UNIVERSITY OF BELGRADE
FACULTY OF PHILOSOPHY

ENGLISH LANGUAGE
for first-year students of philosophy and sociology

(UNIT 7)

MAJA STEVANOVIĆ
 

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Pre-reading questions:

1. What is language?
2. Is there any relation between how we speak and how other people perceive us? Does language
play a part in defining one’s identity?
3. Do different languages frame different realities? Is there any relation between the language we
speak and the way we perceive the reality?

LANGUAGE
Language is usually defined as the method of human communication, either spoken or written,
consisting of the use of words in a structured and conventional way. We use it to buy groceries in
the supermarket, to get a job, to compose an email, invite someone out on a date or propose
marriage. In virtually all of the situations in which we find ourselves in our daily lives, language
allows quick and effective expression, and provides a means of encoding and transmitting ideas.
But language is much more than that.
Language can frame or reframe
particular issues, situations or realities
and thus perform an interactive, social
role.
For instance, when a member of the
clergy makes the utterance “I now
pronounce you husband and wife” in
an appropriate setting, the utterance
changes an aspect of the world in a
rather special way. From the moment
the utterance has been made, the legal,
social and moral status holding between the two individuals is irrevocably altered. The newly
created husband and wife have obligations towards each other that they didn’t have prior to the
utterance of these words. Language, thus, can be used to perform actions which have consequences
in the real world.

Here is another example which illustrates how language can reframe our reality. You probably
haven’t probably noticed that the United States has slightly changed its name, so to speak. Some
countries change their names over the course of time, but the way the US has done it is very
different. We say different because the change is so subtle that is barely noticeable. Before the
Lincoln administration, they were the “United States.” After Lincoln, it was the “United States.”
Can you spot the difference?

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Of course, no! You can’t see the difference because it’s not a change in words or spelling. The
change is purely grammatical. Before, people said “The United States are…” Now, people say
“The United States is…” The idea behind this grammatical and social change is to draw us away
from that original idea of independent states forming a voluntary union, to the idea that the US
is one nation of provinces, called “states”, i.e. a collection of states forming one whole.

These and many other examples fall within the domains of both the sociology of language and the
field of sociolinguistics. For the former, society is the object of study and for the latter, language
is the object of study. Sociolinguistics studies language and how it varies based on the user's
sociological background, such as gender, ethnicity, and socio-economic class. The sociology of
language, on the other hand, studies society and how it is impacted by language.

Comprehension questions:

1. How is language defined in the text above?

2. In what ways can language frame and reframe our reality?
3. What is the difference between the sociology of language and sociolinguistics?

A. Match the words from the text with their synonyms or explanations:

1. groceries a. to affect; to influence something

2. to compose b. to make the sound (of a word) in the correct or a particular way;
or to declare or announce something in a formal way
3. virtually c. to change (information, ideas) into a set of letters, numbers or
symbols
4. to encode d. the first mentioned
5. to transmit e. to change
6. to frame f. to pass on from one person to another
7. clergy g. a group of things
8. utterance h. difficult to notice
9. thus i. done, given, or acting of one's own free will
10. subtle j. hardly
11. collection k. a spoken statement
12. the former l. food and other products sold in supermarkets
13. the latter m. the government of a country
14. to impact n. to formulate or construct something
15. administration o. the second mentioned
16. voluntary p. people who perform religious duties, especially in the Christian
church
17. irrevocably q. therefore
18. to alter r. practically
19. barely s. to write (an essay, e-mail, text message, etc.)
20. to pronounce t. in a way that cannot be changed

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B. Supply the missing word forms and use the appropriate ones in the sentences given below:

VERB NOUN ADJECTIVE

SPEAKER/SPEECH
VARIATION/VARIETY
TO COMMUNICATE
DOMINANCE/DOMINATION
TO COMPREHEND
TO PERCEIVE

1. These exercises will improve your______________________________skills,

2. English is the most_______________________________language in the world.
3. The most famous_________________________on equality was made by Martin Luther King
in 1963.
4. In terms of native speakers alone, Chinese is the second most_______________________
language in the world.
5. Sociolinguistics studies language and how it__________________________based on the
user's sociological background, such as gender, ethnicity, and socio-economic class.
6. Do you believe that speakers of different languages_______________________the world
differently?
7. I had trouble understanding him because his English was barely________________________.
8. The questions given below the text usually test your reading___________________________.
9. The differences between American English and British English are easily_________________
in spelling (e.g. colour (BrE) vs color (AmE)) and vocabulary (e.g. chips (BrE) vs French fries
(AmE), flat (BrE) vs apartment (AmE), etc.).
10. The use of facial expressions, hand movements, body language and gestures is called non-
verbal__________________________.

C. Match the term with its appropriate definition and use the them in the sentences below:
TERM DEFINITION
1. native speakers a. represents special words and phrases that are used
by particular groups of people, especially in their work (i.e. profession)
2. non-native b. is an adjective that describes (1) people who use two different
speakers languages very well; (2) places where two different languages are used
as main languages; and (3) something that is created or done using two
languages
3. mother tongue c. are people who have learned to speak a foreign language through
formal or informal education
4. bilingual d. is the style of language, grammar, and words used for
particular situations (e.g. formal or informal)
5. jargon e. is the ability to switch/shift from one register to another

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 6. slang f. are people who have spoken a particular language since they were
born
7. register g. is a form of the language that is spoken in a particular part/region of
the country or by a particular group of people - it usually
contains some different words and grammar, etc.
8. style switching h. is the first language that you learn when you are a baby, rather than
a (foreign) language that you learned how to speak later in life
9. code switching i. is the ability to shift/switch between languages, e.g. a child of
Spanish immigrants in the USA may speak Spanish at home and
English at school
10. idiolect j. is very informal language that is usually spoken rather than written,
and used especially by particular groups of people
11. dialect k. is a language that is adopted as a common language in
communication between speakers whose native languages are different
12. lingua franca l. is a person’s specific, unique way of speaking that differs from the
way other people talk

1. I know I'll never speak English like a____________________________________.

2. He is______________________________ in French and English.
3. An example of a___________________________in English is the following sentence:
I ain’t going to school today. (standard form: I’m not going to school today.)
4. People who are attending a party usually talk in an informal__________________________.
5. This is a__________________________dictionary which offers translations in two opposite
directions: English - Serbian and Serbian –English.
6. Canada is a____________________________ country, with nearly one-third of its population
of French origin.
7. The detectives were trying to figure out this serial killer’s MO (= modus operandi (a particular
way of doing something)). The use of MO (modus operandi) in this sentence is an example
of____________________________.
8. “He’s a geek.” (= someone who is felt to be strange because they spend all their time
studying) or “He was so afraid she thought he was a chicken.” (= a coward, someone who is not
brave) are all examples of ____________________________________.
9. The English language is a___________________________ of today’s global communication.
10. Serbian is my______________________________.
11. On a global level, native speakers are outnumbered by___________________________ of
English.
12. When people start a sentence in one language and finish it in another language they
use________________________________.

D. Match the words on the left with their definitions and insert them into the appropriate
blanks in the text below:
WORD DEFINITION
1. VARIABLE a. obvious
2. PERFORMED b. imitate

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 3. ATTITUDE c. participants
4. DELINEATED d. part
5. EVIDENT e. point of view, standpoint
6. RESPONDENTS f. articulated in the correct way
7. FREQUENCY g. carried out
8. PRONOUNCED h. the number of times something is repeated
9. MIMIC i. defined
10. ELEMENT j. different

The relation between dialect and social stratification

William Labov's 1966 study of the (1)______________________pronunciation of r in New York

City exemplifies the relationship between dialect and social stratification. Labov went to three
New York City department stores that provided service to three clearly
(2)___________________________ socio-economic groups-Saks (high-class), Macy’s (middle-
class) and S. Klein (low-class) - and studied how their employees (3)____________________ the
phrase "fourth floor". His results demonstrated that the employees at Saks pronounced r most
often, Macy's employees pronounced r less often, and at S. Klein, seventy-nine percent of the
(4)___________________________said no r at all.

Historically, New York City speech was characteristically r-less and the general
(5)______________________towards this pronunciation was rather negative. In 1966, when
Labov (6)_______________________his study, pronouncing words with r was considered an
(7)_________________________of ‘prestige speech’. Labov concluded that the
(8)_________________________of pronunciation of r depended on the speakers’ membership to
a particular socio-economic class. The prestige given to r was also
(9)________________________in the hyper-correction observed in another study. Knowing
that r-pronunciation was a prestigious trait, many of the lower-class speakers added r to words that
did not have an r at all, trying to (10)_________________________ a higher social class.

E. Insert the words form the bow into the appropriate blanks in the text below:
differences intelligible immigrants perspective
distinction borrowed commonly obvious
invention printing varieties imported

Is American English considered a different language or a different dialect of British

English?

There is no formal (1)___________________________between "different (but related)

languages" and "different dialects of the same language." Norwegian, Swedish, and Danish, for
example, are all mutually intelligible but are (2)________________________treated as different

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languages, associated with different countries. Mandarin, Cantonese and Shanghainese are mostly
not mutually (3)__________________________(when spoken) but are regarded as Chinese
"dialects." Plus, there are lots of American Englishes and lots of British Englishes. From a
linguist's (4)_________________________, there are language (5)____________________that
are related to each other and the ones that are not related to each other.
Students of English all over the world are aware that there are (6)_____________________
between British and American English. Many of the most (7)_______________________ ones
are in the vocabulary used in the two countries - for example, pavements in Britain are sidewalks
in the USA. The two countries also (8)_______________________words from different sources:
courgettes were (9)_______________________to Britain from France while zucchini were
brought to America by Italian (10)_______________________. Since
(11)_______________________was a relatively new (12)_____________________ in the 17th
century and the spelling of many words had not yet been formalized, this may have accounted for
many of the differences in spelling as well – compare, for example, labour, organize or fulfil in
British English to labor, organize or fulfill in American English.

F. Match the term with is appropriate definition and insert them in the sentences below:

TERM
1. masculine generic form
2. invisibility
3. spotlighting
4. semantic derogation
5. the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
DEFINITION
a. is a change whereby meanings of words become more
negative over time, reflecting dominant cultural values
b. is a language convention that uses masculine forms to
include people of any sex. e.g. using the term "man" or
"he" to refer to all people, regardless of their sex
c. is a situation where an adjective has to be added to a
noun to identify the sex of an individual in an occupation
that is commonly associated with the other sex
d. implies that an individual's perception and
categorization of experience are determined by the
language that the individual speaks
e. refers to the ways in which our language conventions
make certain jobs invisible for people belonging to the
opposite sex

1. A word that began as neutral (such as mistress as the lady of the house) and later developed
negative connotations (such as mistress as an immoral other woman) is an example of
_________________________________________.
2. In the statement ‘Man is the measure of all things’ (Protagoras), ‘man’ stands for ‘all
individual human beings’. This is an example of ____________________________________.
3. The Hopis have only one word for everything that flies – insects, planes, pilots – except birds;
and the Inuit have many different words for ‘snow’. Since these examples support different
categorizations of experience through language, they are associated with
the___________________________________.

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4. Job-related terms such as mailman, fireman, chairman or statesman which reflect preference
for males and thus make females less visible in the domain of the same profession is related
to_________________________________.
5. By_______________________________, the sex of an individual in an occupation that is
commonly associated with the other sex is explicitly emphasized (e.g. a female judge or a male
nurse).
G. Match some of the common gendered words on the right with their appropriate gender-
neutral counterparts:

GENDERED WORDS GENDER-NEUTRAL EQUIVALENT

1. stewardess/steward a. server
2. fireman b. sales representative
3. boyfriend/girlfriend c. postal worker
4. policeman d. homemaker
5. waiter/waitress e. flight attendant
6. salesman/saleswoman f. partner or the significant other
7. mankind g. firefighter
8. mailman or postman h. humankind
9. housewife i. shooter or killer
10. gunman j. police officer

Some studies have proposed that we should use gender-neutral descriptions instead gendered
language to support the idea that anyone can perform a job, regardless of their gender identity.
Other studies have proposed the exact opposite – that we should use gendered words to
highlight the equality between men and women in terms of job occupations and social statuses.
What do you think?

H. Insert the verbs from the table in the appropriate form to fill in the blanks in the text
below:
TO PROPOSE TO SHAPE TO THINK TO UNDERSTAND
TO STEM TO INFLUENCE TO NOT DETERMINE TO DESCRIBE
TO NOT MEAN TO NOT HAVE

The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, named after Edward Sapir and his student Benjamin Lee Whorf,
(1)__________________the idea that a person's mother tongue determines how he or she
(2)__________________. In other words, it means that our language can
(3)________________the ways in which we form concepts of our reality. One big problem with
the original Sapir-Whorf hypothesis (4)__________________from the idea that if a person's
language has no word for a particular concept, then that person would not be able to
(5)________________that concept, which is untrue.
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 Take the German word sturmfrei, for example,
which (6)__________________the feeling
you have when the whole house belongs to
yourself because your parents or roommates
are away. Just because English
(7)____________________a single word for
the idea, it (8)______________________that
Americans can't understand the concept.

Nowadays, a weaker version of the Sapir-

Whorf hypothesis is used which proposes that
language can (9)______________________
a speaker's view of the world but that it (10)________________________it.

I. Insert the phrases given below into the appropriate blanks in the text:

means of communication lingua francas

novel phenomenon intercultural communication
correctness communicative efficiency
cultural backgrounds mother tongues

English as a lingua franca

English as a lingua franca (ELF) is the use
of the English language as a common
(1)________________________for speakers
of different first languages. ELF is used in
everyday (2)_________________________,
whereas English as a foreign language
(EFL) is mostly learned at schools and used
in more formal settings.
While (3)________________________have
been used for centuries (e.g. Latin was once
the language of scholars and statesmen), what
makes ELF a (4)__________________ is the
extent to which it is used - both functionally
and geographically. A typical ELF
conversation might involve Swedish and
Japanese business people chatting during an
international conference held in Nairobi.

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Generally speaking, ELF interactions concentrate on function rather than form, which means that
(5)___________________________(i.e. getting the message across) is more important than
grammatical and lexical (6)__________________________. As a consequence, ELF interactions
are very often hybrid – as speakers come from different (7)_____________________________,
their speech often incorporates elements which are characteristic of their
(8)________________________________.

Discuss the following questions:

1. The list given below illustrates some of the features of ELF. To what extent are these similar to
the ones which are characteristic of Serbian ELF speakers?

 preference for zero articles as in our countries have signed agreement about this
 use of incorrect question tags as in you’re very busy today, isn't it?
 treating ‘who’ and ‘which’ as interchangeable relative pronouns, as in the picture who or a
person which
 incorrect use of prepositions, for example he is good in what he does or I’m not especially
interested for sport
 incorrect use of collocations with high semantic generality, for example Could you please
make a photo of us in front of this building instead of take a photo of us

2. Because of the use of ELF, native speakers are outnumbered by non-native speakers of
English. Does this mean that, in general, there is a sense of shared ownership of the English
language by native and non-native speakers?

J. Insert the words in brackets into the appropriate form:

Linguistic imperialism

1. Linguistic imperialism, or language imperialism, is a phenomenon that is defined as "the

transfer of a ____________________(DOMINATE) language to other cultures".

2. The transfer is considered to be a_________________________(DEMONSTRATE) of power;

traditionally military power but also, in the modern world,________________________
(ECONOMICS) power as well..

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3. In the modern world, linguistic imperialism is
most___________________________(NOTICE) in
the fields such as international trade, the IT
(information-technology) industry, medicine,
international education, etc.

5. The global______________________(EXPAND)
of English has often been cited as the primary
example of linguistic imperialism.

6. Sociologists around the world are researching this

topic from the point of view of__________________
(GLOBAL).

7. Some have recently suggested that the________________________(DOMINATE) of English

has made us poorer because it has narrowed our linguistic and cultural universe.

K. Match the terms with their explanations:

The English language is fast in adapting to the changing world. New words enter English from
every area of life where they represent and describe the changes and developments that take place
from day to day. Here are some words and expressions that have been coined in recent years:

WORD DEFINITION
1. Megxit a. refers to buying goods online from one's home
2. brain waste b. is raising money for a project by getting a large number of people to
make a small financial contribution, particularly by using a website
3. couch commerce c. is the problem of skilled immigrants who are forced to accept
positions far below their educational level in their new country
4. crowdfunding d. to stalk (follow) someone using Internet searches and other social
network platforms
5. to e-stalk e. a person you know only through online networks
6. e-quaintance f. is a blend of ‘Facebook’ and ‘rape’ and refers to making changes to
someone’s Facebook page without their knowledge or permission
7. frape g. is a humorous term for the decision of the Duke and Duchess of
Sussex (Prince Harry and Meghan Markle) to step back from
their royal duties
8. infomania h. blend of 'network' and 'etiquette'. Set of rules governing appropriate
behavior on the internet.
9. hotspot i. is a blend of the words ‘British’ or ‘Britain’ and ‘exit’ and refers to
the fact that the United Kingdom voted to leave the European Union
10. netiquette j. is a location in which wireless Internet access is available for example
airports, hotels, train stations, etc.

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 11. not-spot k. refers to being tired of having to remember a large number of
passwords for different electronic devises.
12. password fatigue l. is an area where there is slow Internet access or no connection at all
13. selfie m. is the standard system of delivering mail which is very slow in
contrast to electronic mail
14. snail mail n. is a photograph that one has taken of oneself
15. Brexit o. refers to constantly checking and responding to email and text
messages

L. Re-write the following sentences using Indirect (Reported) speech:

1. “I will probably be late for our English class.”

He said_______________________________________________________________________.
2. “I was studying in the library all day yesterday.”
She said______________________________________________________________________.
3. “How long have you been studying English?”
He asked______________________________________________________________________.
4. “Do you attend English classes regularly?”
She asked_____________________________________________________________________.
5. “I’m trying to translate this text into English but I’m not making much progress.”
She said______________________________________________________________________.
6. “Where do you come from?”
She asked_____________________________________________________________________.
7. “I am sure I made several spelling mistakes in a hurry.”
She said______________________________________________________________________.
8. Are you going to apply for that scholarship?”
She asked_____________________________________________________________________.
9. Is Ann coming to our presentation tomorrow?”
She aksed_____________________________________________________________________.
10. “Send the application form as soon as possible.”
They told_____________________________________________________________________.

M. Match the words from the AFFECT/EFFECT lexical group to their corresponding
definitions and use them in the sentences below:

TO AFFECT (v.) TO EFFECT (v.)

EFFECT (n.) EFFECTIVENESS (n.)
EFFECTIVE (adj.) INEFFECTIVE (adj.)

DEFINITION WORD
1. [verb]
to influence something or to produce a change in
someone/something

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 (synonymous with the verbs ‘to influence’ or ‘to impact’)
2. [verb]
to cause something to happen or to accomplish something
3. [noun]
a change which is a result or consequence of an action or other
cause (synonymous with the words ‘consequence’, ‘outcome’ or
‘result’)
4. [noun]
the degree to which something is successful in producing a desired
result; success.
5. [adj.]
successful in producing a desired or intended effect or result
6. [adj.]
not producing any significant or desired effects or results

Use the appropriate words from the table to complete the sentences below. The verbs AFFECT
and EFFECT should be used in the appropriate tense/form or passive voice (if necessary):

1. The positive____________________________of learning a foreign language is that it forces

you to think in new ways.
2. If you don’t speak English this can be a barrier to____________________________
communication.
3. The media can have a huge___________________________on public opinion.
4. His presidential campaign has unfortunately been___________________________from the start.
5. The relationship between several different events usually follows the cause - and -
_______________________pattern.
6. The state of emergency declared due to the coronavirus or COVID-19 pandemic
___________________________everyone regardless of their age, sex, race or wealth.
7. Wars__________________everybody, and their destructive___________________ last for
generations.
8. The only way___________________________positive changes is to participate in the protests.
9. They think that these new laws will________________________radical changes and lead to a
desired______________________.
10. Many people doubt the_______________________________of these new laws.
11. It will take years to___________________________ meaningful changes in our educational
system.
12. This new law will take________________________ (= come into force, start to apply)
immediately.
13. New technologies continue to______________________________ how we live.
14. I was deeply ___________________by this documentary (= it caused strong feelings in me).

N. Insert DO, MAKE or TAKE to form the appropriate collocations:

_____damage _____friends, enemies _____progress

_____comparisons _____a mistake _____a choice, a decision

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 _____a course _____action, steps, measures _____a speech
_____pride in something _____ one’s life _____an effort, an attempt
_____responsibility, advantage _____money, a living _____research, work
_____into account/consideration _____somebody redundant _____harm, good

Insert the verbs DO, MAKE or TAKE in the appropriate tense/form to complete the
collocations in the sentences given below. Use passive forms if necessary:

1. I______________________much money as a philosophy teacher but I enjoy what I do

and______________________ pride in my work.
2. You should____________________full responsibility for your actions.
3. This scandal___________________a lot of damage to his reputation.
4. Even though a lot of research__________________________, they still can’t explain this
phenomenon.
5. After they__________________all the facts into consideration, they realized that
they______________________the right choice.
6. The government_____________________all the necessary measures to deal with the recent
rise in unemployment.
7. Many ancient philosophers________________public speeches in front of their fellow-citizens.
8. I want__________________________a course in ancient philosophy.
9. Even though some progress______________________, things are not improving fast enough.
10. I know you are trying to help, but you___________________more harm than good.
11. You will be contacted as soon as the decision_________________________.
12. Socrates_______________________many enemies by questioning their knowledge and
opinions. He eventually_____________________his own life by drinking a poisonous herbal
potion.
13. Since he____________________________all the work himself, he though his co-worker
didn’t deserve any praise.
14. What do you_______________________for a living? (= What is your job?)
15. His arguments seem_____________________________sense.
16. It is sad that so many people______________________________redundant since the last
recession.
17. Many immigrant families in the USA worked several jobs_____________________a living
(= earn enough money to support themselves and their families).
18. We have to be very careful in_______________________comparisons.
19. These ancient philosophers____________________________the greatest contribution to the
development of philosophy as a science.
20. Much research stills needs____________________________________if we want to
understand this complicated issue.

O. Match the Latin phrases/abbreviations to their appropriate definitions and insert them in
the sentences below:

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 1. a fortiori a. based on theoretical deduction rather than empirical
observation
2. a posteriori b. when necessary or needed, not planned
3. a priori c. existing or holding a specified position not necessarily by
legal right
4. ad hoc d. by that very fact
5. de facto e. used to express a conclusion for which there is stronger
evidence than for a previously accepted one
6. de jure f. based on reasoning or empirical observations rather than on
assumptions or predictions
7. ipso facto g. by itself
8. per se h. existing or holding a specified position by legal right
9. tabula rasa i. of its own kind or unique in its characteristics
10. sui generis j. the human mind, especially at birth, viewed as having no
innate ideas
11. vice versa k. that is
12. id est (i.e.) l. and so on
13. etcetera (etc.) m. for example
14. versus (v. or vs.) n. the position being reversed
15. exempli gratia (e.g.) o. note well (marks something as particularly important)
16. et al. p. against
17. nota bene (N.B.) q. and others

1. Aristotle, Locke and others claimed that the human mind was a____________________,
lacking in content prior to the onset of sense experience.
2. In India, English is not the primary language but the official language_________________,
meaning that it is legally recognized to be the official language.
3. English is the______________________lingua franca. It is the dominant language across the
world.
4. ______________________ knowledge is independent of experience, as with mathematics (3 +
2 = 5) or tautologies ("All bachelors are unmarried").
5. _______________________knowledge depends on experience or empirical evidence, as with
most aspects of science and personal knowledge.
6. If a teacher refuses to add 5 points to a student's grade, on the grounds that the student does
not deserve an additional 5 points, it can be concluded _______________________that the
teacher will also refuse to raise the student's grade by 10 points.
7. The author of this paper reviews the conclusions presented in Williams__________________.
8. Aristotle held that the essence of a thing is what that thing is by itself, or_________________.
9. Teachers qualified to teach in England are not accepted in Scotland and__________________.
9. If you grow up in Brooklyn, you’re a New Yorker______________________.

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10. We will deal with problems on an____________
basis (= as they happen).
11. Our fingerprints and faces tell us we are
each_______________, although most of us were
raised to conform to, and fit into, a social structure.
12. The theme of love__________________hate is
universal.
13. Socrates was accused of impiety, __________the
lack of respect for religion.
14. They ask for your personal details - age, sex, nationality, _______________.

P. Insert the missing PLURAL forms of the nouns of Latin and Greek origin used in the
sentences below:

1. _________________________(CORPUS) are collections of texts of written (or spoken)

language presented in electronic form.
2. A number of__________________________(HYPOTHESIS) have been put forward
concerning the possible origin of that written source.
3. The____________________(ANALYSIS) were based on__________________(DATUM)
collected in the field.
4. The_____________________________(MEDIUM) gave a lot of attention to the recent story
of the missing girl.
5. His CV (curriculum vitae) meets all the________________________(CRITERION) for this
job.
6. __________________________(APPENDIX) are used in scholarly writing to refer to
supplementary material at the end of the book.
7. Natural__________________________(CRISIS) are unpredictable and often occur abruptly,
with little or no warning.
8. In sociology, social stratification is the hierarchical arrangement of social classes into layers or
______________________(STRATUM).
9. His work provided explanations for these strange____________________(PHENOMENON).
10. __________________________(CURRICULUM) are the courses/subjects offered by an
educational institution.
11. __________________________(MEDIUM) are people used as a spiritual intermediary
between the dead and the living.
12.__________________________(SYLLABUS) are outlines and summaries of topics which
are covered by a single educational course/subject.

Q. Match the prefixes with their appropriate meanings given in the table below:

too much again or back not enough badly or wrongly earlier, before
two self joint opposite former
new between half one (side) many

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 PREFIX MEANING
RE-
OVER-
MIS-
FORE-
INTER-
UNDER-
UNI-
AUTO-
BI-
CO-
COUNTER-
EX-
NEO-
POLY-
SEMI-

R. Fill in the gaps with a word built from the appropriate word given in box below and a prefix
given in the table above:

1. A______________________is a member of an extreme right-

 NAZI wing political group that has ideas similar to those of Adolf
 CIRCLE Hitler's Nazi Party, including hatred of Jews and people of non-
 UNDERSTAND white races.
 ACT 2. A written account of the life of a person written by that person is
 DEVELOP called an_________________________.
 EXIST 3. Awareness of something before it happens or exists is called
 THEISM _______________________.
 BIOGRAPHY 4. I have to______________________my files so that I
 KNOWLEDGE can easily find what I'm looking for.
5. This particular region of the country has always
 ORGANIZE
been_________________________.
 ARGUMENT
6. I failed the exam because I________________________some of the
 LINGUAL key questions.
 LATERAL 7. A half of a circle as divided by a diameter is a _________________.
 THINK 8. The old and the new________________________in every culture.
  9._________________________is the worship of or belief in multiple
gods and goddesses.

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10. New York has always been a great melting
pot - a place where people from different races,
countries, or social classes meet
and________________________________.
11. An argument or set of reasons put forward to
oppose an idea or theory developed in another
argument is called a____________________.
12. He is_______________________in English
and German.
13. Matrilineal descent is a type
of__________________________descent as it follows the mother’s side only.
14. Is______________________________a sign of intelligence or anxiety?

S. Insert the appropriate prepositions in the sentences given below:

FROM IN BETWEEN ON AT TO

1. ______ some extent it was my fault, though I didn’t mean any harm.
2. The extent _______ which ELF (English as lingua franca) is used globally makes is different
________ Latin, which was once considered to be a lingua franca as well.
3. All students are invited to participate ______ this international project.
4. This presentation aims _______ presenting the differences __________American and British
English.
5.The most obvious differences are the ones we notice______ the spelling of words which have
the same meaning.
6. The media have a huge effect ______ public opinion.
7. If you are trying to find your way around the city ______ Italy but you don’t speak Italian, you
should consider yourself lucky if you find somebody with whom you can talk ______ English.
8. How do I say this word _______ English?
9. Most English language students have to be trained how to think ____ English.
10. Many languages have words that are completely absent ______ the English language lexicon
as there no exact translation equivalents.

Focus on: Words without direct translation equivalents

Lost in translation: words without English translation equivalents

As descriptive as the English language might be, other languages continue to have many words
that are completely absent from the English language lexicon as there are no exact translation
equivalents. The following list includes some of the most quoted examples.

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1. Schadenfreude (German) - A feeling of enjoyment that comes from seeing or hearing about the
troubles of other people.

2. Sobremesa (Spanish) - The moment after eating a meal when the food is gone but the
conversation is still flowing at the table. Usually after the main meal of the day where the Spanish
often linger on at the table drinking coffee, chatting, playing cards or watching TV before returning
to work later in the afternoon.

3. Fika (Swedish) – is a part of every Swede’s everyday life. It means making time for friends and
colleagues to share a cup of coffee (or tea) and a little something to eat.

4. Backpfeifengesicht (German) - Do you ever just look at somebody and get so annoyed that you
just want to hit them in the face? Well this is the word for you because Backpfeifengesicht is a face
badly in need of a fist!

5. Lagom (Swedish) - Lagom is all about moderation. It means not too much and not too little, but
just the right amount. Lagom is just the perfect spot on the scale!

6. Estrenar (Spanish) - The definition is to wear or use something for the first time but it could be
applied for meals, clothes, houses, cars, everything!

7. Bakku-shan (Japanese) - A beautiful girl as long as she’s being viewed from behind.

8. Tsundoku (Japanese) - Leaving a new book unread after buying it and just letting it pile up with
the other unread lonely books in your house, possibly the meanest thing you could do to something
as valuable as a book! Don’t tsundoku!

9. Tartle (Scottish) - If you have ever been talking to someone you have been introduced to before
but their name has completely disappeared from your brain then you have tartled. To tartle means
to hesitate in recognizing a person.

10. Forelsket (Norwegian) - The euphoria experienced as you begin to fall in love.

Discussion questions:
1. Can you think of any Serbian words that do not have an exact translation equivalent in
English?
2. Does the list given above support the weaker version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis which states
that different languages influence a speaker's view of the world but do not determine it? Explain
why you agree or disagree with the statement given above.

REPORTED SPEECH

A. Rephrase the following sentences using reported speech:

20 
 
1. “When did you apply for that scholarship?”
He asked______________________________________________________________________
2. “Why did you choose this particular topic for your research project?”
They asked____________________________________________________________________
3. “Have you been studying for the exam?”
He asked______________________________________________________________________
4. “We have already had three classes today.”
He said_______________________________________________________________________
5.” The final decision will be announced next week.”
He said that____________________________________________________________________
6. “Don’t be late for your job interview.”
They told me___________________________________________________________________
7.” I am nervous about the exam that I’m taking next week.”
He said that ___________________________________________________________________
8. “Have they already made the final decision?”
He asked me___________________________________________________________________
9. “I’ll do whatever I can to help you.”
He said that ___________________________________________________________________
10. “Do you organize these seminars every month?”
He asked______________________________________________________________________
11.” They will contact me as soon as they make the list of the chosen job candidates.”
They told me___________________________________________________________________
12.”Do you have the appropriate qualifications for this job?
He asked______________________________________________________________________
13. “I will apply for this job if I meet the necessary criteria.”
She said_______________________________________________________________________
14. “What is the next step in the application process?”
He asked______________________________________________________________________
15. Are you working next Saturday?
He asked______________________________________________________________________

B. Insert the verbs in brackets into the appropriate form. Use passive forms if necessary:

1. Marx claimed that workers in a capitalist society__________________________(NOT/

REALIZE) that they________________________________(EXPLOIT).
2. Marx also predicted that the exploitation of the proletariat _____________________________
(LEAD) to a revolution against the bourgeoisie.
3. She said that she________________________________(REFUSE) to work overtime.
4. He said that he_________________________________(GIVE) an opportunity to continue his
studies in Germany.
5. Some students said that they_________________________________(NOT/INFORM) about
the changes in the schedule.
6. He wanted to know why I_______________________________(DECIDE) to major in
sociology.
7. They wanted to know if we_____________________________(FINISH) this project on time.

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8. She told me________________________________(CALL) her back in 10 minutes.
9. He asked me what I_______________________________(KNOW) about the pre-Socratic
philosophers.
10. She told me that she____________________________________(WORK) and that
she_____________________________(CALL) later that afternoon.
 

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