from a blackbody lying in the wavelength range A, to A, view factor or shape factor for the surface pair /~/ emissivity factor of surface / drag force per unit breadth of the plate LMTD correction factor it it Fourier number, - + (a = radius) component of the acceleration due to gravity in the x-direction mass velocity or flow rate irradiation local Grashof number Grashof number, based on characteristic length L Graetz number +heat transfer coefficient Planck’s constant, 6.6256 x 107 enthalpy of solution enthalpy of a stream total intensity of radiation spectral radiation intensity intensity of radiation of wavelength A Colbum factor es Jacob number, cp) (7, — Ty)/Ly thermal conductivity Boltzmann constant, 1.3805 x 10 thickness, length pipe/tube length, characteristic length, plate height/length main beam length molar heat of vaporization mass flow rate of a stream rate of condensation per unit breadth insulation life number of tube passes m/s? kg/m? s W/m? Wim? °C, kcal/h m? °c Js kihkg kohkg Wha? st Wr? pm sr Wim? Wim? ‘Wim °C, keal/h m °C UK m m m ki/kg-mol kg kgs kg/m sz ~ OFzziZ27 NOTATIONS tuumber of shell passes ‘umber of tubes Nusselt number, hd/k net rate of radiant energy loss from the ith surface Eee hd 53 g 5 ae i eeeeH ‘because of radiation exchange with the /th surface w net rate of exchange of radiation between the surfaces i and j ‘dimensionless radius dimensionless radial position hydraulic radius capacity ratio, Eq. (8.27) heat transfer resistance radius of a cylinder or sphere thermal resistance universal gas constant elecuscal resistance wxvi NOTATIONS heat transfer resistance due to ditt factor Rayleigh number Reynolds number, pVd/jt film Reynolds number plate Reynolds number, Bq, (11.43), liquid only Reynolds number local Reynolds number, pVx/j1 Reynolds number based on characteristic length £ specific gravity boiling suppression factor solar constant diagonal pitch, of a tube bank ongitudinal pitch transverse pitch Stanton number, AV/pcy time temperature dimensionless temperature temperature difference or driving force corrected mean driving force log mean temperature difference (LMTD) temperature at the edge of the laminar sub-layer x-component of velocity fluctuating velocity component in the x-direction ‘mean square velocity of the fluctuating velocity, x-component dimensionless velocity, Eq. (11.153) ‘mean velocity of a fluid in a pipe overall clean heat transfer coefficient overall heat transfer coefficient including the dirt factor transverse velocity component J-component of velocity fluctuating velocity component in the y-direction average velocity linear fluid velocity velocity vector superficial fluid velocity free stream velocity (ms? ms Wim? °C, keal/h m? °C ‘Wim? °C, kcal/h m? °C ms ms ms ms ms ms mms msa(= kipc,) @ Poe NOTATIONS: ow rate of a stream mass fraction vapour (or quality) in a liquid weight fraction of solute in a solution width, of a fin component of velocity fluctuating velocity component in the direction cold fluid flow rate ‘hot fluid flow rate distance (from the leading edge of a plate) ‘coordinate dimensionless distance from the immersed plate, (eV Wre/p axial position in a cylinder thermal diffusivity absorpuvity spectral emissivity (a function of A) fin efficiency heat exchanger effectiveness similarity variable, rE 1ot® ggggs | 3 Kec! B1 | 885888 zip 7 3 s m) am (= 10% m) yum (= 10° m)xvili 2 9 Dom ekesssen NOTATIONS momentum diffusivity, 4/p (or kinematic viscosity) frequency (phikbw)" similarity variable, C=; density os reflectivity Stefan-Boltzmann constant surface tension momentum flux (or shear stress) transmissivity temperature ratio, Eq. (8.26) polar angle (in the spherical coordinate system) dimensionless viscosity ratio viscosity correction factor for the shell-side fluid viscosity correction factor stream function volumetric rate of heat generation solid angle m/s 7 kg/m? 5.669 x 10° Wim? K* N/m, dyne/m Nim? radiansor gain of heat during the process is minimium. In this connection it will be worthwhile to cite a practical example of a process that involves heating or cooling of materials, or fluid streams, in a number of steps. Consider the process of ‘manufacturing nitric acid by catalytic air-oxidation of ammonia (Fig. 1.1). Liquid ammonia is the raw material. It is common practice to store liquid ammonia at atmospheric pressure and at a temperature of about ~33°C. A refrigeration unit is used to keep the liquid cool (or, in other To stack Product nitric acid Fig. 1.1 A simplified flow diagram of the nitric acid plant. (1) Steam turbine (2) multistage air compressor with interstage cooler (3) tail-gas turbine (4) tail- ‘825 preheater (5) ammonia vaporizer (6) reactor (this also includes a waste-heat boiler) (7) tail-gas Preheater (8) economizer (9) boiler feed water preheater (10) gas cooler and (11) absorption tower.2 EAT TRANSFER—PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS « the storage tank from the ambient air «tito substantially reduce the transfer of heat from the er fd ammonia from the tank is pumped f0 a vaporizer ig hot fuid as available) cobverts the liquid to a ers words, to continuously remove the heat that ent The storage tank is properly insu outside air to the liquid ammonia. pa (5) where heat supplied by steam (or any othe we i Air is usually compressed in a two- i ‘dation of ammonia. meemaars pater ni teaving the first stage ofthe compressor is cooled in a heat mp i. the second stage of the compressor and exchanger by cold water, ‘The cooled Se etatinn tower (11). Ammonia vapour is mixed exchanges heat with the “tal gas @) ie proportion and fed to the reactor (6). The reaction bi ae Se peak a cal 800°C. This hot product stream, therefore, contains a products) attain, : ; is heat boiler which is a part of the energy. This energy is recovered in a waste heat b ee ia ais ier of heat from the hot gas tothe boiling water coms oad thus a large quantity of steam is generated. Even after the gas leaves the waste heat boiler, its temperature remains at about 275°C and has to be further reduced before the gas reaches the absorption tower (the gas containing the oxides of nitrogen is absorbed by water in a number of absorption towers in succession to produce nitric acid). Cooling of this gas from 275°C is performed in a series of heat exchangers (7-10). In the first heat exchanger (7), heat transfer from the hot gas occurs to the ‘tail gas’ leaving the final absorption tower. The heated tail gas is then fed to a turbine (3) that drives the air compressor. The second heat exchanger (8) acts as an economizer, and the third one (9) is used to heat boiler feed water. In this way, most of the heat energy is recovered. The gas then flows through a series of absorption towers (11) after passing through a cooler condenser (10). Absorption of the gas by water gives nitric acid. The absorption process is exothermic. As a result, each absorption tower is required to be provided with a liquid cooler (i.¢. a heat exchanger). This simple example shows how important heat transfer is in a chemical process industry. ‘Numerous other examples can be cited. Consider the case of a thermal power plant. There are high rating boilers in which heat transfer occurs from the hot combustion gases as well as from the white-hot refractory furnace walls to water boiling inside an array of tubes. Steam leaving the turbine is condensed in huge surface condensers. In the hot rolling mill of an integrated steel plant, large metal blocks are shaped into sheets which are then cooled by copious flow of water. Application of heat transfer is more varied in a nuclear power plant. Because of the ubiquity of heat transfer phenomena in industrial processes, its study has found an important place in engineering curricula, An engineer should have a sound understanding of the basic principles and applications of heat transfer. How do we define heat transfer? Heat transfer is the transport of heat energy from one point in a medium to another or from one medium to another in the presence of a temperature gradient or a temperature difference. ‘The temperature difference between two points in the same medium, or between two mediums which are in thermal contact, is known as the driving force for heat transfer. The subject of heat transfer involves a detailed study of the physical mechanism of transport of heat energy, the methods of calculation or prediction of rates of transport of heat energy in various practical situations, and the applications of the theoretical principles to sizing, design and i emeat of related equipment used in practice, stip ait It is pertinent here to point out the differenc is 2e betwe Heat transfer i arate process—the principles of heat tenctes gaan thermodynamics heat transfer enable us to calculate the rate of _Accom) INTRODUCTION 3 transport of thermal energy. Classical thermodynamics, on the other hand, deals with Processes and systems at equilibrium. The theoretical amount of energy to be supplied (or removed) in order to change a system from one equilibrium state to another is dictated by thermodynamics. But thermodynamics js silent about how quickly this change of equilibrium state can be effected, 1 MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER ‘Three modes of heat transfer are recognized—conduction, convection and radiation. The first two modes appear to be dominant in many practical fields. However, radiation is the most important mode of heat transfer at high temperatures. 1.1.1, Conduction 2 stagnant liquid, or a gaseous medium. The basic law of conduction, the Fourier’s law, is explained in Chapter 2, and a few situations of steady state conduction are analyzed. Conduction heat transfer plays a major role in heat loss from furnaces, hot pipe lines (e.g. steam pipes), and Process vessels and equipment. It is also important in the process of heat gain by a fluid stored in an insulated tank at a cryogenic temperature. In fact, conduction has a role to play in virtually all of the heat transfer equipment, but in many cases it may not have a governing role. 1.1.2 Convection Existence of motion or a velocity field in a liquid or a gaseous medium greatly enhances the rate of heat transfer. Convection means the transport of heat energy by way of displacement of fluid elements from one point to another point which is at a different temperature. Convection may be of two types—forced convection and free or natural convection. Forced convection occurs when motion in the medium is caused by an external mechanical agency such as a pump, a blower, an agitator, etc. or by an externally imposed pressure gradient. Free or natural convection occurs when motion in the medium is created by an adverse density gradient, as a result of temperature difference. This happens if the temperature of a fluid at a lower level becomes higher than that at an upper level. While calculation of the rate of heat transfer by conduction is based on the Fourier’s law, the effect of fluid motion on convective heat transfer rate cannot be taken into account by using any similar law. An empirical heat transfer coefficient, which is based on the phenomenological observation that heat flux is proportional to the temperature driving force, is defined instead. The major component of the study of convective heat transfer involves the development and application of correlations for the heat transfer coefficient in diverse physical situations. 1.1.3. Radiation A body at a temperature above absolute zero always emits energy in the form of electromagnetic waves. The rate of release of such energy is proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature of the body. This phenomenon is called radiation and the basic governing law is known as the Stefan-Boltzmann law. Ordinarily, the contribution of the radiative component to the4 HEAT TRANSFER—PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS (otal rate of hee eieicaiy a eae ~ 1 body becomes significant, if the temperature of the body is en AN Doe lower ma equally good emitters of radiation. A standard or ees a blackbody, and acts as a reference with which any other body may be ee aleve of its effectiveness as an emitter. This property of a body is called its ah area aaa which comes into play while ealeulating the rate of radiative heat cts etre ts bode calcd Gere factor. It takes into account the fraction of the ss of a body which can be ‘we’ by sate body. The study of radiative heat transfer involves sic principles of radiation and their applications to computations of heat transfer rates caret ‘geometrical configurations of physical systems. : in systems of practical interest, heat transfer mostly occurs by a combination of two ofthe above ee moder, Consider for crampl, ese of a as Sea tee aT inner surface of the wall gains heat from the flame and the combustion gases by both radiation and convection. Heat transfer through the refractory and the insulating brick layers of the furnace wall occurs by conduction. Finally, the transfer of heat from the outer surface of the fumace to the ambient occurs by convection and radiation. Boiling of liquids and condensation of vapours, which involve a change of phase, are other ramifications of heat transfer that occur mainly by convection. 1.2. HEAT TRANSFER EQUIPMENT built by utilizing the basic principles and correlations of, physical and engineering principles. The objective is to from one medium to another in the best possible way. der the general name of heat exchangers, and 1, An engineer, particularly a chemical or @ ding of the design methodology, construction Heat transfer equipment is designed and ‘heat transfer along with other relevant achieve the desired rate of heat transfer ‘Most of the heat transfer equipment comes unt includes reboilers, condensers, vaporizers as wel ‘mechanical engineer, must have a basic understan ‘and operation of heat exchangers. SUREMENT, UNITS AND DIMENSIONS physical quantities and also such quantities. However, 1.3. SYSTEMS OF MEA: In this section we give a brief overview of the units and dimension © vi the imterelatons among the different units wsed for measurement src wil generally use the SI units chroughout this Pook weir is a “standard of measurement’ of a physical quioty Dimension f 8 avanity risie or fundamental quantities. A system of indicates bow a physical quantity i related 1 the basic 9 fundamen ioarement is based on 2 few fundamental or basic qDAN I ‘nd their units, which are celled wpempasie unit’. Alloter quanti ae obtainable BY Soo ‘kind of combination of the basic Jenved quantities’. The unit of «derived quantity is obtainable in terms one and aed ee Se iy cas ¢ id the FPS (Foot-Pound-Second) base un Cos (Center Gram- Second) 2m ; ja ce Cy ni mot wie a ach TRE in ee sty of a ot, we il ose ore, tength, time and temperature as the basic unis systems we and their dit these systems are al fundamental quantities —*INTRODUCTION 5 Table 1.1 Relevant fundamental and derived Quantities of the CGS and the FPS systems Quantity Dimension Unit ccs FPS cas FPS Fundamental Mass M M tb Length if iv By ft Time t t s s ‘Temperature in T °c F Derived Area v v em? ty Density ML? ML? gem? Tom? Velocity Le Le cms fus Force ML ML g cm/s? Ib fs? (dyne) (Poundal) 1.3.1 English Engineering System ‘his system of measurement and units has been largely used in engineering calculations all over ha world (Table1:0} aire freon ttoe RPS. spate incl toapesis comatdened! xa » fondanneats) quantity here whereas in the FPS system, force is a derived quantity (see Table 1.1). So this system uses five fundamental quantities (ie. mass, length, time, temperature and force, leaving aside the quantities used for electrical measurements). Table 1.2 Units and dimensions in the English Engineering System Quantity Dimension Unit Fundamental Mass M Ibm Length L ft Time t s Temperature T °F Force F bt Derived Energy FL felbf Viscosity Mitt Tomit s Let us consider Newton’s second law of motion that relates the force acting on a body to its mass and acceleration. F=k'ma (dy where F is the force m is the mass a is the acceleration k’ is a constant.6 HEAT TRANSFER—PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS In both the FPS and the CGS systems, we define unit force as the amount of force which acting on a body of unit mass, produces unit acceleration. A unit force is then 1 Ib fUs? (FPS) or 1 g crw/s* (CGS). This definition reduces A” in Eq. (1.1) to unity. : In the English Engineering system, force being a fundamental quantity, unit force or Ibf is defined as the amount of force which, when acting on a body of mass m of 1 Ibm produces an acceleration of 32.17 fV/s?. In this system, k” in Eq. (1.1) is replaced by I/g.. That is, 1 zm (1.2) &e Putting the values and units of the different quantities in Eq. (1.2), we have F 1 Ibf = ta Tbm)(32.17 fU/s*) Be or bes a3) It may be recalled that 32.17 fs? is the average value of the acceleration due to gravity g over the earth’s surface. Though the value of g, and the average value of g are numerically equal, they have different units. While g is the acceleration due to gravity, g, is known as the ‘Newton’s Jaw conversion factor’ or ‘the gravitational conversion factor’. The following simple example explains this point of the English system. The weight of a body of mass m is W = mgig, (Ibf). The potential energy of a body of mass m at an elevation of h ft is mgh/g. (ft-Ibf), and the kinetic energy of the same body when moving at a velocity v is mv?/2g, (fi-lbf). The unit of heat energy in the English system is Btu as it is in the FPS system. 1.3.2. The International System (SI) of Units (The Systéme Internationale (SI) de Unités) The International System of units was recommended in 1960 at the Eleventh General Conference on Weights and Measures. Since then, it has gradually replaced the English system beginning from the late sixties. Nevertheless, the English system is still preferred by some professionals, because many design data, charts and correlations are readily available in this system. Some important basic units of SI and also a few derived units are listed in Table 1.3. Conversion of the unit of a quantity from the English system to SI and vice versa, is often required in engineering calculations. Conversion of some of the quantities relevant to our purpose is given in Table 1.4. In engineering practice relating to heat transfer, the quantities ‘keal’, ‘m’, ‘h’ and “°C are commonly used. 1.4 EXAMPLES OF UNIT CONVERSION (i) The coefficient of viscosity of water is 1 cP at 20°C. Calculate its value both in English and SI units. 3 1 cP = 0.01 poise = 0,01 —2— = (001) (107 kg) _ e ems = oF) 7 0001 rg in SU unitINTRODUCTION z Table 1.3. Relevant units and dimensions in the SI Quantity Dimension Unit Fundamental or basic units* Mass M kg Length L m Time t s Temperature T K (kelvin) Derived units Force ML 8% — newton (N) s 2 Work ML? ¢? sr =N m= joule (J) $ 4 kere ee Specific heat ver Zkgk ~ eK 2 Power Mie am = watt, W (Us) * The other fundamental or basic units of SI are: electric current: ampere (A); amount of substance: mole (mol); and luminous intensity: candela (cd). 1 cP = 0.01 poise = 0.01 2 cms (ii) The thermal conductivity of magnesite at 600°C is 6.7 x 10 cal/cm s °C. Find its value both in the English and the SI units. (67 x 10 3 cal a Bu $5 OF i Ie) ‘* = h||—_al/-er 3600 )\3048 (5 3 5 _cal_ _ (67 x 10" ')(4.187 W s) i Ww 67 «109 ag = 2805 of mooony aoe a oie ne crt ton! ak? sta foe, Nagas) one cietinincestan taeuap arse pe aed sat wae EG SM ee Pao poe nh meh Ha race aa Met ay ade etrm toto maaan seta 06, BOP HE) NE ae ‘conduc ivy ‘witen K) Buh °F) calls om °C) 1 Wil K)=0S778 Bout & °F) 1 Bush f °F) = 1.707 Wie DO eeccl 7 Nove: The brackets inthe deo Tanai of he above unis have been dropped in subsqueot chaps fr ease of coaenine, SNOMLVOLTdAY ONY SIMIONLA—WAISNVAL LV2 spec amememennenaentenamenenetcewcneeeeemenees Steady State Conduction in One Dimension Conduction of heat means transport of heat energy in a medium from a region at a higher temperature to a region at a lower temperature without any macroscopic motion in the medium. The difference in temperature between the regions causes the flow of heat and is called the temperature driving force. Heat conduction is also called dijfusion of heat. The mechanism of heat conduction in a medium depends upon the state of the medium, ic. whether it is a solid, a liquid or a gas. In a solid, the molecular motion is restricted to vibrations about an equilibrium position. In the presence of a temperature gradient heat energy is transferred from one molecule to a neighbouring molecule through molecular vibrations. In metals, however, conduction of heat occurs more through the drift of free electrons than by molecular vibrations. ‘The motion of free electrons in metals is similar to that of molecules in a gas (free electrons are often referred to as electron gas), and this is why a material having good electrical conductivity also possesses good thermal conductivity. Ina gaseous medium, conduction of heat occurs through collisions of molecules having more thermal energy (ie. faster moving) with molecules having less thermal or kinetic energy (slower moving). While similar phenomenon is partly responsible for heat conduction in a liquid, there are other factors too which involve intermolecular forces in the liquid. Transport of heat in a solid occurs only by conduction. In this chapter we will describe the basic law of heat conduction and discuss its applications to heat transfer calculations in single- or multi-layer solids of three common geometries—plane wall, cylindrical and spherical. We will also consider problems which involve generation of heat (e.g. a nuclear fuel) in solids having one of the above geometries. 2.1 THE BASIC LAW OF HEAT CONDUCTION—FOURIER’S LAW The basic law of heat conduction in a medium was 1822 from his experimental data on the rate of heat flow.HEAT TRANSFER—PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS @ Fig. 2.1 Steady state conduction of heat in a plane wall: (a) the wall and (b) the temperature profile. In the differential form the Fourer's laweis"expressedias- ae (22) the rate of heat conduction in the x-direction per unit area normal to the x-direction), . The negative sign in Eq. (2.2) makes both sides of it consistent with respect to sign. The units of the various quantities in Eqs. (2.1) and (2.2) are: Q, W (watt) for, kcaV/s, Btwh, ete.]; k, Wim at the surfaces have been maintained for a sufficiently long time. But the system is surely not at thermal equilibrium because, in that case, the temperature of the wall must have been the same throughout and the rate of heat flow through the wall zero.STEADY STATE CONDUCTION IN ONE DIMENSION 13 T me Fig. 2.2. Heat conduction in a composite wall and its electrical analogue. linear (but of different slopes). The rates of heat flow through the walls as given by Fourier’s law are as follows: AG ~ 7" | Layer 1: Oe ay TT oa (24) g- bar 7), b Layer 3: O= SAPD), I, Adding Eqs. (2.4), (2.5) and (2.6), we have Layer 2: (2: (2.6) n-h-of T-T [oe kA bA” kA (2.7) In Eq. (2.7), (T; - 72) is the overall temperature driving force that causes a rate of heat transfer Q. This equation, in general, means Rate of heat transfer = Temperature driving force Thermal resistance (28)a 14 MEAT TRANSFER—PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS The analogy of the above relation with the flow of current through an electrical conductor is apparent. Potential difference Current = Electrical resistance From Eqs. (2.4)-(2.7) and Eq, (2.8), we may write ‘Thermal resistance of layer 1: Ry (29a) Thermal resistance of layer 2: R= Bq (2.9) Thermal resistance of layer 3: Ry (296) The thermal resistance Ry of the composite wall is given by ale ha ba O Rr= Ry + Ry + Ry = + a KA It means that thermal resistances in series are additive as in the case of electrical resistances in series. The electrical analogue of heat conduction through the wall is also shown in Fig. 2.2. Example 2.1. The wall of a cold storage consists of three layers—an outer layer of ordinary bricks, 25 cm thick, a middle layer of cork, 10 cm thick, and an inner layer of cement, 6 cm thick. The thermal conductivities of the materials are—brick: 0.7, cork: 0.043, and cement: 0.72 Wim °C, The temperature of the outer surface of the wall is 30°C, and that of the inner is 15°C. Calculate (a) the steady state rate of heat gain per unit arca of the wall, (b) the temperatures at the interfaces of the composite wall, and (c) the percentages of the total heat transfer resistance offered by the individual layers. What additional thickness of cork should be provided to make the rate of heat transfer 30% less than the present value? SOLUTION Let the three layers be layer 1: brick; layer 2: cork; and layer 3: cement. If we consider unit area of the wall (1 m2), then from Eq. (2.9), we get | Thermal resistance of the brick layer, Ry = 0.25 m —————_- = 0357 °C/W kA (0.7 W/m°C)(1 m?) ‘Thermal resistance of the cork layer, Ry= 2-2 _W0m_ ds sy A (0.043 W/m °C)(1 m2), 006 m Thermal resistance of the cement layer, Ry = 0.083 °C/W kA (O72Wim°Cyim) Total thermal resistance = Ry + Ry + Ry = 0.357 + 2.326 + 0.083 = 2.766 °C/W ‘Temperature driving force = 30 ~ (-15) = 45°CSTEADY STATE CONDUCTION IN ONE DIMENSION 15 4c 2.766 °C/W (b) From Eq, (2.4) and Fig. 2.2, the temperature drop across the brick layer (a) Rate of heat gain by the wall, Q = 1627 W n-r=9 4 -ce27 = 5.8% 5 Fea ~ (16270357) = 5.8°C Now 7, = 30°C; therefore, T’ = 30°C - 5.8°C 242°C brick and cork). (interface temperature between _ b Similarly, T”’ - T” = Q 7] = (16.27) (2.326) = 378°C Therefore, T’ = 24.2 ~ 37.8 = [=13.6°C] (interface temperature between cork and cement). 0357 (©) Per cent thermal resistance offered by the brick layer = 7-7 x 100 = [129% 2.326 cork layer = => x 100= [841% 0.083 cement layer = 555 x 100 = [30% Second part Desired rate of heat flow (30% less than the present value) = (16.27)(0.7) = 1139 W Dri isguiedd Gaeta vociatomce 2 ee le Sl ag Rate of heat flow 1139 Additional thermal resistance to be provided = 3.95.— 2.766 = 1.184 °C/W Additional thickness of cork to be provided = (1.184)(0.043)(1) = [Sem Example 2.2 The walls of a house in a cold region consist of three layers—an outer brickwork of 15 cm thickness and an inner wooden panel of 1.2 cm thickness. The intermediate layer is made of an insulating material 7 cm thick. The thermal conductivities of the brick and the wood used are 0.70 W/m °C and 0.18 Wim °C, respectively. The inside and outside temperatures of the composite wall are 21°C and -15°C, respectively. If the layer of insulation offers twice the thermal resistance of the brick wall, calculate (a) the rate of heat loss per unit area of the wall and (b) the thermal conductivity of the insulating material. SOLUTION Consider 1 m? of the wall area. (a) If 1 = thickness of a layer, A = area, and k = thermal conductivity, then, thermal Ll resistance = —— kA In the given case, A = 1.0 m?PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS ae HEAT TRA of brick (1 = 0.15 m; k= 0.70 Wim °C) ous ‘Thermal resistance of the layer =——_ = 02143 -cw (070)(10) Thermal resistance of the layer of wood (J = 0.012 m: & = 0.18 Wim °C) — 0012 9.0667 cw (0.18)(L0) ‘Thermal resistance of the insulating layer = (20.2143) = 0.4286 “CW ‘Total thermal resistance = 0.2143 + 0.4286 + 0.0667 = 0.7096 °C'W 15) = 36°C Temperature driving force = 21 - (-' 36°C Rate of heat loss = 75996 °C/W = [507 W (b) For the insulating layer, ! = 0.07 m; A = 1.0 m?; thermal resistance = Therefore, Terme! cone a vty, k= 007 _ — [91633 Wim? tivity, = 79)(04286) 2.4 STEADY STATE HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH A VARIABLE AREA In the case of a plane wall the area for heat flow is constant. However, there are solids of other geometries in which the area for heat flow is variable. Two common geometries of practical importance are cylindrical and spherical, in both of which the area depends upon the radius or the radial position. Here, we develop equations for heat flow in cylindrical and spherical bodies 24.1 The Cylinder Let us consider a hollow cylinder of inside radius r, outside radius r, and length L (Fig. 2.3). The inner and outer curved surfaces are maintained at temperatures T; and T,, respectively. Heat flow occurs in the radial direction. The area of heat flow varies from 2xr,0. (inside) to 2r,L. (outside). by Fle 23 Radial heat conduction through a thin cylindrical shel Schneider, 1985; Myers, 1971) solids of various shapes is available in the literature (SeSTEADY STATE CONDUCTION IN ONE DIMENSION 17 We can make a *heat balance’ over a thin cylindrical shell of inside radius r and thickness Ar as shown in Fig. 2.3, Rate of heat input to the thin shell at the radial position (r) = (Area)(Flux) = (2mrL) q,\, Here q, denotes the radial heat flux*, and the notation * |,’ means that the quantity is evaluated at the radial position r. . Similarly, Rate of heat output from the shell at the radial position r + Ar = (270rL) qi, «a,** At steady state, there cannot be any accumulation of heat in the element, and so the rate of heat input must be equal to the rate of heat output. Therefore, (2rrL) dry + ar = (2rL) rly or (2mrL) arbor — (2ArL) arb. ar ‘Taking the limit Ar — 0 and invoking the definition of the derivative of a function, we may write, d = a: (2arLq,) = 0 or d a (rq,) = 0 (2.10) Ir Integrating, we get q, = constant = C, (say) (2.11) The radial heat flux*** is expressed as Then, or Integrating again, we have (2.12) * The suffix r in q, refers to the radial direction, and not to the radial position. ‘This means that the entire quantity (2zrL) q, is evaluated at the radial position r + Ar. *** We have assumed that heat enters the thin shell at r and leaves it at r + Ar, ie. T decreases with r. In conformity with this, d7/dr has to be negative. But heat flows in the direction of decreasing temperature, and the heat flux is a positive quantity here. The negative sign is necessary in order to maintain consistency of sign (see Eq. (2.2)]_| 18 HEAT TRANSFER—PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS here C, is an integration constant. The values of C, and C, can be determined by Using “boundary conditions’, that is, the known temperatures at the boundaries r; and r, of the sia T=T, at rem T=T) at r=% Substituting in Eq, (2.12), we get T, Sinn G and = -Lin, + G k The above two equations can be solved for Cy and C. G-Tk ma ces Gens cm. oa, Eee Substituting for C, and C, in Eq. (2.12), we get (T= 7%. r= 7,- GS) tn (rin) 'In@ln) @.13) Equation (2.13) gives the temperature distribution in the cylinder. The rate of heat flow can be easily obtained from Eq, (2.11) which essentially means that the product of area and radial heat flux is a constant. Rate of heat flow is given by Q = 2nrlg, = 2c, = AAG = Te) Ga (2.14) Comparing Eq, (2.14) with Eq. (2.8), we get is = , i = m@/n) Driving force = (T;—T,); Thermal resistance = 27 ‘We may thus rewrite Eq. (2.14) in the form (e=n) , GT) = kno) , Gt On Rams Gin)” =n) @as ‘The distance through which conduction occurs is the thickness of the wall of the cylinder, ic. ry — 7» If we compare Eq. (2.15) with Eq. (2.1), the rate of heat conduction is found to be the same as that through a plane wall of thickness (r, — 7) and area 2 [(r, ~ r)/In (r4/r)] L. This area is called the ‘log mean area of the cylinder’ because it is calculated on the basis of the log mean cylinder radius, ry. Therefore, n/n) Now we consider heat conduction through a composite cylindrical wall consisting of three layers denoted by 1, 2 and 3 having thermal conductivities k;, ky and ks and having inner radii ry 7’ and r”, respectively. The outer radius of the composite cylinder is r,, The temperatures at these radial positions are 7, 7”, 7” and T,, respectively. A cross-section of the assembly is show” in Fig. 2.4.STEADY STATE CONDUCTION IN ONE, DIMENSION 19 @ In(r'/n) I(r’ fr) I(r, Jr") 2a Lk, 2aLky 2aLky 7, T, Pf ) Fig. 2.4 (a) Cross-section of the composite cylinder and (b) the electrical analogue of the heat transfer resistances. The rates of heat flow through the individual layers (which will be equal at steady state) are given by = RELA = 1) _ IwLk,(7"- 7") _ InLkT" - 7.) In (r' In (r"/r'") In (7, /r' or " Qia(r,/r") rm - 7, = Qiir") : T, 2eLk, (2.16) era Qi), ope Outre T 2k, 2a Adding the above equations and rearranging, we get ie -T, 2 Rem), ROT |, rr” ein) 2nLk, 2nLky 2nLky Equation (2,17) is of the form of Eq. (2.8). The total thermal resistance of the composite cylinder, given by the denominator of Eq. (2.17), is the sum of the thermal resistances of the individual layers. The overall temperature driving force is 7; ~ T,. The electrical analogue of the problem is also shown in Fig. 2.4. The rate of heat conduction can be calculated if the cylinder dimensions, thermal conductivities of the layers and the driving force are known. Conversely, the temperature 7” and 7” can be obtained from the given or the calculated value of Q. Example 2.3 A cylindrical hot gas duct, 0.5 m inside radius, has an inner layer of fireclay bricks7 » HEAT TRANSFER—PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS ‘ = 1.3 W/m °C) of 0.27 m thickness. The outer layer, 0.14 m thick, is made of a special brick 0.92 W/m °C). The brickwork is enclosed by an outer steel cover which has a temperatur, of 65°C. The inside temperature of the composite cylindrical wall of the duct is 400°C. Ne; . the thermal resistance of the steel cover, calculate the rate of heat loss per metre of the also the interface temperature between the ceramic layers. What fraction of the total resi offered by the special brick layer? glecting duct and istance is SOLUTION Consider L = 1 m length of the duct. The following data are given: Fireclay brick layer: inner radius, r;= 0.5 m, r’= outer radius = 0.77 m, thermal conductivity, ky = 1.3 Wim °C ° Special brick layer: outer radius, r, = 0.91 m, thermal conductivity, k = 0.92 Wim °C, Heat transfer resistance of the fireclay brick layer In(’/y) _ In (0.77/05) Ree ais nO) 2 eri Bm(n(tay = 0.0529 °C/W Heat transfer resistance of the special brick layer In(r,/r') _ In (0.91/0.77) RB, = Beer) _ 91/077) _ F 2 On Ly 2m(1)(0.92) = 90-0289 °C/W Total resistance, R, + Rp = 0.0529 + 0.0289 = 0.0818 °C/W Driving force = T; - T, = 400 — 65 = 335°C Tee TASS i—"e - ———_ - [4095 W Rate of heat loss, Q Rrk 7 00818 a T-T Interface temperature 7” is given by, Q = or 400 -T’ 4095 = 0.0529 or 183°C R 0.0289 Fractional resistance offered by the special brick layer = eeaa ons 7 oe Example 2.4 A tapered stainless steel rod, perfectly insulated on the curved surface, has end diameters of 0.06 m and 0.12 m respectively, and is 0.2 m long. The thicker end is fixed to a hot wall and the thinner end is maintained at 30°C. The steady state rate of heat loss through the rod is found to be 50 W. The thermal conductivity of stainless steel is 15 W/m °C. Calculate (a) the hot end temperature, (b) the temperature gradients at both the ends, and (c) the temperature at section of the rod 0.15 m away from the cold end. eeSTEADY STATE CONDUCTION IN ONE DIMENSION a SOLUTION This is a case of steady state heat conduction through a variable area, The system is shown in Fig. 2.5, We first determine the axial temperature distribution in the tapered solid. Insulation x=0.2m Fig. 2.5 A tapered rod (Example 2.4), Because the curved surface of the rod is perfectly insulated, heat conduction occurs in the axial direction (x-direction) only (je. the temperature at any cross-section is uniform). Let us choose the origin at the centre of the thicker end of the rod. If r is the radius‘of the rod at any axial position x, and q, is the axial heat flux, we have Rate of heat input at x = 277 qyly Rate of heat output at x + Ax = 77? gules ar Rate of heat accumulation = 0 Therefore, by a steady state heat balance, we get WP dele — HP Gelevar = 0 Dividing by Ax throughout and taking the limit Ax —> 0, we get d 2, ~(wq,) = 0 rat) Integrating and putting the expression for the axial heat flux, we have ar - ZL = C, (constant) i ra Gq @ The local radius r depends on the axial position x and should be expressed in terms of x before Eq, (i) is further integrated, The relation between r and x may be obtained from the similar triangles ABC and DBE. DE _ DB =0.03 m; AB=02m; DB=(02-x) m; AC m; m; (02-x)m 7e= me _ (003) (02 - x) 7 02 Le DE = 0.03 — 0.15x; and r = 0.03 + DE = 0.06 - 0.15x2 HEAT TRANSFER—PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS Substituting for r in Eq, (i) and integrating, we get or Gq 1 ~ Gory (006 ois * (i where C; is the integration constant. Rate of heat input at x = But the rate of heat input at x = 0 (which is the same as the rate of heat loss through the rod) = 50 W. Therefore, c= 50 Also, at x = 0.2 m, T= 30°C; thermal conductivity, k = 15 W/m °C Substituting all these values in Eq. (ii), we get Cy = 265.8 Putting the values of C, and C; in Eq, (ii), the axial temperature profile in the tapered cylinder is obtained as 707 T = 2658 - ———_ . 0.06 — 015¢ © (a) At the hot end, x = 0, and the corresponding temperature is 207 _ T = 265.8 — —— =| 148°C 006 (b) From Eq. (i), we have er Se dx mk Atx=0, r= 0.06. Therefore, ae — =) __ = [9947 °C dx ()(0.06)"(15) This is the temperature gradient at the hot end. Similarly, the temperature gradient at the cold end (x = 0.2 m) can be found to be =1179 °C/m ]. (c) Ata section 0.15 m away from the cold end, x = 0.2 ~ 0.15 = 0.05. The temperature at this point can be-calculated by putting this value of x in Eq, (iii) which gives T= 131°C.STEADY STATE CONDUCTION IN ONE DIMENSION 2.4.2. The Sphere 23 ‘The temperature distribution in a hollow sphere or the rate of heat transfer through it can be determined by following the same procedure as used in the case of a cylinder. Let us consider a hollow sphere of thermal conductivity k and inner and outer radii r, and r, respectively, with the corresponding surface temperatures T; and 7,. Considering a thin spherical shell of inner radius r and thickness Ar (Fig. 2.6), we may write Fig. 2.6 Cross-section of the spherical shell. Rate of heat input at r = 477° g/l, Rate of heat output at r + Ar = 4777 qyl,+ a Because the rate of heat accumulation is zero at steady state, the heat balance equation is 4nP qil,— 40? Grrsae = 0 or Amr ayles wy ~ 4174, a Taking limit Ar — 0, we get d 2, ae or P aac Putting q, =~ k 2, and integrating, we get ir reSive, The boundary conditions are: T= T; at r » and T=T, at r=ry. (2.18) (2.19) (2.20)CF ee HEAT TRANSFER—PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS 24 Using these boundary conditions in Eq, (2.19), the integration constants can be found as GrkG-7, te) and a=n-o-nf i Qa1y Therefore, ra7~c)~n{—*-)(1-4) (222) Equation (2.22) gives the temperature distribution in the sphere. The corresponding rate of heat transfer is given by E-T, Q = 4nr’q, = 4G, = 12 To —F 2.2: ‘anker, (2.23) Comparing Eq. (2.23) with Eq. (2.8), we get Driving force = 7; — T, “ -an-"% Thermal resistance = ‘nk, If we rewrite Eq, (2.23) as O= Ka ry,) Be To" and compare it with Eq. (2.1), it appears that the rate of heat conduction through the spherical shell is the same as that through a plane wall of thickness (r, - r)) and area (4r;r,). This is the area of the surface of a sphese of radius equal to the geometric mean radius of the given shell, ie. Jnr, Similarly, if we consider a composite sphere having three layers of materials 1, 2 and 3, inner radii 7, r’ and r”, and thermal conductivities &, ky and ky, respectively, and an outer radius r,, (see Fig. 2.4), the rate of heat conduction through the composite sphere is given by o-_—__ 4-5 7a ar 7 4nky'r, Ankyr"r’ 2.24 4nksr, ee) Equation (2.24) can be derived by following the same procedure as used in the case of a composite cylinder (it is left to the student as an exercise). If all other quantities are known, Q can be calculated, and if Q is known, the interface temperatures, 7’ and T” can be calculated, Example 2.5 Polyurethane foam and expanded polystyrene are two important insulations for low temperature applications. Polyurethane can be impregnated with a flame retardant! and is ‘Common flame retardants are additives like polychlorinated or polybrominated compounds (eg: decabromo-diphenyl ether) used together with antimony oxide.