Persian (Grammar A.K.S.LambtonPUBLISHED BY THE PRESS SYNDICATE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK _ http://www.cup.cam.ac.uk 40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA _http://www.cup.org 10 Stamford Road, Oakleigh, Melbourne 3166, Australia Ruiz de Alarcén 13, 28014 Madrid, Spain Persian Grammar first published 1953 Reprinted with corrections 1957 1960 1961 1963 1967 1971 Key first published 1967 Paperback edition incorporating Grammar and Key first published 1974 Reprinted 1976 1979 1981 Reprinted with repagination 1984 Reprinted 1986 1988 1990 1992 1993 1996 2000 ISBN 0 $21 09124 1 paperback Transferred to digital printing 2003PREFACE CONTENTS INTRODUCTION Vowels Diphthongs The Alphabet Reading Exercise Lesson I Ml Iv PARTI The Indefinite 5 -i The Personal Pronouns ‘The Demonstrative Pronouns The Plural of Nouns The Possessive ezafe Possessive Adjectives and Pronouns Interrogative Pronouns The Verb ‘to be’ The Infinitive Tenses formed from the Past Stem Adjectives Tenses formed from the Present Stem The Pronominal Suffixes 25 xod, ytzye xif and 29% xiflan co hamin and OF haman Ose cun ox conin and Oke conan Ure candin and Ole candan oD kasi and pate faxsi at hic ash sur wa uaw 10 10 5 16 Wy as 29 je 3 32 32 32 33 3 35VI Vir Ix CONTENTS The Numerals et sili and jet beryar hy yak and Sa yaki J digar and 6532 digari Lp cand and Se candi How to express time How to express age The Passive Voice Chil tavanestan Chelgsd. xastan GFE gopa/tan crmah dayestan Reals fayestan Impersonal Verbs The use of the Subjunctive after U 1a and Ske Adverbs Conditional Sentences The Causative Conjunctions Relative Clauses » har 4s conanke and Kee coninke Az'ke conance and x= conince Indefinite Nouns and Pronouns Compound Verbs Oly! )2 Uyie GAR Word Formation Abstract Nouns Verbal Nouns Nominal Suffixes Diminutives Adjectival Suffixes page 37 45 45 46 53 54 54 Ss ss ss 56 57 or 65 68 Fes3 8s rd) BasXI XII Xu CONTENTS v Compound Nouns page 103 Compound Adjectives 104 Keays byt dayley 109 Prepositions 110 Oleh Lys dbaly GUT ia The various uses of 6 -é 124 The Adjectival s -i 124 The Abstract «§ -i 125 The Indefinite s -i ng The Relative «s -i 128 The Verbal «s -i 128 The use of the ezafe 128 ‘The omission of the ezafe 0 The use of |) -ra 130 ‘The use of the plural in Of -an 133 The agreement of nouns of multitude and collective nouns with the verb 133 Nouns used generically 134 The Vocative 156 The use of the comparative degree of adjectives 136 Repetition 138 3 ‘and’ 138 (ta uy? Sts) Oleh Ut dbely OAT 4 The use of the Infinitive and Short Infinitive 143 The use of the Past Participle 144 The use of the Present Participle 145 The use of the Noun of the Agent 145 The use of the Preterite 145 The use of the Imperfect 47 The use of the Perfect 148 The use of the Pluperfect 149 The use of the Present 149 The use of the General Present 150xIV CONTENTS The use of the Subjunctive Present poge 151 ‘The use of the Subjunctive Past 153, ‘The use of the Future 154 ‘The use of the Imperative 154 The Precative 154 Verbs of ‘saying’, ‘thinking’ and ‘seeing* 155 The use of the negative 159 Impersonal Constructions 160 The formation of ‘Continuous Tenses’ with cxtls 160 The Particle a Adi 161 ‘The Habitual Past and Continuous Past in Classical Persian 161 The Prefix « be- in Classical Persian 161 The Conditional in Classical Persian 161 The use of oT amadan in Passive Constructions 162 (uta v9? Vs) Olyk Ups dbaly, Gad 164 Polite Conversation 166 Some discrepancies between the spoken and the written word 172 29 digar and Ske i73 Sly aly! 175 FES nyt sis 176 aut 176CONTENTS PART Il The Arabic Element INTRODUCTION Lesson XV XVI XVH XVII xix The Triliteral Root oily ly! Oleh The Declension of Nouns The Gender of Nouns The Noun of Place The Noun of Instrument Abstract Nouns Diminutives Adjectives lye ally Wil} tied Doubled Verbs Hamzated Verbs ld ole el fe ‘Weak Verbs Assimilated Verbs Hollow Verbs Defective Verbs Japl Kens oll gi yo Quadriliteral Verbs The Dual The Sound Masculine Plural The Sound Feminine Plural ens eb cocky pies 0399 92 Gly rly eb lia, 187 195 19$ 196 197 198 198 198 199 199 202 SSSR 8 210 2ir ary 213 ay 215 216 216 217 217XX XXI Appenpix I pti MW Iv Vv VI Key CONTENTS Broken Plurals page 219 SS agKem 231 J bss) Saba gy9 2 lei gel) Gi (uta woe 331 Numerals 233 Pronominal Suffixes 236 3 237 ole 237 Prepositions 238 Adverbs 242 Conjunctions 244 Interjections 245 we She 99 245 GohT gw 246 Irregular Verbs ag Interjections 355 The Calendar 355 Currency, Weights and Measures 358 Abjad as9 Intonation 260 Key to Persian Grammar 266 Additional Exercises 296 Key to Additional Exercises 308 Additional Vocabulary 319 Index 322 Persian Index 326PREFACE This work is intended primarily to meet the needs of the student of the Persian language of the present day, but it is hoped thar it will also serve as an introduction to the student who wishes to read the classics.t The first part is devoted to a description of the main Persian grammatical forms and their use, without reference to their historical development. These forms have been arranged into classes according to their gram- matical function. The terminology used is the traditional grammatical terminology of English. These classes do not necessarily correspond exactly with similar classes in English; as in English, some words belong to more than one class. Exact definitions of the various classes have not been given and an exhaustive division into sub-classes has not been attempted. Part II describes the main Arabic forms used in Persian, a knowledge of which is indispensable for the student of Persian. A stan- dard Arabic grammar should be consulted for a more detailed description of these forms. The usages described in this work are those current unless the contrary is stated. In many cases these do not differ from the Classical Persian usage. It should be remembered that language is in a constant state of flux: on the one hand there is a tendency to drop certain expressions and words or to restrict their meaning, while on the other ‘slang’ expressions are being constantly incorporated into the literary language. No attempt has been made to include in this work words and expressions which are not already so incorporated. The student should beware of using ‘slang expressions’ in literary contexts. There is, moreover, a vagueness of usage in Persian; and the student should also beware of supposing that the forms set out in the grammar are always * Literary Persian (Farsi), as its name implies was originally the dislect of the province of Fars, the Persis of the Greeks. It can historically be divided into three main periods: (© Old Persian, represented by the Achaemenid cuneiform inscriptions; (6) Middle Persian, represented chiefly by the Zoroastrian ‘Pahlavi’ books, the Sasanian inscriptions and the Manichaean texts recently discovered in Central Asia; and (c) New Persian, by which is understood the literary language of Mohammadan times written in the Arabic script. This work is concerned with Modern Persian, which term is used to mean the language of the present day. Incidental references will be found to Classical Persian, the earliest extant examples of which belong to the tenth century 4.0. Broadly speaking the term Classical Persian covers the whole Islamic period down to, and perhaps even including, Qajar times. ‘The best period of Persian prose is, however, considered to be the pre-Mongol period. Lastly, occasional references will be found to Colloquial Persian, which is a form of spoken Persian, This work is not intended to be a complete description of modern colloquial idiom,x PREFACE strictly adhered to. A transcription has been used to indicate pronuncia- tion. The pronunciation given is that of Tehran. No attempt has been made to describe local variations of this. An English—Persian and Persian—English vocabulary for the convenience of the student will be published as a separate volume, but it is not intended that these vocabu- laries should enable him to dispense with the use of a dictionary. A full description of all words is not given: for this the student must refer to a dictionary. Further, the meanings given are those in current use, which, in many cases, differs from the classical usage, PREFACE TO KEY My Persian Grammar, first published in 1953, was designed as a teaching grammar. A key, therefore, seemed unnecessary. For students working on their own, however, the lack of a key has proved a disadvantage; and it is my hope that its inclusion in the present volume will be of assistance to such students. Experience in teaching, using the Grammar as a textbook, has con- vinced me that the incorporation of some additional exercises would be beneficial to the student. Consequently, a number of exercises and some passages of continuous prose for translation into Persian have been added. Words not included in the Vocabulary, which are required for these translations have been added in footnotes at the end of the relevant passage, except in the case of the final passage. The Persian version of this has been taken from a published translation (with a few minor alterations) and has been included as an example of translation by one of the leading contemporary translators. In this case I have thought it best to give the new words, or new meanings for words already in the Vocabulary, in a list at the end of the Persian version. I have not included extra passages for translation from Persian into English on the grounds that such material in the form of readers, books and newspapers is readily available. Alternative translations have been put in round brackeys, but in general no attempt has been made to give more than one translation. brackets have been used for words not in the original, the addition of which is required by the sense.INTRODUCTION 1. Persian is written in the Arabic script, which is read from right to left. The letters wy p, ¢.¢,3 5 and &S g were added by the Persians to the Arabic alphabet. For the complete Persian alphabet see para. 5 below. 2. VOWELS: i approximating to the vowel in the English word ‘beat’ and represented by «6 in the Arabic script, e.g. +y bid, willow-tree. approximating to the vowel in the English word ‘bed’ and not represented in the Arabic script, e.g. 4 beh, better. intermediate between the vowels in the English words ‘bed’ and ‘bad’ and not represented in the Arabic script, e.g. + bad, bad. approximating to the vowel in the English word ‘barred’ and represented by ! in the Arabic script, e.g. oy bad, wind. rather more rounded than the vowel in the English word ‘book’ and not represented in the Arabic script, e.g. 027, bordan, to carry. approximating to the vowel in the English word ‘booed’ and represented by 9 in the Arabic script, e.g. 291 bud, he, she or it was. i, e and a are front vowels; a, o and » back vowels, i, a and u are longer than ¢, a and o, The latter group, namely ¢, a and o, are slightly prolonged when followed by two consonants in the same syllable, but their articulation time, even when thus prolonged, is less than that of i,aoru A vowel approximating to the vowel in the English word ‘bit’ is heard in a few words, notably .~" fof ‘six’ (except in the expression U4 9 ut fefo bef ‘six and five’ used in backgammon, when the vowel of ,s%4 approximates to the e of the English word ‘bed’). This vowel belongs, as regards articulation time, to the group e, aando, Its occurrence,xii INTRODUCTION however, is so rare that it has not been thought necessary to represent it in the transcription by a separate symbol, and it will accordingly be transcribed e. In a few words | followed by «) represents a vowel intermediate between @ and o. Its articulation time is also intermediate between that of a and o. Again, its occurrence is not so common that it has been thought necessary to represent it by a separate symbol (see Lessons v, para. 2 and xiv, para. 2). See also Introduction to Part II. 3. The formation of the vowels is shown in the following diagram. In this diagram the tongue positions of the vowels are compared with those of the eight cardinal vowels.’ The dots indicate the position of the highest point of the tongue. Front 4 iG General 9 J | TT ] oy TT Front a 2@ @aa Back Cardinal vowels:+ Persian vowels: Q 4 DIPHTHONGS. These are @i, at, i, 6% and ai. The starting-point and direction of the diphthongs is shown in the following diagram. @ and a are represented in the Arabic script by S—; i by 63, at by sl and du by y—. In the transcription the diphthongs are shown by a ligature mark; thus in OS git ‘ball’ the i represents a diphthong whereas in JyF gui ‘thou sayest’ u and i are separate vowels. Central Front — a « Back € ° . > Front @ @ Back Cardinal vowels: » Persian diphthongs : © * The cardinal vowels are fixed vowel sounds which have fixed tongue positions and ‘own sousie quite ‘Their sounds are recorded in Linguaphone, No. pajo 1/a H.M.V. fog.INTRODUCTION xiii §- Tue ALPHABET. The majority of the letters of the alphabet have four forms, which are used according to the position of the letter in the word. These forms are initial, medial, final joined and final unjoined. The letters 1, >, 5, »,j, j andy cannot join the following letter, hence the existence of two final forms, one joined and the other unjoined. The medial and final joined forms of |, >, 3, ), j, j and. are thus identical as also are their initial and final unjoined forms. The term ‘initial’ is used to cover the case not only of a letter in an initial position in a word, but also of a medial following one of the letters which cannot join the following letter. The table overleaf shows the various forms of the letters, and gives their Persian names, phonetic description and transcription. The system adopted is a ‘transcription’ and not a ‘transliteration’, one symbol being used for all letters having the same sound. Thus 4, uv and . are all transcribed by s.1 6. The sign « is known as Aamye. In Persian words it only occurs in a medial position and is written over a bearer, thus 3. It is a grammatical mark indicating that there is a junction of vowels and it will not be represented in the transcription, e.g. SSW paigy autumn, It performs this function in the following cases also: (@) Between the Present Stem of a verb if this ends in a vowel and the personal endings of the and pers. singular and plural and the 1st pers. plural, eg. sS migui, thou sayest. Gl miai, thou comest. 3S. miguid, you say. asl. miaid, you come. p2aSe+ miguim, we say. pile miaim, we come. () Between a word ending in ! @ or y u and the Indefinite «$ -i (see Lesson 1, para. 2 (c) below), e.g. Hy parui, a spade. UUl> danai, a wise man, (©) Between the final | @ or y « of a word and the suffixed Abstract «S -i (see Lesson x), e.g. sh} zanafui, matrimony. UULY tavanai, power, strength, 1 An exception is made in the case of & and «3, which are transliterated as y and ¢ respectively.stPMP, prom ysysug sp ut y= esyof, prom ys Sug ap ur f= MOP & pue © ose 30g epoaare st pry & ysysuy amp wo JapIp (¢ pue) > “mojeq ¢ Os]e 295 a “sup, 7 (9 Be ‘prom e yo SurmuiBaq ap yen ¢ pue? 9 spmoa a1p BO;Aq UNA $1 {78 TCM, 7 jh Bo Sppew fare se uMoUy pur [SBE sf uoRNsod EAN Ue UTD PAOA 24L DAnDLY sejoaaye-rs0d ss2[3010A aassojd sejoanye-ss0d pasion, DANEOUS IeJOIAfe $S2[39!0A, aatsoyd usp pasendse ssajao10,, 32g Moped ¢ pue sAoge £ pure ¢ 205 aaoge 305 MOUS, PIOM YSYBUY sep Ur yr 4a0}9q pur anoge > 20g Mol, prom youary op uy fm B0}>q gf Pur ¢O pur anoge ¢ s05 MOjaq gf PUT “f a0g POA § THEY P YsYBuT ap wos srayIp ¢ «Por, Plom YsmMoss stp Ur y> ap 0} Zunewposddy (wna, ssf 2 Be Sueuosuco sapoue Aq Apuerpaurt Pemoyoy waym ose pur “peor, you Cr { Bupwow, ygor «2 “8 ‘uontsod feuy e ut anpea Try 1 (MoPaq ¢ 20 2 1 sup ZorayH) ¥ 9478 01 [ryare> aq pjnoys swuepms ysysuz SAREOLY IBODATE S59}3010A, aaneouy ejoonye-asod pa10A, PAREONY FeIODATE PSOIOA, de, 30 jor seas TBUas TeODATE PIA, SABEOLY JepOIATE PIOIOA aaysoyd peuap pao1o,, adesos tpys zefnAn sej9A s89]2010A, PAREOUS TeNOID, een wom x wwe Vs a anna ons 44 44 os ah tt NOONAN ta YVitarn ven HH Lt a aan SH SS Bee ea 8S h URe poy oyJeMAN sszps010A & se prounUOd ase tog ssroyeads ssow Aq payenuasaptp youare 9 pur 7 Aopq 2 395 oye, tes -F -B-2 “re autovaq 0} spuay ? a ponotey pave vcapapeend 20 jouoReNG 7 Nt or spuodeauce My +, Aq vonduosuen ap uy pomosoudar sy pur aasoyd pnof8 e st 2 xaos spauoyd 03 Zurpsosoe = aaisojd JEIMAN $$9]3010A 30 PIA aaneOny Tewap-orqe] 85212010, 02 Burpsoooe = sajsojd JEINAN $59}20}0A JO P2IOA,fae | .sdei8 Jo samp e, shox ev (Bid, re hy “\pooya, ume =o ,po08, ge Fy oe spp oc suondeoxg sate aaoge + vexed sag | 0 OQ, wear sir ‘Be [pounouoad 200 @aoge t “ered vag n } Sprom versed ux 2 jentur ue Iayy aapwouy “Buowpydip so Femoa GueuCsUCD & aq UE Tevap-o1gey ps10,, 5 plom suns ap wi g oh Aq pamonioy Fru O seoonre peseu psoroa | wu f won gp | fq pamonoy 7p Tessie sejooaye poroy | 7 i 1 Apansedsar 9 pue 9 uaa 3 Buipsosce = aatsojd ae > | Aq pomoyjoy 4 sp puey cy eAoqe rraog | sean so eeed pon | ¥ | 5 | yx aaered prey op ssupeZe Zupuoo “dn ap Burpnpxe ‘onZuo. aap joqwoy ap Aq apem ae Aaqy, “sy sug ut x 4 gp Bue y gsxxauco somno ut “(rqes 30 pau0o psoas e uy saxpayé) uontsod yeuy e ur 30 “2 ~uoo spauoyd 01 Burp109 Suorpydipayp 20 # 309 4-27 amon uaye Aq oe anjsojd sepa 30 Pomonjos 7 paved are (mojoq aos) # sp puey c | yereyed paendse sssj0q | y | ¢ | x e- “9 g Be fds(rel ‘wos 208) 2f parmouosd 5}INTRODUCTION xix (d) Between a word ending in! « ory u and the Relative S -i (see Lesson vilt), ¢.2- 21K Slik” Retabhai ke, the books which... 22 Ky, et adame porrui ke, the bold (brazen) man who. ... 7. Over the ‘silent’ 4 a Aamye represents: (a) The Indefinite (S -i, ¢.g- LU namei, a letter, (B) The ‘Adjectival’ s , e-g- diye sormei, dark blue. (©) The personal ending of the 2nd pers. sing., e.g if goftei, Thou hast said, (d) The ezafe (see Lesson 11, para. 6), in which case it is represented in the transcription as ye, ¢.g- ce LG nameye man, my letter. 8. For the hamye in Arabic words see the Introduction to Part Il, paras. 8 and 9. 9. The following orthographic signs exist, but are not in common use: = fathema. Kasre=e. jamme=o. tafdid, used to mark a doubled consonant. sokun or jazm, used to show a consonant is not vocalized. ‘These signs are placed above or below the letter to which they refer, e.g. 2 dar, door. eis keft, cultivation, le fe test 2 por, fall. The student should note that although the sign safdid is rarely used the doubling of a consonant should be strictly observed in pro- nunciation (except in a final position).irrigation channel Gly fat ae pleat pul money t pik lard aoe tz sharp ow jut kind, sort dle cal pit Jia hal state INTRODUCTION Reapvinc Exercise boiling te cah well ow hin time guitar we wood ge xar thorn u until who (interrog.) ay fear bid willow eH puc futile pr old ws cup ball jan soul oe IY scream Ose when wl Special 4 foot tribute Jk wing bif more oH weft Pi, before rank le cap print oe cit calico rar molexam raw os soaked oy smoke os din religion 4 road é wy magpie Gk sag shank ln six skewer fur brackish cb tin clay fof divulged gf pine pavillion INTRODUCTION lye oly xab xah sleep whether ale gle dad dar justice gallows us 3° duf & shoulder —_ sour milk oS jy qat raz nature secret oy jy rud rug river day 23) ew ue y force almanac ol Op san sul parade whistle pls eo sim be silver branch a ule fr sof lion pure ae hd id yer holiday cave a ds fam fl colour elephant so Je kar hal work unripe plate kam desire oy blood tle dam snare Qe cauldron os, ran thigh Ky sand oj qin saddle jy sur feast cls fam supper dsb length dye yul ghoul ws git pitch orENE i SE BURSTS z regi E R- q a ‘ES & ue migration so gah place oY lat vagabond ol mat checkmate oe mix nail fault INTRODUCTION we dS fur kul blind shoulder a ay gur uf tomb ear wy Jy Lf lof carrion boast je ub mar maf snake akind of pulse a ue mit rif table ewe wo nur nig light also ty 7 iyo intelligence nothing dk uly yal ra‘s mane head ost oe foug Seay enthusiasm battalion de mail inclination os as uh if mountain bag us oe gul yh deceit giddy Jy a lal lur dumb whey Ju ny mal mah possessions moon ee fa mil nam rod name a de nif nil sting indigo dl a! i in tribe this ols oh Jan ya's dignity despair we de xeir seal good floodPARTILESSON I The Indefinite .¢ -i. The Personal Pronouns, The Demonstrative Pronouns, 1. There is no definite or indefinite article in Persian. Broadly speaking, a noun becomes indefinite by the addition of ¢s -i, e.g tS ketab, (the) book. gh ketabi, a book. 2. (a) If the noun ends in the ‘silent’ 4 preceded by ¢, the Indefinite oS -i is not written. The sign known as hamze is written over the ‘silent’ 4, silent” Aye8 sy panjare, (the) window. by panjarei, a window. The sign < is usually omitted in writing, the reader being expected to know from the context whether the word is definite or indefinite. (See also para. 15 (¢) below.) (8) The Indefinite ¢ -i is not added to a word ending in :¢ é; thus Jue sandali is used to mean ‘(the) chair’ or ‘a chair’. (©) If the noun ends in | a or» ua Aamze over a bearer is inserted between the final | a or 9 «and the Indefinite .¢ -i to mark the transition between the final long vowel of the noun and the Indefinite 6 -i. It will not be represented in the transcription, e.g. \ pa, (the) foot. Jl pai, a foot. 4 paru, (the) wooden spade. Jy parui, a wooden spade. * ‘The student must not expect the application of the terms ‘definite’ and ‘indefinite’ in Persian to correspond exactly with their application in English, * Words ending in « A take the Indefinite ( in the usual way, eg ely rah, (the) road. Pl) rahi, aroad.4 [3-9 3. If two or more nouns are joined by » va ‘and’ and are indefinite, the Indefinite .s -iis added to the final one only, the group being regarded as a syntactical whole, e.g. 1d get gal y olde y GES” Retab va medad va galami be man dad, He gave a book, a pencil and a pen to me. 4 A noun qualified by the Interrogative Adjective 4» ce ‘what’ usually takes the Indefinite «5 -i, e.g. wal ae ce ketabi, what book? 5. The Indefinite (¢ -i never carries the stress, 6. Persian has no inflexions. When a definite noun is the direct object of the verb, this is marked by the addition of the suffix |) -ra, e.g. ol> ga yb" Retabra be man dad, He gave the book to me. But 213 oat al” ketabi be man dad, He gave a book to me.! 7. If more than one definite noun forms the direct object of the verb, these are regarded as a syntactical whole, and the |) -ra is placed after the final noun, e.g. 312 gt Ini y ole medad va galamra be man dad, He gave the pen and the pencil to me. 8. |) -ra never carries the stress. 9 The Personal Pronouns are: cr man,I. ma, we. # to} thou. Ws foma, you. Jl a, he, shes Ol! ifan, they.4 * There is a third possibility, namely: 313 gat tS” tab be man dad, He gave a book to me. Here there is no differentiation of number or particularization, whereas in the example above «gS hesali implies ‘some book ot other’ or ‘a particular book, from among the class of articles known as book’. See also Lesson xu, para. 1 (a) (iii) and para. 3. * For the pronunciation of 3 to see Alphabetical Table in Introduction, 4 There is no gender in Persian, Different words are used to differentiate between male and female animals, or the words ¥ nar or +7’ nare*male' and #2+ made ‘female’ are added - before or after the name of the animal, which in the latter case takes the eza/é. 4 See also Lesson xiv, para. 1 (a).49-15] 5 «$9 v2 is an alternative form to 9! « but is seldom used in Colloquial Persian. The Demonstrative Pronoun Of an ‘that’ is used to mean ‘it’. Its plurals 'giT anda and GUT anan are used in Colloquial and Literary Persian respectively in place of Oly! ifan ‘they’. 1o, The Personal Pronouns are by their nature definite and conse- quently take |, -ra when the direct object of a verb. (y+ man ‘I’ followed by |, -ra contracts into y+ mara ‘me’ and $3 to ‘thou’ into |¥' sora ‘thee’. 11, If the grammatical subject of a sentence is a personal pronoun, this is implicit in the verb and is not usually expressed separately unless it is desired to lay special emphasis on the pronoun. 12. OT an ‘that’ and cy! in ‘this’ may be either Demonstrative Pronouns or Demonstrative Adjectives. As Demonstrative Pronouns they stand alone, e.g. mee OF an cist, What is that? meng Oy! in cist, What is this? OT ah and ¢! in when used as pronouns may mean ‘the former’ and ‘the latter’ respectively. When used as Demonstrative Adjectives oT an and &,! in precede the noun they qualify, e.g. LS OT an ketab, that book. xe ot) in mi, this table. 13. UT aya is a particle used to introduce a question which does not contain an interrogative word, e.g. cal GES GI UT ayer in hetad ast, Is it this book? In conversation questions which do not contain an interrogative word are usually indicated by a rising intonation at the end of the sentence (see Appendix VI) rather than by the use of &T ayz. 14. The normal word order in simple sentences is Subject (unless this is contained in the verb), Object, Indirect Object, Extension, Verb. 15. The following orthographical points should be noted: (© OT an ‘that’ is frequently joined to the following word, pro- vided the initial letter of this is a consonant, e.g. tSST an ketab, that book.‘6 (35 (8) The preposition 4: be ‘to’ is usually joined to the following word, the final « of 4; 4¢ being omitted, e.g. ou be man, to me. The following combinations should be noted: &4 be in, to this, OQ be an, to that. oh be x, to him, to her? (©) The initial alef of cm! ase ‘he, she or it is’ can be omitted, the «~» being joined to the preceding word, provided the final letter of this is not the ‘silent’ 4, e.g. cil oy! in Retad ast, This is the book. If the preceding word ends in | a or 9 u, the initial alef of cul ase is always omitted and the a of ast elided, e.g. culdT anjast, He, she or it is there. my! ust, It is he, it is she. Similarly, if cu! ase follows the word 7 to ‘thou’ the initial alef of «Sw! est is sometimes dropped and the a of ast elided, e.g, cuyi ost, It is thou. If cul ase follows a word ending in cs i, the initial alef of om! ase is usually dropped and the a of ast elided, e.g. cma” hetabist, It is a book. (d) 4» ce ‘what’ followed by cul ase is written Comp and pro- nounced cise, e.g. mony u,| in cist, What is this? (¢) If a noun ending in the ‘silent’ A is made indefinite ¢! can be written after the word in place of the hamze over the ‘silent’ 4 (see para. 2(¢) above), e.g. Slany panjarei, a window. # Some writers insert a.) d between the preposition 4 be and Ol an Uy in, 3! w, and Oley! fan, eg. Olay Badan, to that, Crd) bedin, to this, 34) bedu, to him, to her. lap wy dedifan, to them,1, 15-16] 7 If such a noun is followed by cu! ast ‘is? the alef of o-! ase is omitted, e.g. cong leyey panjareist, Itis a window. 16. Word stress falls on the final syllable of nouns and pronouns. Stress is marked in the transcription by an upright stroke preceding the syllable which carries the stress, e.g. tS ke'tab, book. Jae sanda'li, chair, ut fo'ma, you. As stated above, neither the Indefinite 6 -i nor |) -ra carries the stress, thus tS ke'sabi, a book. \ytS” ke'sabra, the book (acc.). VocaBuLary ox! in, this. 426 kayaz, paper. Ol an, that; it o~4_panjare, window. ly ja, place. pa, foot. leu! inja, here. »\ paru, a kind of wooden le] anja, there. spade. © koja, where? de cig, thing. oman, I. 42 ce, what? sto, thou. @ 4 be, to. 3! u, he, she. 4 va,and. Loma, we. & ya, or. Ls foma, you. cl ast, he, she or it is. Olt! ifan, they. cue nist, he, she or it is not. (iT anha, those; they. 313 dad, he, she or it gave. Sno miz, table. 42. did, he, she or it saw. Uy sandali, chair. al, bale, yes. tS kerab, book. v4 naxtir, no. alte medad, pencil. Ql aya, an interrogative par- fF galam, pen. ticle (see para. 13 above).8 {t, 1-3 Exercise 1 Cbd Joes Stl g ad See oT eal ol — cote! GL By eel A ET Oe eae On ced ey! — eel eel bated Lol — yo Eyles — ota gay Lal — ald gat gh cad Wh UAW gy aldo — aya Ly by ae y ro — ala ger Hole GI — ayo coed baal Sate — yo WL — ala ay dae 9 je — ald Exercise 2 1. This is the book. 2. He saw a book. 3. Where did he see the pen and the pencil? 4. He gave a book to me. . Here is the table. 6. What is this? 7. This isa pen. 8. He gave the pen and the pencil to you, 9. The book is here and the pencil is there. 10, What is that? 11. That is a chair. 12, Where did he see the book? 13. He saw it here. 14. He saw you. LESSON If The Plural of Nouns. The ‘Possessive’ ezafe. Possessive Adjectives and Pronouns. Interrogative Pronouns. The Verb ‘to be’. 1, The plural of nouns is formed by the addition of ls -Aa to the singular, e.g. sls maedad, pencil. laslae medadha, pencils, 2. If a noun denotes a human being the plural can also be formed by adding 0! -an to the singular, e.g. Oj yan, woman. OU} zanan, women. In Classical Persian the distinction between the plural in la -4a for irrational beings and inaminate objects and the plural in O! -as for human beings is usually observed, but in Colloquial Persian there is a tendency to form the plural of all nouns in a -~Aa. 3 (2) If a noun ends in the ‘silent’ A preceded by ¢, unless it re- presents the Arabic 3 (see Part Il, Introduction, para. 11), the ‘silent’ A is changed into ¢ g before the plural termination U! -an, e.g, 4m — bacce, child. Se baccegan, children.1, 3-6] ’ () Ifa nounends in | aa yis inserted between the final | a and the plural termination 0! -an, e.g. WS gada, beggar. OS gadayan, beggars. (c) If a noun ends in» u a & y is inserted between the final y « and the plural termination 0! -an, e.g. Sealy rasegu, (the) truthful person. OkyK-l) rastguyan, truthful persons, or there is merely an off-glide from the final 9 u to the plural termination Ol -an, eg, 354 Barun forearm. Ol9j34 baruan, forearms.* 4 The plural terminations 's -4a and O! -an carry the stress, e.g. it” ketab'ha, books, Obj} za'nan, women. §- Possession is shown in Persian by the addition of e, known as the ezafe, to the thing possessed, which precedes the possessor. ihe aah was originally the Old Persian relative pronoun and was an word. In New Persian it is an enclitic. eis not represented in writing unless the word to which it is added ends in | a ory u (see para. 7 below), ee 2 GT tS” ketabe an mard, that man’s book. Ux+ EY baye manzel, the garden of the house. If the direct object of a verb is definite and formed by two or more words connected by the ‘possessive’ eqa/z, |) -ra is added after the final word in the group, e.g. 4y2 oye OT yay pesare an mardra did, He saw that man’s son. 6. If the noun to which the ezafé is added ends in the ‘silent’ 4 or in 6 i the semi-vowel y is inserted in pronunciation between the final ¢ or iand the ¢ of the ezafé but is not represented in writing, A hamre is sometimes written over the ‘silent’ 4 or the «§ i to represent the ezafe, but is usually omitted, e.g. Oj cx) 499 bacceye in zan, this woman’s child. 37+ OT Jute sandaliye an mard, that man’s chair, * See Leston xit, pare. $.10 {u, 7-13 7. If the noun to which the eyafe is added ends in | a ors u, the ezafe is written as 6 and in pronunciation the semi-vowel y is inserted between the final a or w of the word and the e of the erefé, eg. op OT Slats” ketabhaye an mard, the books of that man. Oj &! Gajk bazuye in zan, this woman’s forearm. 8. The ezafé never carries the stress, e.g. H+ EL ‘baye man'zel, the garden of the house. 9. The English Possessive Adjectives can be translated by placing the Personal Pronoun after the noun qualified by the English Possessive Adjective and adding the ezafé to the noun, e.g. i tS” ketabe man, my book (lit. the book of rae). lad Kenel asbe foma, your horse. 10. The English Possessive Pronoun is translated by the Personal Pronoun preceded by the word Jt mal,’ to which the ezafe is added, eg. coal gee SL GET uy! in ketab male man ast, This book is mine, But cad pp LS UL! in hetabe man ast, This is my book. 11. JL mal is also used to express the possessive case of nouns but only when this case is used pronominally, e.g. sont ope OT JL Gand ox! in ash male on mard ast, This horse is that man’s (belongs to that man). engl poy SL Eu bay male pesare ust, The garden is his son’s (belongs to his son). 12. 4S” ke and SJ Ai are Interrogative Pronouns meaning ‘who’. OS &i forms a plural eS" kiha, Both 4X ke and 5 ki take |) -ra; ke followed by |) -ra contracts into 5 kera, e.g. 49 LS” kera did, Whom did he see? While S &i is more frequently used in Colloquial Persian than a7 ke, the latter is more frequently written. 13. Before describing the Verb and the formation of tenses it will be convenient to introduce here certain tenses of the verb 02») budan ‘to * Jle mal means ‘possessions, wealth’, It is also used to mean ‘horse’, ‘mule’ or ‘donkey’. OT 5! ar an (lit. ‘from those of’, with an implication of plurality), with the exafe, can be substitured for J+ mal in the cases covered by paras. 10 and 11,ny, 15] 1 be’ (Present Stem .*4 af), which is used to conjugate the verb (for stress on verb forms see below Lesson 111, para. g and Lesson tv, para. 8): PRETERITE Ist pers. sing. ¢>9 "| and pers. sing. «S551 budi |} I was, etc. 3rd pers. sing. d9 bud Ist pers. pl. fox budim and pers. pl. -s29 budid | We were, etc. grd pers. pl. 4s. iat | Past PARTICIPLE e29 bude, been. PRESENT 1st pers. sing. fi mibafam | and pers. sing. «ther mibafi | 1am, ete grd pers. sing, tl.+ mibafad 1st pers. pl. ites mibafim and pers. pl. dethes mibafid grd pers. pl = thee © mibafand) We are, etc. SuBJUNCTIVE PRESENT Ist pers. sing. pk bafam | and pers. sing. th baft I may be, etc.* grd pers. sing, 42h bafad 1st pers. pl. pth bafim and pers. pl. axth bafid } We may be, etc. 3rd pers. pl. wth bafand | For the formation of the other tenses of 02»: budan see Lessons 111 and tv. * There is an alternative form: ist pers. sing. py? bovam, ast pers. pl. £92 bovim, and pers. sing. G3 bovi. and pers. pl. aye bovid. grd pers. sing. 252 bovad. ged pers. pl iy dovand. ‘This is not used in Colloquial Persian. See also Lesson tv, 1 (¢).a (ur, 14-16 14. The Negative is formed by adding the prefix; na- to the positive, e.g. 2x3 nabudam, I was not. pits namibafam, 1 am not. fs nabafam, 1 may not be. 15. The Present of the verb ‘to be’ can also be formed: @) By the addition of the following personal endings to the pre- ceding word, except in the 3rd pers. sing., for which =! ast ‘is’ is used: Ast pers. sing. ¢(!) -am, I am, etc. ist pers. pl. ¢(1) -im. and pers. sing. «s(l) -i. and pers. pl. (I) -id. [ord pers. sing. (1) ast.) grd pers. pl. (1) -and. If the personal endings are added to a word ending in the ‘silent’ 4, the alefis written, ©8 Atay acce am, Lam a child. In all other cases the alef of the personal ending is omitted, e.g. Ay3y+ mard id, You are a man. The and pers. sing. personal ending added to a word ending in the ‘silent’ 4 can also be represented by a Aamye over the ‘silent’ A, e.g. 4g, bacce i, Thou art a child. If the personal endings other than the 1st pers. sing. and the 3rd pers. pl. are added to a word ending in | @ or » wa Aamge over a bearer is inserted between the final | @ or» u and the personal ending, e.g. JSl Joma id, itis you (lit. “you are’). (® By the following form which stands alone: ist pers. sing. fa hastam, Ast pers. pl. gem hastim. and pers. sing. (g=* Aasti. and pers. pl. Astme hastid, rd pers. sing, cme hast. 3rd pers. pl. dcam hastand. 16. The Negative of the forms in para. 15 above is formed as follows": (2) stperssing, gs =| and pers. sing, & nai Tam not, ete. ged pers. sing. cng nist Ist pers. pl. ei onaim | and pers. pl. ag naid =} Weare not, etc. 3rd pers. pl. ay nayand, © ‘They are not enclide,1, 16-19] 3 ® ist pers. sing. past "| and pers. sing. g~s nisi | I am not, etc grd pers. sing. Cue} nist ast pers. pl. pod nisin and pers. pl. Asie nistid | We are not, etc. 3rd pers. pl. detened wa | ‘The forms in (2), with the exception of the 3rd pers. sing., are rare. 17. If aS ke or oS ki ‘who’ is followed by the Present of the verb “to be’ given in para. 15 (6) above the following contractions may take places rst pers. sing. oe kistam and pers. sing. (gesS isi: | Who am I? ete. grd pers. sing. cue ist rst pers. pl. eo kistin and pers. pl. doteaS” kistid | Who are we? ete. grd pers. pl. Ate istand) 18. The various forms of the Present of the verb ‘to be’ are, broadly speaking, interchangeable. ms hast, can be emphatic, and is used to mean ‘there is’ as well as ‘he, she or it is’. ‘After a word ending in «s -i the forms, gu hasti, q-=m hastim and dtu hastid are used in preference to «s -i, ¢! -im and 4! -id, e.g. Sete ily! irani hastid, You are a Persian. 1. A plural subject, if it denotes rational beings, takes a plural verb. A plural subject denoting irrational beings or inanimate objects takes a singular verb, e-g. ares bey! oe pole 9 944 pedar va madare man inja hastand, My father and mother are here. Bidg LAT Ls Olyoly baradarane foma anja budand, Your brothers were there. SHE iy see medad va galam kojast, Where are the pencil and pen? culdT tS” ketabha anjast, The books are there. This distinction, however, is less carefully observed in Modern than in Classical Persian.4 {u, 20 20. The word U3 manzel when used to mean ‘home’ or ‘at home’ does not usually take a preposition, e.g. ca 3 _ ses a4 jou ly, ale ay ot gui die Q Er oo) ih Kenly dl! el Ke af ws (2 Uke manzel budam, 1 was at home. VocaBuLary Qssy — birun, out, outside; when mard, man. yan, woman, pesar, boy; son. doxtar, girl; daughter. pedar, father. madar, mother. baradar, brother. xahar, sister. bacce, bace, child. kar, work. otag, room. manzel, house; home. bay, garden. gada, beggar. Jahr, city, town. baru, forearm, rastgu, truthful; a truth- ful person. irani, Persian (adj.); a Persian. asb, horse. sag, dog. gorbe, cat. Bay, Ox! used as a preposition it takes the ezafe. dar, in (prep.); door. tu, in; inner; inside; when used as a pre- position it normally takes the ezafe, thus becoming 69° tuye. ru, on; outer; when used as a preposition mean- ing ‘on’ it precedes the noun it governs and takes the eafe, thus becoming yy ruye, ‘| who (interrog.). kodam, which (of two or more; interrog,). vali, but. darad, he, she or it has. amad, he, she or it came. raft, he, she or it went. * 98 gar is also used for cow, though strictly speaking a cow is Seals made gay.ul, 1-3) ay Exencisr 3 Bg al ie Thee BL Te ls BL Tes Us Spe — ld ee Sy LS ET ahs gy GU GI — tl ay oy! 2492 bust —aylo AS ge Fh9— al Oy St gy — LT iy Sy ldo y GET — cd) eh — ch Cals gn Gh | — aye he laced Bb pS ot gael AT Le Uifeg lat gals — cad ye cab JL EXEnRcisE 4 1. The room has a door and a window. 2. Whose ss this garden? 3- The garden is his. 4 He has ahorse. 5. A woman came into our room. 6. The horse and the cow are in the garden. 7. The child is in your room. 8. The pen and the pencil are on the table, 9. He came to your house. 10. Your brother went to the town. 11. He saw the child in the garden, 12. He gave your book to me. 13. This is their house, LESSON Ill The Infinitive. Tenses formed from the Past Stem. Adjectives. 1. The Infinitive of the verb ends in tan, 09 dan or 42 idan, e.g, KAS” hoflan, to kill. 0231 avardan (avordan), to bring. Os —xaridan, to buy. 2. The Short Infinitive is the Infinitive from which the ending © -an has fallen away, e.g. tS hoff. 353) avard (avord). ay xarid. The Past Stem is identical with the Short Infinitive and also with the 4rd pers. sing. of the Preterite. 3. The Present Stem of Regular Verbs is found by cutting off the final & tan, 0 dan or UA: idan of the Infinitive, e.g. uw kof ysl evar (aver), = xar.16 [an 3-4 Irregular Verbs undergo certain other changes in the formation of the Present Stem. Their irregularity is confined to the changes made in the Present Stem.! @ The following are formed from the Past Stem: (a) The Past Participle by the addition of the ‘silent’ 4, preceded by gee, wyAsaride, bought. (® The Preterite by the addition of the personal endings, except in the 3rd pers. sing,, which is identical with the Past Stem, eg. Ist pers. sing. poe xaridam’ and pers. sing. x4 sxaridi } I bought, ete. grd pers. sing. = ya arid 1st pers. pl. fue xaridim and pers. pl. Aspe xaridid | We bought, etc. 3rd pers. pl. Aide —xaridand, (©) The Imperfect by the addition of the personal endings as in the Preterite and the prefix yg mi-, e.g, Ist pers. sing. pate mixaridam seat T was buy used and pers. sing. Sayings mixaridi | obs rd pers. sing. Suite mixarid 1st pers. pl. fies mixaridim and pers. pl. ded iearidid ‘wee sed pe pl sks =) If the verb has an initial a/ef with a short vowel, the initial a/ef drops out after the prefix is mi-, e.g. patie mioftadam, I was falling (from 0243! oftadan ‘to fall’), or the c¢ may be written separately, in which case the initial alef does not ceo Out [tly minftadem, I was falling, ® A list of irregular verbs will be found in Appendix L In the vocabularies to the lessons the present seem of irregular verbs te given in brackets, but the present stem of irregular compound verbs will not be given if the verbal part of the compound hes already been given ta. simple verb,m, 4) 17 If the verb has an initial T , the madde of the alef drops out after us mir, eB. poles miamadam, I was coming (from OT amadan ‘to come’). If the verb has an initial s! i, the ue mi- must be written separately, e.g. poleeul us miistadam, 1 was standing (from Qst=—3! istadan ‘to stand’). (d) The Perfect by the Past Participle followed by the Present of the verb ‘to be’ (see Lesson 11, para. 15 (2) above), e.g. Ist pers. sing. ple and pers. sing. ae grd pers. sing, cwlelys ist pers. pl. flee and pers. pl. agbedy 3rd pers. pl. Aled ys xaride am xaridei xaride ast xaride im xaride id xaride and} | Ihave bought, etc. We have bought, etc. The Aamye in the and pers. sing. is often omitted in writing, (©) The Pluperfect by the Past Participle followed by the Preterite of the verb ‘to be’ (see Lesson 11, para. 13), e.g. ist pers. sing. p29 oe 2nd pers. sing. S231 a+ grd pers. sing, 298 oH 1st pers. pl. Fit ee and pers. pl. Roy? oe grd pers. pl Aagt hs xaride budam xaride budi saride bud xaride budim ssa | Wyte saride budand, | gta ete, (f) The Subjunctive Past by the Past Participle followed by the Subjunctive Present of the verb ‘to be! (see Lesson 11, para. 13), e.g. rst pers. sing. pth ata xaride bafam and pers sing. 2h aay axaride daft} | may have bought, grd pers. sing. Ach oy,< xaride bafad 1st pers. pl. pth sae xaride bafim and pers. pl th ous aride bjid | We may have bought, rd pers. pl. 2 oh xaride bafand,18 {m, 4-7 (g) The Future by the Indicative Present’ of crulps xastan ‘to desire’ (Present Stem «l=. xh) without the cs mi-, followed by the Short Infinitive, e.g. Ist pers. sing. 4s pls xaham xarid and pers. sing. uy (lye xahi xarid I shall buy, ete. rd pers. sing. js tals xahad xarid ist pers, pl. ak lye xahim xarid and pers. pl. ys Jealye xahid xarid | We shall buy, etc. rd pers. pl. 4yye daly xahand xarid, 5. The Negative of the verbal forms in para, 4 above is formed by adding the prefix } na- to the main verb, except in the Future, when it is prefixed to the auxiliary verb, e.g. pe naxaridam, I did not buy. patent namixaridam, | was not buying. clu# naxaride am, I have not bought. 29 ye naxaride budam, I had not bought. rk i, naxaride bafam, I may not have bought, ae ple naxaham xarid, 1 shall not buy. 6. If the verb has an initial 1 a, as (s) y is inserted between the negative prefix and the T a of the verb, which loses its madde, e.g. dul nayamad, He did not come (from 0441 amadan ‘to come’). If the verb has an initial alef followed by daffan (see Lesson 1x) form their Imperfect in the usual way. 8. The verb 055 budan ‘to be’ also forms its Imperfect without the prefix cs mi-. The Subjunctive Past of 2»: budan is seldom used. 9. (a) Stress in the affirmative verbal forms in para. 4 above is carried on the final syllable of the main verb where there is no prefix, except in the Future, when the stress falls on the final syllable of the auxiliary verb. ‘Where there is a prefixed cy mi- this carries the stress. E.g. p45 xari'dam, I bought. ptste 'mixaridam, 1 was buying. cles xari'de am, I have bought. pon ods xari'de budam, 1 had bought. po ee xari'de bafam, I may have bought. Ast pbs xa'ham xarid, 1 shall buy. (5) Stress in the negative verbal forms is carried on the negative prefix, €.g. : | . p52 'naxaridam, 1 did not buy. pei 'namixaridam, | was not buying. ¢) 42 'naxaride am, I have not bought. 2st 4 = 'naxaride budam, I had not bought. rt ot, 'naxaride bafam, 1 may not have bought. Ae ly 'naxaham xarid, | shall not buy. 10. Adjectives normally follow the noun they qualify, an ezafé being added to the noun, e.g. 5), tS ketabe bozorg, the big book. Adjectives do not take the plural ending," e.g, 9% Oley mardane xub, good men. * Thus OT an ‘that’ and cy,! in ‘this’ when used as demonstrative adjectives do not take the plural ending. When used 2s demonstrative pronouns they take the plural endings Ue -ha oF OI -an, eg. (gal inka, these, 1g3T enka those,20 (1, 11-14 11. The ‘qualifying’ ezafe follows the same rules as those given in Lesson 11, paras. 6 and 7 for the ‘possessive’ exafe if the word to which it is added ends in the ‘silent’ A, i, | ¢ or 9 u, e.g. hj, S\utS ketabhaye bororg, big books, 3 dtse sandaliye nou, the new chair. eS aay bacceye kucek, the small child. 3 SH paruye noi, the new spade. 12. If more than one adjective qualifies a noun, the ‘qualifying’ ezafe is added to each adjective except the final one, e.g. Shy AT” ketabe bozorge niu, the big new book. 13. The noun and itsattributes are regarded as a syntactical whole and, therefore, if the noun is indefinite, the Indefinite 6 -i is added to the final adjective only. Similarly if the noun is definite and the direct object of the verb, the |) -ra is added to the final adjective, e.g, Soy, tS” hetabe bozorgi, a big book. si Sy, oS” ketabe bororge noi, a big new book. 37 3, et” ketabe bozorgra avard, He brought the big book. agaT yg Hp LS” kerabe bororge ndura avard, He brought the big new book. 14. The comparativeand superlative degrees are formed by the addition of J -tar and oy -tarin respectively to the positive, e.g. 53, bororg, big. A553, bororgiar, bigger. 25>, bozorgtarin, biggest. ‘apt xub, good. Ae behtar, better. CAH behtarin, best.* 4 beh is also used to mean ‘better’ when it stands alone as the predicate of the verb ‘to be’. Exceptions are: © Fagh mubar and Aug xubtarin are also occasionally used.mr, 14-18] a In the comparative degree of -4 bad ‘bad’ the > d is sometimes assimilated to the © ¢ of the comparative ending, thus: At battar. The words 65 kehtar ‘smaller, younger’ and ~¢+ mehear ‘greater, elder’ are seldom used in the positive degree. The Superlative of these forms, ones kehin and cng+ mehin respectively, is rare also. 15. The comparative follows the noun it qualifies, the qafe being added to the noun, e.g. 4} tS ketabe bororgtar, the bigger book. 55} Gul” ketabhaye bororgear, the bigger books. 16. The superlative precedes the noun it qualifies. It does not take the eafé, e.g. tS oA behtarin ketab, the best book. 17. Comparison is expressed by the word }! ay preceding the person or object used as a standard of comparison, e.g. ccd £55, FE2 O11 jl py OF an pesar az in doxtar bozorgtar ast, That boy is bigger than this girl. pad fos} lat 51 oye man ay foma qudtar amadam, I came earlier than you. Comparison can also be expressed by the word ta preceding the person or object used as a standard of comparison. This form is used if the person or object used as a standard of comparison is governed by a preposition, e.g. gh oslo nr re CHET — ketabhaye behtar be man dad ta be u, he gave beter books to me than to him. 18. Ata biflar and yt: bif both mean ‘more’, The former is used as a noun, adverb or adjective, e.g. sls 9h Atay — biflar be u dadid, You gave him more. sets cus Ata byl ura biflar dust dafland, They liked him better (more). Ugi} GU siong Aty 2,0 mardha biftar budand ta zanha, There were more men than women.aa [in, 18-20 When **~ biflar qualifies a noun it precedes the noun, which is put in the singular, e.g. JU aptls OE Aty biflar ketab daftid ta u, You had more books than he. uta if is used as a noun, e.g. A226 at jl ute bifaz u xordid, You ate more than he. It can also be used predicatively as an adjective, e.g. col ge SALT jl uta a! CULT hetabhaye u bif az ketabhaye man ast, His books are more than mine. uta 5! ote if ex pif means ‘more than before’, e.g. Syd gd tag 5 tet bal ura bif az pif dust darad, He likes him better (more) than formerly. “x biflar is also used as a noun meaning ‘most’, in which case it precedes the noun it qualifies and takes the ezafe, e.g. did, at) ery Ary biflare mardharafte budand, Most of the men had gone. dg Ole UT ity biflare anha javan budand, Most of them were young. “Most of all’ is rendered by 4 j! At biflar ay hame or Ata 4 3! az hame biflar, e.g, tle Syd Aon af jl Lal ura az hame biflar dust daftim, We liked him best (most) of all. 19. Adjectives are also used as adverbs, e.g. Aare OLS WT anra geran xarid, He bought it at a high price (expensively). 20. Adjectives can be strengthened by je xéili or jlo besyar ‘very’. These words precede the adjective they qualify, e.g, el 3, Set ie 1! in mig alll bororg ast, This table is very big. yl Srp sheet BL aye besyar bozorgi darad, He has a very large garden. The comparative degree can be similarly strengthened, e.g. mel Ket ho 7) in xtili behtar ast, This is much better.41, 21-22] 33 at. 5} giad is used as an adjective, noun or adverb meaning ‘much, many, too’, or ‘too much’. With a negative verb it means ‘not very’, e.g. ctl 3k) GlatS” ketabhaye ziad daft, He had many books. sls obj ga be man ziad dadid, You gave me too much. nl OLS oj LS ee! in etab ziad geran ast, This book is too expensive. cand Gye OL) GET Ux! in ketab ziad xub nist, This book is not very good. 24} ziad may precede the noun it qualifies, in which case the latter is put in the singular, e.g. syle GES sj ziad ketab darad, He has many books, 22. Adjectives, like nouns, carry the stress on the final syllable, e.g, Sx bo'zorg, big. 255, boqorg' ar, bigger. Fy bozorgea'rin, biggest. VocaBuLary ely rah, road, way. ‘4 xub, good. ali name, letter. + bad, bad. Sip, bozorg, big. ey” kucek, small. Ole javan, young. wx pir, an old person; old (of persons); 2,+ oy pire mard, an old man; O} 9 pire gan, an old woman." tems mosenn, old, aged. 445° kohne, old, worn-out. vt mari, sick, ill. os geran, expensive, dear. Oly! arzan, cheap. gp nou, new. 939) qud,early ; quick, quickly. 2° dir, late (of time). uly yavaf, slow. kj ziad, much, many; too, too much; (with nega- tive verb) not very. Jleny besyar, very. us xtili very. _ cand, some; for how much? how many? ye cera, why? j! az, from; than. * dy mard and (35 yan are used in these expressions to define the sex.24 af hame, all. J rig, day. Jax) emna, to-day. jax? —diruz, yesterday. Jux2, paring, the day before yesterday. Ost! oftadsn (Of), v0 fall; (cil) Gatil aly rah oftadan, to set out.” oF) raftan (rav-, rou), to go; (2) oS «yy rah rafian, to walk along, about. Ot1 amadan (2), to come; () GAT 355 gud amadan, to be (come) early, 02,5 kardan (kon), to do; (o) 35° y2 dir kardan, to be (come) late. (ur (Si goftan (gu), to say. Ok xaridan, to buy. Ktl> daflan (dar), to have, Q's) possess; cls canyd dust dajten, to like. Fis3 foruxtan (foruf), to (vias) sell. Oday — rasidan, to arrive; (with the preposition 4 se) reach, CS” koftan, to kill. crtys neveflan (nevis), to (rs) write. (cx) O45 didan (bin), to see. (02) Oel2 dadan (deh), to give. Orta! istaden (ist), to (cu!) stand (intrans.), 6251 avardan, to bring. Exercise § Oly YT dgdapt dee YLT nl — ey Lt Udy — sy & ont As LS Rag oh Let Oj ONAL op OI — pat OS Lal — stad dee LaF on! — fly tt — pad HL eo y 29 Led — BT Le Shey — alo oh yb ase aly tha — pod el AKT AA GI Let fo — stays Ley UAT bey — yo th mE Lt he hy ety tania U ES Ate joys 28 UF jaz3 — onl wet ys be de EXERcise 6 1. He gave a big book to me. 2. He went to the town. 3. I saw him the day before yesterday. 4. They bought the house and the garden. 5. She came slowly. 6. How much did you buy this for? 7. Ubought it cheaply, 8 We saw the man, the woman and the children See Lesson 1x for Compound Verba,ry, 1] 35 yesterday. 9. He was writing a letter to me. 10. We were walking in the garden. 11. Where were you yesterday? 12. I was at home. 13. The woman is older than the man. 14. You had more horses than he. 15. Hecameearly. 16, We were late, LESSON IV Tenses formed from the Present Stem. The Pronominal Suffixes. ds xod, tues aif and cXtis¢ sifian, coms hamin and Ol haman. Ose cun. ce conin and Oly conan, Ole candin and Olde candan. nS kasi and (aie faxsi. aot hic. yb sour. 1. The following forms are derived from the Present Stem of the verb: (@) The Present Participle by the addition of 3! -en, e.g. Olalys xahan, desiring (from crulys xastan ‘to desire, wish’, Present Stem «ly xah). This form is not found in all verbs. (5) The Noun of the Agent by adding » -andé, e.g. att93 forufande, seller (from x29 foruxtan ‘to sell’, Present Stem y95 foruf). This form is not found in all verbs. (©) The Present by the addition of the personal endings and the prefix ce mi-, ¢.g, ast pers. sing. pytee mixaram and pers. sing. 6, mixari [1 am buying, ete. rd pers. sing. 9,50-¢ + mixarad 1st pers. pl. fe mixarin and pers. pl. 42,4» mixarid [ We are buying, etc. 3rd pers. pl. iano mixarand) A General Present is formed by the addition of the personal endings, but without the prefix us mi-, and is used in Classical Persian for general statements which contain no element of doubt. In Modern Persian the General Present has been confused with the Subjunctive Present (see (d) below). The latter, properly speaking, has a prefixed ; be-. Modern writers often omit the 1 4e- of the Subjunctive, especially in the case26 {tv, 1-2 of Compound Verbs, and at times even prefix ; be- to what 1s properly speaking a General Present. No attempt will be made in the following pages to distinguish between the two tenses; indeed, they have become 80 confused in modern usage that it would be difficult to do so in all cases. (d) The Subjunctive Present by the addition of the personal endings with or without the prefix: be- (see above), e.g. 1st pers. sing. ¢, bexaram and pers. sing. 6 bexari | I may buy, eta rd pers. sing, 2,4 bexarad ast pers. pl. 4 bexarim and pers, pl. x, bexarid | We may buy, etc. 3rd pers. pl. Ait bexarand, The verb 025 budan ‘to be’ does not take? be-. ‘The rst and 3rd pers. sing. and plural of the Subjunctive Present may be used as a Jussive, e.g. 34 bexarad, Let him buy. (@) The Imperative Singular is formed by the addition of the prefix 2 be- to the Present Stem. The plural takes the personal ending 42 -id, e.g. ow bexar, Buy (sing.). 4 bexarid, Buy (pl.). In compound verbs the prefix; de- is often omitted, in which case the Imperative Singular is identical with the Present Stem. The verb 039) budan ‘to be’ does not take» be-. 12. If the verb has an initial T a, alef followed by 6 i, or alef with a short vowel, it follows in the Present the rules given in Lesson 111, para. 4 (¢) concerning the prefixed cs mi- of the Imperfect, e.g. (23‘e miavaram, I am bringing (from 02)31 avardan ‘to bring’). fra! s_miistam, | am standing (from 02ty! istadan ‘to stand’, Present Stem cu! ist), fit mioftam, 1 am falling (from 023! oftadan ‘to fall’, Present Stem <4l oft). If the verb has an initial T a, a S y is inserted after the prefix y be- and the alef loses its madde, e.g. ly beya; Come (from 04.1 amadan ‘to come’, Present Stem I ¢) ——tv, 2-4] ” If the verb has an initial alef with a short vowel, a 6 y is inserted after the prefix, be- and the initial alef'is dropped, e.g, fat beyoftam, 1 may fall. If the verb has an initial alef followed by «5 i, the initial alefis retained after the prefix 1 de-, ¢.g. foth beistam, I may stand. 3. If the Present Stem ends in | a or 9 u,a y is inserted after the final vowel of the Present Stem before the endings of the Present Participle and Noun of the Agent and the personal endings of the 1st pers. sing, and the 3rd pers. sing, and pl. A hamzeis inserted before the personal ending in the and pers. sing, and pl. and the rst pers. pl. and marks the transition from the final long vowel of the stem to the long vowel of the personal ending, It will not be represented in the transcription. Eg. OLE fayan, brilliant, fitting, proper (from the defective verb ches ls fayestan ‘to be fitting’). wus guyande, speaker (from i gofisn ‘to say’). ist pers. sing. ¢S miguyam and pers. sing. uisSe+ migui | I am saying, etc. 3rd pers. sing, 2,5 miguyad ast pers. pl. @iySe+ miguim and pers. pl. JisS-+ miguid | We are saying, etc. 3rd pers. pl. A2ySe+ miguyand, ast pers. sing. ¢le miayam and pers. sing. Glee miai 1 am coming, etc. grd pers. sing. ule miayad ast pers. pl. giles miaim and pers. pl. Jol» miaid ‘We are coming, etc. grd pers. pl Ale miayand 4 If the Present Stem ends ins (av), this becomes i in the Imperative Singular, e.g. ~~ befendu, hear (from O28 fenidan ‘to hear’, Present Stem 9" Janay).28 tty, 5-8 §. If the Imperative Singular ends in » oi its prefix in some cases becomes do, e.g. 32, boroit, Go (from oH) raftan). 34 bodéit, Run (from O43) davidan). A befendt, Hear (from Sagt fenidan). Ht beféii, Become (from 4+ fodan), Note also 351 bogu or begu, Say (from ex goftan). 235, bogorar ot begorar, Place, put (from o%tl3S" gora/tan). 6. The negative of the forms in para. 1 (c), (d) and (e) above is formed by the addition of the prefix } na-. The prefix: de- drops out if the verb is negative, e.g. tel namixaram, 1 am not buying. tt naxaram, I may not buy. 2 naxar, Do not buy. The negative of the Imperative can also be formed by the prefix # man, 0.8, mazar, Do not buy. ‘This form is literary. If the verb has an initial T a, alef followed by .¢ i, or aluf with a short vowel, it follows the same rules when the negative prefix is added as those set out in Lesson 111, para. 6. 7. The verb A2!> daffan ‘to have, possess’ forms its Present without the prefix «y mi-. In Colloquial Persian ¥* a=tlo da/le baf and seth axtl> da/te bafid are used in place of the Imperative j!> dar and 419 darid. Certain compounds of yxI> da/fan form their Present and Imperative in the usual way. 8. Stress in the verbal forms given above is carried: (a) On the final syllable in the affirmative except where there is a prefixed vy mi- or; be-. These prefixes always carry the stress, e.g. Olelys —xa'han, desiring. orwty3 forufan'de, seller.tv, 8-9] pa 'mixaram, 1 am buying. ee pt. xa'ram A ‘bexar, Buy. (5) On the negative prefix in the negative, e.g. ps5 ‘namixaram, | am not buying, ¢# ‘naxaram, I may not buy. 4 ' } 0 not buy. w= ‘maxar. } I may buy. 9. The Possessive Adjectives can be translated by Pronominal Suffixes as well as by the method described in Lesson 11, para. 9: f- -am, my. ©- -at, thy. u- -af, -ef, his, her, its, OL. ~eman, our. OU. -eran, your. Olt -efan, their. These may be added to Nouns and Adjectives, e.g. 6S ketabam, my book. Ok! ashetan, your horse. If a Pronominal Suffix is added to a word which is the direct object of the verb | -ra is added after the Pronominal Suffix, e.g. Awd ont LAGE ketabetanra be man bedehid, Give your book to me. If the Noun qualified by a possessive adjective is also qualified by an adjective or adjectives, the Pronominal Suffix is added to the final adjective, e.g. OWS At2 doxtare kuceketan, your small (younger) daughter. If the Pronominal Suffix refers to more than one noun and these are joined by a conjunction, the Suffix is added to the final noun only, ee OU,oL 4 4) pedar va madaretan, your father and mother.30 [ry, 10-13 10, The Pronominal Suffixes are also added to the simple tenses of the verb and prepositions to denote the personal pronouns in the oblique cases,! e.g. uo} yadamaf, 1 hit him. PY tel? ce man hamrahef raftam, 1 went with him, tvs koja dididef, Where did you see him. The Pronominal Suffixes are never emphatic, whereas the Personal Pronouns may be. 11. If the word to which a Pronominal Suffix is added ends in | a (except in the case of 4 ba ‘with’) or 9 u, a Sy is inserted between the final vowel and the Pronominal Suffix, e.g. eke ketabhayam, my books. Ob2yilj zanuyetan, your knee. In Colloquial Persian this y is frequently omitted, especially before u* -af, -¢f, in which case the vowel of the Pronominal Suffix is elided, e.g. sil} canut, thy knee. OLS” ketabhafan, their books. If the word to which a Pronominal Suffix is added ends in « e, an alef is written between the final « ¢ and the singular Pronominal Suffixes, e.g. uilam bacceaf, his child. ‘When a plural Pronominal Suffix is added to a word ending in « ¢, the ¢ of the Pronominal Suffix is elided, e.g. Oa —daccetan, your child. 12. The Pronominal Suffixes never carry the stress. 13. If the possessive adjective or personal pronoun refers to the subject of the sentence, the word 254 xod, (29% xif? or X22 9+ xi/lan must be used in the 3rd pers. sing. in place of »! 13; these can also be used in place of gy man, and 53 to. E.g. sla gt bagt LS” ketabe xodra be man dad, He gave his book to me. * If the rd pers. sing, Pronominal Suffix is added to the preposition a) be ‘to’, the « of ‘4; 1s written and the word is pronounced befor more vulgarly Behef. * tugs s'also means ‘relation, relative’, 3 This rule is not always observed in Colloquial Persian.fv, 13-16] ” ‘His’ refers to the subject of the sentence, ‘he’, and therefore 94 xod must be used and not 3! uz 2!2 gaz ls! tS ketabe ura be man dad would mean ‘he gave somebody else’s book to me’.) pels sh bagt GES” ketabe xodra be u dadam, 1 gave my book to him. oy xod and yjtas* xif are interchangeable when used in place of the Possessive Adjectives, but *-* «ifs seldom used in Colloquial Persian. Citay4 xiflan can only refer to rational beings. (See also Lesson vin, para. 16.) 14. 29 xod is also used as an emphatic particle meaning ‘self’. It precedes the word it emphasizes and takes the ezafe, €.g. 3 3! 29% x0de u bud, It was he himself. OT og8 xode an and (7! 29% xode in mean ‘that very’ and ‘this very” respectively, e.g. yt aye OT oy xode an mard bud, It was that very man. 298. xod can also follow the word it emphasizes standing in apposition to it without the eza/é, if this word is the subject of the sentence, e.g. oe 255 gy man xod goftam, I myself said (so). ‘This latter construction is less common than the former. The Pronominal Suffixes can be added to 29+ xod when it is used as an emphatic particle, e.g. ‘99, 223% xodat bord, Go thyself. BAT Gltrse xodefan amadand, They came themselves. 25 p29 xodam kardam, | did (it) myself. 15. 45-4 xod is also used with the Pronominal Suffixes and |) -ra to form a kind of reflexive, e.g. 433} gS Lyi244 xodetanra gul tadid, You deceived yourselves. In the 3rd. pers. sing, the Pronominal Suffix can be omitted, e.g. 3} US l28 xodra gul gad, He deceived himself. 16. 394 xod, utaye xif and ortays sxiflan carry the stress; it falls on the final syllable of A“25+ x4/lan.2 [tv, 17-20 17. The Demonstrative &y! in ‘this’ and OT an ‘that’ can be strengthened by t ham, e.g, acia cn —hamin hafie, this very week. jy Of haman na, that very day. Note also the use of «.# in the following: ail Soy —hamin yaki mand, Only this one remained. 18. Oye cun ‘like’ can be contracted and prefixed to the demon- stratives o,| in ‘this’ and OT an ‘that’, e.g. oF om} such, such a one. Oly conan, ce conin and Ole conan are also used to mean ‘thus’, ‘in such a manner’, e.g. eS oy conin goft, He spoke thus, ce conin and Ole conan can be strengthened by the addition of ham, e.g. ify wlio —hamconin amad va goft, He came in this way and spoke (thus). 19. Ae cand can also be prefixed to the demonstratives &! in ‘this’ and oT an ‘that’, e.g. Cte candin, several; so much, so many. Ol4xe candan, so much, so many. (12 candin is used adjectivally and adverbially; when it is used as an adjective the noun follows and is put in the singular, e.g. ala gat ULES” ontte candin hetab beman dad, He gave several books to me. Olin, candan if used with a negative verb means ‘not very’, ‘not much’, eg. S93 Gye Olde candan xub nabud, It was not very good. 20. In those of the forms in paras. 17-19 above of which @ ham is one of the component parts, stress can be carried on ham or on the final syllable, e.g. OLA "haman or ha'man, that very. exe "hamconin or hamco'nin, just such as this, just like this. * Aum can alo sand alone as an emphatic particle, As an adverb it means ‘also’IV, 20-22] 33 The other forms in paras. 18 and 19 above carry the stress on the final syllable, e.g, Olay can'dan, so much, so many, exe co'nin, such, such a one. 21. (gS kasi, formed from 5 kas ‘person’? by the addition of the Indefinite 6 -é, and .a-5=-< faxsi, formed in the same way from asus Jaxs ‘person’*, are used to mean ‘someone, somebody’. With a negative verb they mean ‘no one, nobody’. E.g. ce SO kasi hast, Is any one there? cued gS” kasi nist, No one is there. 22. ge Aic is an adjective meaning ‘any’. It precedes the Noun it qualifies. With a negative verb it means ‘none, not any’. E.g. dul Ob ge hic nan darid, Have you any bread? pals OU qe hic nan nedaram, | have no bread. In Colloquial Persian a hie ‘any’ tends to be omitted in the affirmative unless it is emphatic, thus -4)!2 OU nan darid ‘have you any bread’, whereas 4y)!2 OF gua Aic nan darid would rather mean ‘have you any bread whatsoever?’ A noun qualified by @-# Aic ‘not any’ with a negative verb is always put in the singular, e.g. als Age get hic bacce nadarad, He has no children. uS @-® hic kas means ‘anyone’, With a negative verb or in answer to a question it means ‘no one’. E.g. aT OT gw hic kas amad, Has any one come?3 ou ge hic kas, No one. dod \6T LS” gee hic kas anja nabud, No one was there. * The phrase 159 5S” karo ker is also used to mean ‘houschold, retsiners’, e.g. 4539491 8 9 Sj] at has 0 hare w budand, They were some of his retainers (household). Note also 9! GLAS}! F2 yaki ar kesane u, one of his people. * (pate faze Is also used as an emphatic particle. It precedes the word it emphasizes and takes the cafe, e.g. 351 91 ated arte w bad, It was he himself. 3 For the use of the Preterite where the Perfect is used in English, see Lesson xt, para. 5 (A).4 [rv, 22 ¢h gs hic yak means ‘any’ referring to more than one. With a negative verb it means ‘none’. It is usually followed by j! az, e.g. pal blerlS” ext jl dy gam ic yak ax in ketabhara nadaram, 1 have none of these books. (lS gee Aic kodam is an interrogative pronoun meaning ‘any’ referring to more than one. With a negative verb it means ‘none’. It is usually followed by }! az, or takes the ezafé, e.g. Aye blgT jf ch ee hic kodam ax anhara didid, Did you see any of them? ail aby IGT plu” ges hic kodame anha narafte and, Have none of them gone? In Colloquial Persian pl4S” q-e® hic kodam is also used as a pronoun (not as an Interrogative), e.g, creed gl SLs Agee! oy! j! pla” eet hic kodam az in asbha male unist, None of these horses are his. Ge hic is also used as a noun meaning ‘anything’, With a negative verb or in answer to a question it means ‘nothing’. E.g. “at ge 35) azu hic gereftid, Did you take anything from him? (35 qt hie nagerefiam, 1 took nothing. Aic is sometimes used with an affirmative verb to mean ‘nating’ cul qe af x! in hame hic ast, All this is nothing, ven hic is also used as an adverb to mean ‘ever, at all’. With a negative it means ‘never’, e.g. Aled) gee lal anja hic rafte id, Have you ever gone there? clasy gee hic narafte am, I have never gone there. Jy qt hic vagt means ‘ever’. With a negative verb or in answer to a question it means ‘never’, e.g. eleys bal oly gee hic vage ura dide id, Have you ever seen him? plod yl cis gem hic vage ura nadide am, I have never seen him. hie ‘anything’ and with a negative verb ‘nothing’ can be strengthened colloquially by the addition of the Indefinite ¢ -i, e.g. 2994 (gee hici naxord, He ate (absolutely) nothing.Iv, 23-24] 38 23. god” kasi, gates faxsi and (p< hici carry the stress on the first syllable, since the Indefinite «s -i never carries the stress. In compounds formed with g2* Aic, the stress falls on Go hic, e.g uo et ‘hic kas, no one. 24. The word ys sour meaning ‘way, manner’ is used in the following compounds: yokty ce tour, how (interrog.). ygha! in tour, in this way, thus. ‘3shiT an tour, in that way, thus, gate hamin tour, in this very way. yyhil# —haman tour, in that very way. Stress is carried on the first part of the compound, e.g. jgee ‘ce tour, how. agy! ‘in tour, in this way. gb sour takes the Indefinite 6 -i in the following expressions: Oyead Sygh sisri namifavad, It will not matter. cmd Syyb — soiuri nist, It does not matter. VocaBULARY AW kelid, key. > dahan, mouth. 4363 gahve, coffee. use bini, nose. Gly cai, tea. oJ) bb, lip. ot Sf guj?, meat. Ola2 dandan, tooth. 344 bazar, bazaar. Obj aban, tongue; language. wl ab, water. 45s! angoff, finger. ty daraxt, tree. oF tan, body; person. ce fax, branch; horn (of Ste xak, dust, earth. animal). wo farsi, Persian (the lan- Sy barg, leaf. guage). uF gol, flower. Oly! iran, Persia. ype surat, faces ¢5) rang, colour. > dast, hand, lee sich sar, head. a mpi} black, fot calm, eye. dole sefid, white.6 iv 3 germez, red. Ose fenidan (fenav-, fendi), 3y} zard, yellow. (4) to hear, listen. Je saby, greens chSl2 y, bar daftan (bar dar), to ul adi, blue. Glo y) take up, away. hye surati, pink. extloy9 var daflan (var dar), to Sk xeki, khaki, (!253) take up, away. 2 sard, cold. (0j) 02} zadan (zan), to strike. tS garm, warm, 035 Ug gul zadan, to deceive. eh day, hot. 0531 avardan', to bring; the ue ju, boiling. Present Stem is ly, baraye, for. formed regularly 31 Q ba, with, avar or irregularly yt «* hamrah, together, to- ar, gether with; if used as (y) Gey bordan (bar), to carry, @ preposition it takes take, take away. the ezafé, e.g, 3) ely* — 2) 9h—xordan, to eat. hamrake u, together OAS fodan (fav-, fou), to with him. (s+) become. OS) ctf gerefian (gir), to take. 54493 davidan (dav-, dé), to RAS gozaflan (gozar), to place, run, GUS) pur Exercise 7 29 AS — sas Eyal oe I pS Ted ape al oy! Be By WALT ey tte tat Fh9 gs ey LA oe gt LU AT OT — Sly FE9 9 ay gdeee oT pry OT iy ay oly Lylaay — 1K Sle—etsd oye les SKA sh 9 Ayla 4 lee Say jt alee Olt gh — pd 2 92 Jan? bay OF yt — ays 4d 39 Hy wy | tae — pls eng ay} lg bal —agd BL) GT — asd, AT daly jayel oy? — pleased Oly! y9 cly gee — ca * Also pronounced averdan,v1) 37 Exercise 8 1. He saw the child in the garden. 2. He is writing a letter with my pen. 3. He sold his horse yesterday. 4. They are drinking (eating) tea in my room. 4. I shall go to the town tomorrow. 6. Take this book and give it to that man. 7. The children were running in the garden. 8 Hehasmanyhorses. 9. This book wasexpensive. 10. He will sell this to me. 11. The pink flower is bigger than the yellow. 12, The leaves of the tree are green. 13. It was not a very good book. 14. He has no children. 15. I did not see anyone. 16, Have you ever been there? 17. He never told me that. LESSON V Numerals. (J+ sali. )l—1 besyar. h yak. S: yaki. > digar. 6S digari. A+- cand, Sz candi. How to express time. How to express ago. 1. The numerals are given in the following table. The ordinals are formed from the cardinals by the addition of » -om.’ Figures are read from left to right. ‘CARDINAL ORDINAL ly yak, yeh? (Xt yakom, yekom* ’ 3 do 3? dovvom; £3? deyyom? + de 30 (a sevvom; am sexyom® ¢ a\e cahar lee caharom t (F) ey pay = panjom e ff fo ffm . cin haf fae hafiom v ote haf e hafiom A 4 noh ré rohom ‘ 0 dak re dahom oj yazdah fu yeqdahom " * The ending p -om Is also added to A cand ‘how many’, eg wal ols patig condoms mah ast, What day of the month is it? * See below, para. 2 CGemrnanawna38 CARDINAL eajly> daverdah ole sigdah yee caherdsh «39 panzdah* elt fangdah* win hevdah omen hijdah* od}33 nugdah cme bist yy Cmy bist 0 yak* 32.9 Suwa bist o do hao 9 meg bist 0 5 dee 9 Cwen bist o cahar Tis cme bist o pany Nts cme bist 0 fof cin y cog bist o haft Ce 9 cme bist o haft 45 y cw bist o nok wai er cehel ones fast sbia Aafiad othe haflad og navad ae sad ah 9 de sado yak cme 9 de sad bist hs — oyak may? devist * See below, para. 2 ORDINAL foils davazdahom fox sizdshom ff2)\4y cahardahom 23% pangdatom? parts fongdahom* ee hevdahom poms hijdahom" pois nugdahom font bistom sca bist 0 yakom (92.9 Sorat bist 0 dovvom (29 Sanat bist 0 sevvom pen 9 cme bist 0 caharom PY 9 amet bise 0 panjom Fos Son bist o fefom Fit 9 cmmat bist 0 hafiom fo8 9 cont bist 0 haflom prt 9 wa bist 0 nohom thse siom cchelom P= panjahom fet fastom pobia haftadom potta bafladom 23) navadom (oe sadom (8.9 Ae sad 0 yakom Smet 9 tee sad o bist fe oyakom foes? devistom (vt iv iv 1€ ve " Ww A 4 ve vw vr vr re ve wm tv vA vd Yr. ge eo. a ve A a fee Vet iv Yeo ® This y o ‘and’ is a survival from the Middle Persian a8 and is not the Arabic) va ‘and’, Te survives in certain other positions, notably in compounds (eee Leston x). In pro- tmanciation it approximates to 0 (see Introduction, para. 2); in articulation time it approximates to the group ¢, a, o rather than to the group i, «, « (see Introduction, para. 3).v 1-a] ” cARDINAL onpmmat. dncw si sad (eee si sadom Teo 300 av y\ee cahar sad (oe a\se cahar sadom Bee 400 sail; pansad! pessily pansadom' es. $00 Ae tut fof sad (ae uxt fef sadom 3.2 600 de cia haft sad pie cia haft sadom vee 700 de cate haff sad poe ete haf? sadom Ave 800 ee 45 noh sad pve 43 nok sadom Ges 900 ata haar pba hazarom Yewe 1,000 Ly she azar o yak Rssbe hayaroyakom = \..4 1,001 cme 9 9150 hazar o bist 92 ashe hazar o bist o ders 1,021 chy oyak yakom de 3 yl hazar o sad ge lye hazarosado |= yyy) 1,12t Ah yc s 0 bist o yak I et bist 0 yakom ale 93 do hazar (258 92 do hazarom Tees 2,000 Ogele meliun 1,000,000 whe sefr . ° 2. The Arabic word Js! avval is usually substituted for the Persian ordinal (: yakom, when this stands alone, e.g. Us! eat fabe avval, the first night. 3° do‘ two’ and 4« se ‘three’ form their ordinals irregularly, as follows: (3° dovvom and py~ sevvom respectively. ¢3° doyyom and @~ seyyom are alternative forms. For the pronunciation of 92 do ‘two’ and (= /e/‘six’ see Introduction, alphabetical table and para. 2 (6). yek and yekom tend to be used rather than yak and yakom, and yeki rather than yaki (see below, paras. 6, 19 and 20). J\¢e cahar, both standing alone and in compounds, is often coa- tracted into car, The first vowel of +25) ‘fifteen’ and 09j/L: ‘sixteen’ and sail ‘five hundred’ is pronounced wu or as a nasalized vowel intermediate between aando. tx.» hijdah ‘eighteen’ is usually pronounced hejdah or hezdah. The f of sia is assimilated to the following d and becomes », thus Aevdad; it is also pronounced hivdah. * See below, para. 3,© {v, 3-8 3- ‘Once’, ‘twice’, ete. are translated by the cardinal numbers followed by yy bar, dab daf*e or 45+ martabe, ‘time’, e.g. obs dh yak daf'e, once. a4 de sad bar, a hundred times, 45,093 do martabe, twice. “Twice as much’, ‘twice as many’, etc., are translated by the cardinal number followed by y,|y, barabar ‘equal’, e.g. aly 92 do barabar, twice as much. At nly slog Ls ote eddeye ma cahar barebar fod, Our number became four times as many. 4- Multiplicatives are formed by the addition of ai8 -gane to the cardinal, e.g. i892 dogane, double. i’ ae segane, triple, 5. ¥ la is used to express '-fold’, eg. Ys0 do la, double (= two-fold). Yas se ds, triple (=three-fold), 6. Distributives are formed by repeating the cardinal with or without 4 be in between, e.g. dnt du se be se, three by three. 4; yak ‘one’ takes the Indefinite .$ ~i when used as a distributive, e.g. St yaki yaki, one by one, The forms 4 yakayak and OS OS: yagan yagan ‘one by one’ are obsolete. 7. Recurring numerals are expressed as follows: les 53 jay Hy yak neq dar mian, (on) alternate days, Jy bt iy At fof rq be fef rug, every six days, aN eh jay cin afi req yak bar, once in seven days, 8. Approximate numbers are expressed as follows: 4 92 do se, two or three, ei sles cahar pany, four or five. ete cis haft haf seven or eight. eajlys 02 dah davazdah, ten or twelve.¥9-13] a g- The Arabic forms are often used to express fractions (see Part Il, Lesson xx, para. 7). Fractions are also expressed by the cardinal numbers in apposition, the denominator preceding the numerator, e.g, dy aw se yak, $s Sh slog cahar yak, 35 hk ey pan) yak, $5 or by the cardinal of the numerator preceding the ordinal of the denomi- nator, 8, prt t= 20 panjom, 3. ¢@ nim means ‘half’. In combinations such as ‘one and a half’, etc., ¢ nim “half” follows the noun qualified by the numeral, e.g. pis cel dy yak sa‘ar o nim, one hour and a half. fi 9 Ante US fof safhe o nim, six pages and a half, @ rob‘ ‘quarter’ takes a similar construction, e.g. GI Ante C4 pany safhe o ros’, five pages and a quarter. 10. Percentage is expressed as follows: 0) Ge sadi dah, 10%. ds 33 09 dah dar sad, 10%. 11, Jit and is used to express ‘odd’ with numbers above nineteen, e.g. il 9 cme bist 0 and, twenty odd. 12, Arithmetical operations are performed as follows: Multiplication: G sla 29220 93.93 do do ta mifavad cahar ta, 2x 1—4 Division: dee Apter y found odjly> davardah tagsim bar se mifavad cahar, 124+3=4. Addition: oajlya Gaal Gols Lt Ly tt fe’ be ecafeye fi mosavise ba davazdah,6-+6m 12. Subtraction: shee Ly cud gline wy Slee 45 nok menhaye™ panj mosavise ba cahar, 9—$=4, * (e++ munka is compounded of the Arabic preposition <+ men ‘from’ and the srd pera fem, sing. Pronominal Suffix le ~ha. For its pronunciation see Introduction, Part II, para. 1,a [v, 13-15 13. The cardinal numbers precede the noun they qualify, which is put in the singular, e.g. cel vl) 92 do rats asb, two horses. gi se sad nafar, a hundred persons, A Noun qualified by a cardinal does not take |, -ra when it is the direct object of the verb, unless it is qualified by some such word as cy,! in ‘this’ or OT an ‘that’, e.g. Aye WET dle 92 do jeld" ketab xarid, He bought two books, Aye Ly LS 92 OT an do ketabra xarid, He bought those two books. 14. The ordinals are used as adjectives and follow the noun they qualify, eg. dems cnr Lage GL kerabe sevvomra be man bedehid, Give me the third book. cud naxost and cx naxostin are also used as the ordinal of ‘one’, but cannot be used to form the ordinals of compound numerals. They precede the noun they qualify, e.g. 4 ose naxostin bar, the first time. An adjectival form of the ordinal ending in vy, -in, which also precedes the noun it qualifies without the ezafé, is sometimes found, e.g. ju cmtta 9 te dh yak sad 0 haflomin ruz, the hundred and eighth day. 15. se sad ‘hundred’ and y!5 Aazar ‘thousand’ when used indefinitely can take the plural ending 'e Ac-. They precede the noun they qualify, which is put in the singular, e.g, welt late sadha ketab, hundreds of books. WF aye hazarha gol, thousands of flowers, Ole Aazaran is also used referring to rational beings. y!50 O!)lza Aazaran hazar means ‘thousands upon thousands’ (referring to rational beings). * See para. 16 below.