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How Languages are Learnt: Primary

Children's Language Learning Beliefs
a
Annika Kolb
a
Department of English , University of Education Freiburg , Freiburg,
Germany
Published online: 22 Dec 2008.

To cite this article: Annika Kolb (2007) How Languages are Learnt: Primary Children's Language Learning
Beliefs, Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 1:2, 227-241, DOI: 10.2167/illt033.0

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 How Languages are Learnt: Primary
Children’s Language Learning Beliefs
Annika Kolb
Department of English, University of Education Freiburg, Freiburg,
Germany
Language learners bring different ideas and preconceptions of the learning process
to the classroom. These are referred to as language learning beliefs. This paper
explores primary children’s language learning beliefs, a field which has rarely been
researched so far. It draws on a qualitative study on the learners’ perspective in two
primary EFL classes in Germany. Special tasks were designed to make children
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reflect on their language learning experiences. The data include classroom record-
ings, learner interviews and learner texts. The findings of the study suggest that
primary school children are considerably aware of their learning process and hold
elaborated beliefs which influence both their behaviour in class and their choice of
learning strategies. Following the presentation of five different language learning
beliefs identified in the data, results are discussed in terms of the need to include
reflection of students’ learning experiences and to account for different learning
approaches in primary foreign language classes.

doi: 10.2167/illt033.0

Keywords: language learning awareness, language learning beliefs, language

learning strategies, primary EFL, young learners

Introduction
While foreign language teaching programmes at the primary level are
currently being introduced all over the world (Cameron, 2003; Kubanek-
German, 1998; Pinter, 2006; Rixon, 2001), comparatively little research has been
done on the perspective of the learners themselves. So far, little is known about
how children perceive their learning activities and how they conceptualise the
process of learning a foreign language. This paper draws on a study in
primary EFL classrooms in Germany in which learners were asked to reflect
on their language learning experiences and to share their views on the
language learning process. The results of the study show that
contrary to
commonly held opinions
even young learners can engage in such reflective
activities, that they are remarkably aware of the learning process and that they
hold elaborate language learning beliefs. In this paper I will firstly explain the
concept of language learning beliefs and report on previous studies’ findings.
After having introduced the methodological design of the study, major results
will be presented: five beliefs could be identified in the data. These beliefs are
then compared to previous research. The paper concludes by drawing some
consequences for foreign language teaching at primary level and suggests
some ideas for further research on the topic.

1750-1229/07/02 227-15 $20.00/0 – 2007 A. Kolb

Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching Vol. 1, No. 2, 2007

227
 228 Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching

Language Learning Beliefs

Definition
Based on their prior language learning experiences and personal knowl-
edge, learners have different ideas about the language learning process. These
assumptions, perceptions, expectations, notions and attitudes refer for
example to the language itself, the nature of language learning, useful learning
strategies, successful teaching methodology, learners’ language learning
ability and attributions for success or failure (Cotterall, 1999; Horwitz, 1987:
121; Kalaja & Barcelos, 2003: 1; Wenden, 1999: 440; Williams/Burden, 1999).
Benson and Lor (1999: 465) identify three broad dimensions of beliefs: beliefs
about language learning, beliefs about self and beliefs about the learning
situation. Learner beliefs have various sources:
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As is the case with other aspects of socialization, this knowledge may be

acquired unconsciously, the outcome of observation and imitation, or
consciously as learners listen to teachers, parents or peers providing
them with advice about how to learn. (Wenden, 1999: 436)
Recent approaches to researching beliefs emphasise that they are dyna-
mic, socially constructed and context-dependent: ‘beliefs are recognized as
part of students’ experiences and interrelated with their environment’
(Barcelos, 2003: 21).

Research approaches to language learning beliefs

Language learning beliefs have been the focus of research in several
empirical studies (see Barcelos, 2003; Bernat & Gvozdenko, 2005; Trautmann,
2005 for an overview) based on different approaches and research paradigms.
One of the quantitative approaches is the Beliefs About Language Learnings
Inventory (BALLI), which was developed by Horwitz (1987) and was then
used by other researchers as well (e.g. Kern, 1995; Rifkin, 2000; see Horwitz,
1999 for an overview of BALLI studies). Learners have to agree or disagree
with 34 items regarding five belief areas: the difficulty of language learning,
learning aptitude, the nature of language learning, learning and communication
strategies and motivation and expectations. Although the BALLI studies produced
some interesting results (see below) and the instrument facilitates comparisons
of different target groups (Horwitz, 1999; Kern, 1995; Rifkin, 2000), several
aspects of the language learning process (e.g. the role of speaking and
pronunciation) are not covered. Research approaches which are based on a
qualitative and interpretative paradigm attempt to make up for these
restrictions and take a holistic perspective on the matter which allows learners
to introduce their own beliefs:
A construct as intellectually and affectively complex and rich as is one’s
personal belief system, cannot presume to be fully captured by people’s
responses to a set of normative statements. (Bernat & Gvozdenko, 2005:
7)
In addition, qualitative researchers claim that beliefs are not static and
unchanging but are constructed in everyday practice and in the context of
 Primary Children’s Language Learning Beliefs 229

social groups (Kalaja & Barcelos, 2003: 2; Kramsch, 2003: 113). They can
therefore not be measured out of context. Qualitative research employs
interviews and self-reports (Wenden, 1987) or ethnography, narratives and
metaphors (Kalaja, 2003; Kramsch, 2003) to access learners’ beliefs. Such a
contextual approach gives learners a space to express their ideas and focuses
on the ways these beliefs are expressed ‘by explicitly processing the metaphors
produced by learners and by interpreting metaphorically the texts learners
generate’ (Kramsch, 2003: 125).

Research findings
Research on learner beliefs has been conducted with learners of different
languages in different age groups and different cultural settings and brought
about a variety of learner views (e.g. Benson & Lor, 1999; Cotterall, 1999;
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Horwitz, 1987; Kern, 1995; Kramsch, 2003; Mori, 1999; Wenden, 1987, 1999).
Although they were found to be context-specific and unstable, similarities can
be identified. Most of the studies pinpointed beliefs which emphasise informal
learning. In exploring the beliefs of adult learners of English, Wenden
distinguishes learners who give special emphasis on use the language, perceive
language as a means of communication and consider informal learning
activities as relevant (Wenden, 1987: 104ff.). Mori (1999), in her study on adult
learners of Japanese, labels this approach learn the natural way. Benson and Lor
(1999) classify their results on undergraduate students’ beliefs into two
underlying conceptions of learning, one of which focuses on language learning
in its natural context and which they call making sense of an unfamiliar
environment (Benson & Lor, 1999: 467).
On the other hand there are always learners to be found who focus on
formal aspects of the language like grammar and vocabulary. Wenden (1987:
106f.) calls this belief learn about the language, and Mori (1999: 386) calls it the
analytic approach. In Horwitz’ (1987) study on the nature of language learning,
over half of the students emphasise the importance of learning vocabulary and
grammar rules. Cotterall (1999: 505) reports on a considerably large group of
learners who claim that it is necessary to know language rules before being
able to communicate. Benson and Lor’s (1999: 467) conception of learning as a
quantitative process of collection, absorption and assimilation also belongs to this
category.
In addition to these similarities in language learning beliefs across different
target groups, there are also research findings concerning the factors which
have an impact on learners’ beliefs. Students’ beliefs are influenced by their
teachers’ beliefs (Kern, 1995), cultural factors (Cortazzi & Jin, 1996), general
beliefs about learning (Mori, 1999) and individual differences (Horwitz, 1999).
The fact that Horwitz (1999) and Rifkin (2000) found evidence that the level of
instruction as well as the students’ age influence language learning beliefs, is
of considerable importance for the study reported on in this paper. Whereas
nearly all previous studies investigate adult learners’ beliefs, little is known
about how children conceptualise the language learning process (two of the
few studies which focus on primary children’s perspective on the language
learning process but do not report on discrete beliefs are Alanen, 2003 and
De Leeuw, 1997).
 230 Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching

Furthermore, language learning beliefs have proved to influence both

students’ learning behaviour
e.g. the use of learning strategies (Benson &
Lor 1999; Wenden, 1987)
and the perception of classroom activities and
instructional settings (Cotterall, 1999).

Researching Primary Children’s Language Learning Beliefs

The purpose of the study reported on in this paper was to investigate a
certain subset of beliefs: those concerning the nature of language learning. The
study attempted to find out to what extent primary school children were able
to reflect on their learning and what beliefs they held about language learning.
In other words, it investigated children’s answers to the question of how
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languages are learnt.

Research was conducted in two primary school classes (43 learners; age 8
9;
third year of learning English as a second language). The study bears
resemblance to practice-as-inquiry (Newman, 1992) or action research
(Altrichter et al., 1993) methods as teachers and researchers cooperated closely
in the planning of the lessons and the task-design. A contextual approach was
followed which regards students’ beliefs as embedded in their learning
experiences and tries to interpret them in this context. Consequently, beliefs
were not accessed through questionnaires as this would restrict learners’
answering possibilities and would require learners to abstract from their
learning experience. Instead, three different tasks were developed to facilitate
learners’ articulation of their ideas. Learners had to deal with them during two
consecutive English language lessons which were embedded in a three-week
project on languages and language learning. The investigation was also part of
a larger study on language learning awareness through the use of portfolios
which was conducted over one academic year (Kolb, 2007). The first task,
which aims at reflecting language learning experiences is shown in Figure 1.
The learners were asked to rank different learning activities according to the
relevance they attributed to them in developing proficiency in the target
language. The second task was called This helps me learn a language. The
students had to assess the relevance of different learning strategies for their
personal learning by linking them to the four skills. The design of these two
tasks follows Benson and Lor’s argumentation that one possible expression of
language learning beliefs are ‘prescriptive statements about what learners
should do in order to learn a foreign language well’ (Benson & Lor, 1999: 465).
An additional perspective on learners’ beliefs was gained from the analysis
of students’ texts in which they had to complete the sentence Learning English
is like . . . This third task draws on Kramsch’s (2003) research methodology and
is based on the assumption that ‘metaphors represent conceptual tools for
interpreting and perceiving experience’ (Barcelos, 2003: 20f.).
The tasks were intended to provide a stimulus for discussions about
language learning as beliefs should be inferred from social interactions relat-
ing to concrete learning experiences. On this account the classroom discourse
in which the children discussed the tasks was recorded. Group interviews
with the learners after the lessons served as an additional data-gathering tool.
 Primary Children’s Language Learning Beliefs 231
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Figure 1 Example of worksheet

In these interviews, a glove puppet
representing a snail
was used to elicit

explanations from the students for their entries and information on how they
coped with the tasks. This character, ‘Samuel Slow’, allowed the researcher to
evoke very detailed explications of the students’ perception of the learning
 232 Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching

process, as he was introduced to the children as being slow and short-witted.

The proceeding allowed the students to act as experts and helped decrease the
status difference between the adult interviewer and the children (Garbarino
et al., 1992). As the interviewer had taken part in several lessons in the course
of the research project, she was well known to the students. The interviews
took place immediately after the lessons to help the learners recall their
thoughts and ideas that came up during the work on the tasks. Thus, the data
include classroom recordings, learner interviews and children’s texts which
allowed for triangulation.
All the learners of the two classes engaged in the tasks. The interviews then
focused on eight students from each of the classes. They were gradually
chosen following theoretical sampling; that is, the process of data collection
was controlled by the emerging theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967: 37). In order to
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ensure internal diversity of the sample, the selection criteria were gender and
foreign language competence, as several studies have found evidence for a
correlation between specific language learning beliefs and learning results
(Horwitz, 1987; Kern, 1995). It was also taken into account whether the
learners were L1 or L2 speakers of German, as in the course of the study a
migrational background turned out to have an impact on the students’ ability
to reflect on their learning experiences. By these means, a heterogenous sample
was obtained.
The analysis and interpretation of the transcripted recordings and the
learner texts combined a grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Strauss &
Corbin, 1990) and a sequential analysis approach. The former was used for all
three data types and supported by a computer-assisted qualitative data
analysis software. The inductive development of codes was followed by the
redefining of categories and the exploration of relationships and patterns
across categories which through a constant comparative analysis gradually led
to the identification of a typology of beliefs. The second approach to data
analysis was employed for the interpretation of extracts of the classroom
recordings and the group interviews. In these conversations the learners’
mutual references to each other’s contributions was of major importance
(Bohnsack, 2000). Therefore a sequential analysis proved effective which by the
formulation of different interpretations and comparison to sequences dealing
with the same topic also led to the reconstruction of types of beliefs. In a last
step, the results of these two procedures were compared and the final typology
of beliefs was developed. Both methods of data analysis involved several
researchers to allow for intersubjective validity of the interpretation.

Results of the Study: Primary Children’s Language Learning

Beliefs
As a result of the study, five discrete language learning beliefs could be
identified. While some of the beliefs were found more often than others it was
not possible to assign them to individual students. Rather, they are to be
considered as a set available to the group as a whole, on which each individual
has the potential to draw.
 Primary Children’s Language Learning Beliefs 233

What Alanen (2003: 70) points out also refers to this study:
The children’s utterances were not viewed as statements that express
their decontextualized generalizable ideas about language learning, or
indications of stable mental structures residing inside their heads.
They are rather to be regarded as embedded in the specific situation
e.g. the
interview
in which they emerged.
In the following section, these beliefs will be outlined and illustrated with
key quotes in German which are followed by a translation into English. The
quotes are extracts from the children’s utterances in the interviews and during
the lessons and from their written texts dealing with the tasks.
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Collecting words
According to the first belief, language learning is the accumulation of
vocabulary; it is important to take in as many unknown words of the language
as possible. Learning activities are therefore judged by the amount of
vocabulary input they provide. Alexandra expresses it like this:
Drei hab ich das Wörterbuch genommen, weil man da ganz viele Wörter
rauskriegt, (. . .) sechs, weil ich die Musik höre, und die sagt mir ganz
viele Wörter auf Englisch, die sieben das Reden, weil die Leute einem
was sagen, Wörter.
The third one for me is the dictionary, because you can find out a lot of
words with it, number six is listening to music, because music says a lot
of words to me in English, number seven is speaking, because people tell
you something, words.
Although the children mention a lot of primary specific learning activities like
singing, playing and listening to stories which allow them to experience
language in a holistic way, they perceive these activities mostly as opportu-
nities to take in new words. For Alexandra, communicating with others is not
the aim of language learning but a means to increase her vocabulary
knowledge.
Robin finds a metaphor for this view of the learning process:
Englisch lernen ist wie ein Haus bauen. Ein Haus bauen ist leicht, aber
auch schwer. Einfach nur Stein auf Stein, aber dann noch die ganzen
Wände und so.
Learning English is like building a house. Building a house is easy, but it
is also difficult. Simply one brick onto the other, but then also all the
walls and stuff.
What makes language learning easy for him is to split it up into the building
blocks: the words he has to learn. It seems though as if the large amount of
bricks you need to build a wall somehow discourages him, therefore he
regards the task as difficult.
Following this line of argumentation, linguistic competence is achieved
when the amount of vocabulary acquired is large enough. Aishe brings a sort
 234 Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching

of threshold level into play that she has to reach before being able to carry out
more complicated activities in the target language:
dann kann ich ja dann schon Wörter, und wenn ich dann in der siebten
Klasse bin, kann ich vielleicht ganz viele mehrere, dann kann ich ja lesen,
dann versteh’ ich’s ja auch.
Then I will already know many words and when I am in the seventh
form, I will probably know very many words, then I will be able to read,
then I will be able to understand.
The amount of vocabulary grows in the course of her learning career, learning
words is therefore a prerequisite to competent language use. The ability to
read books in English is considered to be something which lies way in the
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future.
This language learning belief also offers a possible explanation why the use
of a dictionary rates highly although both teachers rarely used dictionaries in
class. For the children it embodies the whole stock of vocabulary of the English
language: all the words they have to learn.
Language learning strategies which go back to this belief focus on
individual words, e.g. using pictures to memorise vocabulary, comparing L1
and L2 and using the written language.
Furthermore, the conception of language learning as collecting words mirrors
a certain belief about the nature of language, since for these learners words are
labels for concrete objects.

Imitation and reproduction

A second language learning belief which came up in the study focuses on
imitating language input. Contrary to collecting words, the learners’ role is
much more passive, the students just react to the teacher’s instructions. Tim
and Steven describe a very teacher-centred lesson:
Tim: Sie sagt euch immer Wörter und Sätze und dann müsst ihr das
nachsagen und dann müsst ihr das auch mal alleine machen.
She tells you words and sentences and then you have to repeat after her
and afterwards you have to do it on your own.
Steven: Sie sagt auch noch Wörter, die wir nachsprechen müssen und
dabei lernt man.
She also tells you words that we have to repeat and this is how you learn.
According to this belief, language learning takes place mainly through
imitation of language input, students’ language production is merely
reproductive.

Understanding language
The next language learning belief focuses on understanding the meaning of
language input. This understanding builds on contextual information like
mime and gestures and can be shown through verbal or nonverbal reactions.
Children who argue in favour of this way of learning actively seek
 Primary Children’s Language Learning Beliefs 235

opportunities to get language input, e.g. radio or television. In contrast to the

perception of language learning as collecting words, this input is not used to
isolate individual words but to understand the message as a whole. Michael
explains why he does not consider working with a dictionary as useful:
Michael: weil ich es nicht mag, einfach nur welche Wörter zu lesen, aber
keine Sätze
because I don’t like to read single words, but no sentences.
For him it is not important to know as much vocabulary as possible. He sees
language as embedded in a context and not as a lining up of words.
Consequently, the lessons are described in terms of Total Physical Response
activities.
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Steven: Da musst du dann/dann sagt die Lehrerin irgendwas und dann

sollst du das jetzt machen.
You have to/the teacher says something and you have to do it.
In this view of the language learning process, listening comprehension is vital
for learning. By trying to understand the meaning of the teacher’s language
input, this listening comprehension ability is developed.
Tom: Hören, auf der Straße zum Beispiel, ist auch sehr wichtig, wenn da
Engländer rumlaufen oder so oder man in England ist, findet man halt
auch wieder sehr viele, die Englisch sprechen und das kann man dann
halt auch wieder verstehen.
Listening is also very important, for example in the street, if there are
English people walking around or if you are in England you can also
find many people who speak English and you can understand that as
well.
Classroom activities are judged by the amount of language input they provide.
A language learning strategy that fits in well with this belief is the use of
gestures and mime, for example.

Learning through speaking

The fourth language learning belief that could be identified in the data
regards learners’ own speech production as relevant. Robert emphasises the
importance of trying to speak himself:
Robert: Reden, weil dann hat man es nämlich auch schon im Kopf, was
man gesagt hat und so und merkt sich’s dann auch mehr. (. . .) Und mal
versuchen zu sprechen und mal versuchen das zu sprechen, nicht nur zu
hören, was die anderen sagen, sondern auch mal versuchen, was zu
sprechen.
Speaking, because you’ve got already in your head what you’ve said and
so you can better remember it. ( . . .) And trying to speak and trying to
say it, not only listening what the others say, but trying to say something
yourself.
 236 Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching

In this view, understanding language input is not enough to develop linguistic

competence. In addition, language output is necessary as it fosters the
memorisation of language chunks. Learning takes place through the testing
of hypotheses and the negotiation of meaning:
Michael: Reden (. . .) weil wenn man jetzt was hört und dann jetzt weiß,
was das bedeutet, dann fragt man ja den anderen was/wie geht es ihm
oder so.
Speaking ( . . .) because if you hear something and know what it means,
you will ask the other person something as well/how he is or something
like that.
Accordingly, linguistic competence means more than just knowing a large
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amount of words.

Acting in and through the language

The last language learning belief the study brings to light focuses on
language in action. Language is here a means of interaction and communica-
tion, it is embedded in action oriented learning activities. The learners describe
tasks that are carried out in the target language:
Robert: Englisch lernen ist wie Spiele spielen oder wie basteln weil man
vom englisch Basteln englische Sachen lernt. ( . . .)
Learning English is like playing games or like doing arts and crafts
because by doing it you learn English.
Janina: Spielen, und dadurch lernen wir eben englisch zu spielen und
englisch zu sprechen.
playing, and by playing we learn playing in English or speaking English.
Robert: wenn man’s ja immer wieder spielt, so was lernt man’s ja auch
(. . .) weil man das ja immer wieder spielt und dann sich auch merkt.
if you play it again and again, you will learn it as well ( . . .) because you
play it again and again and then you’ll remember it.
The centre of attention is the activity which is carried out in the target
language. Language acquisition takes places rather unconsciously by repeti-
tion and automation. Meaning is more important than language form.

Comparing the results of the study to other research findings

The same pattern that was identified when summarising available research
findings also emerges in this study. The different beliefs this investigation has
brought about can be grouped into two major conceptions of language
learning and language as an object of learning.1 There are learners who see
language as a fixed system of grammatical rules and vocabulary and who
emphasise formal aspects of language learning. The belief collecting words
belongs to this category. Language is conceptualised as the totality of all words

embodied in the dictionary, it is a static system which the learners memorise.
 Primary Children’s Language Learning Beliefs 237

The learners’ role is a passive one which consists in reception
linguistic

competence means ‘knowing words’. The belief imitation and reproduction can
also be assigned to such a static view of language as it sees language learning
as a process of absorbing and repeating words and chunks of language. Speech
production is merely reproductive.
The second notion of the nature of language and language learning is a
more flexible one which sees language primarily as a means of communica-
tion. The beliefs understanding language, learning through speaking and acting in
and through the language regard language as embedded in a communicative
context and follow a holistic approach to language. In the words of Benson and
Lor (1999: 467) language is seen ‘as an environment to which the learner must
be responsive in order to learn’. Language can be used creatively and
experimentally.
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Another finding of the study is that in primary learners’ beliefs about the
language learning process similar ideas are found as in those expressed by
adult students. Horwitz (1999: 575) makes an analogous observation when
comparing various studies’ outcomes:
The large amount of commonality across the beliefs cannot be ignored.
Perhaps there is a world culture of language learning and teaching
which encourages learners of many cultural backgrounds to perceive
language learning very similarly.
This is especially surprising since the methodological approach to language
learning the children were confronted with builds largely on unconscious
language acquisition rather than on rule-supported learning and focus on
forms. It was therefore not to be expected that several learners would favour an
analytic approach. A possible explanation for this could be that the children’s
beliefs are influenced by prevalent notions of language learning in their
environment, e.g. parents and older siblings. The emphasis on the role of the
dictionary would fit into that pattern.

Pedagogical Implications
The results of the study show that even primary school learners consciously
perceive their learning process and hold varied beliefs about the nature of
language learning. As these beliefs influence students’ behaviour in the
language classroom, teaching should react to these findings. Learners’ views
are not only interesting from a research point of view, but can also be made a
subject of classroom discourse (see Wenden, 1986 for further examples on how
to do this):
For teachers, investigating their learners’ beliefs can help to understand
students’ actions in the classroom as they account for different approaches to
language learning tasks. If the teaching and learning activities do not
correspond to the learners’ assumptions about how languages are learnt
best, this will affect their engagement and commitment to the tasks (Horwitz,
1987: 119). This is especially important at the primary level, as Brewster and
Ellis (2002: 62) point out:
 238 Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching

The methodological approaches to teaching English may contrast to the

way other subjects are taught in primary school. Children may not
understand the teacher’s reasons for using activities such as songs,
games, pair work, stories, role play etc. regarding them as an
opportunity to relay and have fun rather than ways of learning English.
In this study most of the learners did not consider the activity playing games to
be very important for their learning. As a consequence the teacher talked about
the value and the challenges of playing games. The students became aware of
all the language work the activity playing games included and rated the activity
higher than before. If students know why they do what they do, this will also
increase their task involvement.
Apart from preventing mismatches between teachers’ and learners’ notions,
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insights into students’ conception of the learning process can aid teachers in
choosing appropriate learning activities to account for learners’ needs. By
listening to what learners have to say about the process of learning a foreign
language, teachers become aware of different conceptions and learning styles.
As the study reveals, children favour different learning approaches and regard
varying learning strategies as helpful. Accordingly, the instructional setting
has to take account of this variety.
For learners, becoming aware of their beliefs can lead to more control over
the learning process. As there is evidence that language learning beliefs have
an effect on the choice of learning strategies (Wenden, 1987), supportive beliefs
can help to overcome difficulties, negative or unrealistic beliefs that lead to
choosing unsuccessful learning strategies may result in frustration and a lack
of motivation:
Students who believe, for example, that learning a language primarily
involves learning new vocabulary will spend most of their energy on
vocabulary acquisition, while older learners who believe in the super-
iority of younger learners probably begin language learning with fairly
negative expectations of their own ultimate success. (Bernat & Gvoz-
denko, 2005: 8)
In addition, reflecting on beliefs can help learners to identify personal learning
styles and develop learning to learn skills. This language learning awareness is
fostered by reflecting on learners’ beliefs (Camilleri Grima, 2000: 351).
In dealing with language learning beliefs in the classroom, teachers should
not consider children’s beliefs to be wrong or worthless. Rather, they represent
the students’ subjective reality, which influences their learning and is therefore
an important factor to take into account. Some beliefs are even similar to
those of the literature in applied linguistics. The belief collecting words for
example focuses on an important part of language learning which is
vocabulary acquisition. Imitation and reproduction is reminiscent of a beha-
viourist learning concept as put into practice in the audiolingual approach.
Thus, the children’s ideas do not represent misconceptions: each of them holds
some truth. Nevertheless, they do not account for the complexity of the
learning process as they focus mainly on one dimension of language learning.
Dealing with language learning beliefs in the classroom could help learners
 Primary Children’s Language Learning Beliefs 239

integrate more dimensions into their conception of the learning process and
expand their repertoire of learning strategies.
As it turns out, the children are considerably aware of their learning process
and make varied learning strategies an object of discussion. Consequently, the
idea that primary school children learn languages only through unconscious
acquisition and imitation has to be revised. The findings support Cameron’s
(2003: 108) argumentation in favour of reflections on language and learning
with children:
As children move through their primary years, they become more able to
work with abstract concepts and thus to take an ‘outside’ stance to the
language and work with it as decontextualized and as an object of study.
While working within the capabilities of the children, language teaching
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can also contribute to the development of abstract thinking.

The relationship between beliefs and learning behaviour is not unidirectional,
as beliefs not only influence the approach to learning but learning experience
also shapes the beliefs (Mori, 1999: 408). Teachers also have an effect on their
learners’ conceptualisation of the learning process and students’ beliefs will
reflect instructional practice. Therefore, teaching should allow for positive
learning experiences and not discourage learners.

Conclusion
This paper has suggested a possibility to access primary school learners’
perspectives on the learning process in the foreign language classroom. It
shows that children’s ideas about foreign language learning are similar to that
of adults and that two major groups of beliefs are distinguishable which favour
either an analytic-reproductive or a holistic-creative approach to language
learning. The paper also addressed the question what we can learn from this
perspective for the teaching and learning of languages in the primary
classroom. It was argued that students’ language learning beliefs should be
subject to classroom discussions to prevent a mismatch between teachers’ and
learners’ notions, cater for individual learning needs and enlarge students’
choice of learning strategies.
The study sheds some light on primary school children’s language learning
beliefs, but it leaves several questions unanswered. Although there is some
evidence that beliefs are influenced by cultural factors (Horwitz, 1999),
instructional settings and learners’ differences, the question of what shapes
learners’ beliefs has not been sufficiently answered so far (Bernat &
Gvozdenko, 2005).
Furthermore, this study only addresses one dimension of language learning
beliefs (the nature of language learning). Other subsets of beliefs remain to be
researched with primary children, e.g. language learning aptitude (compare
the results of Williams & Burden, 1999).
In addition to these findings, a longitudinal study which investigates
students’ changing beliefs in the course of their learning career could also be of
interest.
 240 Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching

As a small-scale qualitative study is limited by selectivity of data and

context-specificity, a quantitative study to further explore primary children’s
language learning beliefs should be undertaken.
When looking at factors that influence language learning, language learning
beliefs are certainly an important factor to consider. However, there is no
unidimensional correlation between beliefs and learners’ behaviour in class.
One needs to bear in mind that articulated beliefs and beliefs in action must
not be the same. Further research is needed to investigate how beliefs are
put to practice during language learning. This will help to understand the
complex interplay of beliefs and other individual learner differences in foreign
language learning and teaching.
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Correspondence
Any correspondence should be directed to Annika Kolb, Department of
English, University of Education Freiburg, Kunzenweg 21, D-79117 Freiburg,
Germany (annika.kolb@ph-freiburg.de).

Note
1. Benson and Lor (1999) make a distinction between conceptions that constitute ‘a
higher and more abstract order of representation that constrains beliefs’ (Benson &
Lor, 1999: 471) and beliefs.

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