Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and

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ISSN: 1556-7036 (Print) 1556-7230 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ueso20

Biodiesel production from Calophyllum

inophyllum−palm mixed oil

Natalina Damanik, Hwai Chyuan Ong, W.T. Chong & A.S. Silitonga

To cite this article: Natalina Damanik, Hwai Chyuan Ong, W.T. Chong & A.S. Silitonga (2017):
Biodiesel production from Calophyllum inophyllum−palm mixed oil, Energy Sources, Part A:
Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects, DOI: 10.1080/15567036.2017.1324537

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Published online: 21 Jun 2017.

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ENERGY SOURCES, PART A: RECOVERY, UTILIZATION, AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
https://doi.org/10.1080/15567036.2017.1324537

Biodiesel production from Calophyllum inophyllum−palm mixed oil

Natalina Damanika,b, Hwai Chyuan Onga, W.T. Chonga, and A.S. Silitongac,d
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia;
b
Perusahaan Listrik Negara, The Indonesia State Electricity Company, Jakarta, Indonesia; cDepartment of Mechanical
Engineering, Politeknik Negeri Medan, Medan, Indonesia; dDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, Syiah Kuala
University, Banda Aceh, Indonesia

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
The objective of this study is to investigate the biodiesel production from Alternative fuel; biodiesel;
Calophyllum inophyllum −palm mixed oil. The C. inophyllum–palm biodie- Calophyllum inophyllum;
sel (C. inophyllum palm oil methyl ester, CPME) is first produced by mixing mixed oil; oxidation stability;
the crude oils at an equal ratio of 50:50 vol%, followed by degumming, palm oil
acid-catalyzed esterification, purification, and, last, alkaline-catalyzed
transesterification. With this systematic procedure, the acid value of the
CPME is 0.4 mg KOH/g, resulting in a significant enhancement of oxidation
stability (114.21 h). The results indicate that the fatty acid methyl ester
composition of the CPME may be the reason for its larger higher heating
value (39.4 MJ/kg) and lower kinematic viscosity (4.15 mm2/s). In short,
CPME satisfied the ASTM D6751 and EN 14214 standards as a promising
alternative fuel in the future.

1. Introduction
Biodiesels are alternative fuels that have been explored by scientists and researchers for many years
in order to reduce the consumption of fossil fuels and the detrimental impact of fossil fuels on the
environment such as air pollution (Silitonga et al., 2013). Biodiesels are appealing because they can
be produced from a variety of feedstocks, ranging from edible feedstocks such as palm oil to
nonedible ones such as Calophyllum inophyllum seed oil. Palm oil is widely available in Indonesia
and Malaysia due to the cultivation of palm trees over the past 25 years in these countries (Johari
et al., 2015). Palm biodiesel is produced by means of a simple transesterification process using an
alkaline catalyst, with methyl ester yields of more than 80%. The lower acid value of palm oil makes
it an ideal feedstock for biodiesel production (Hayyan et al., 2014). In contrast, C. inophyllum seed
oil is a nonedible feedstock, which is also ideal for biodiesel production because of its high
antioxidant content (Prasad et al., 2012). C. inophyllum seed oil contains 24.96% of saturated fatty
acids and 72.65% of unsaturated fatty acids (Sahoo et al., 2007). However, crude C. inophyllum seed
oil has a high acid value and, therefore, the oil requires pretreatment prior to the transesterification
process (Ong et al., 2014). Nevertheless, the high oil content of C. inophyllum seeds makes them a
viable feedstock for biodiesel production (Ayodele and Dawodu, 2014). In addition, the good
oxidation stability of C. inophyllum biodiesel is favorable for long-term storage (Liang et al.,
2006). At present, even though there are numerous studies pertaining to palm biodiesels and
C. inophyllum biodiesels available in the literature, there are no studies regarding the biodiesel
production from C. inophyllum−palm mixed oil, which forms the motivation of this study. Hence,
the objective of this study is to investigate the biodiesel production from C. inophyllum−palm mixed
oil and its effect on the properties to improve the biodiesel quality.

CONTACT Hwai Chyuan Ong onghc@um.edu.my; ong1983@yahoo.com Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty
of Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
© 2017 Taylor & Francis
2 N. DAMANIK ET AL.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Materials
Crude C. inophyllum oil and C. inophyllum methyl ester (CIME) were supplied by Metta Karuna
Enterprise (Kuching, Malaysia). Furthermore, palm oil was supplied by Scienfield Expertise PLT
(Sabah, Malaysia). Chemicals used in the production process were supplied by Metta Karuna Enterprise.

2.2. Biodiesel production

Biodiesel was produced from C. inophyllum palm oil methyl ester (CPME) and palm oil methyl ester
(POME). CPME and POME were produced by using pretreatment and esterification–transesterification
process at the Energy Lab, University of Malaya. One liter of C. inophyllum was degummed at 1 vol% of
H3PO4 in 10 vol% concentration in distilled water and the temperature was kept at 60°C at 800 rpm. Besides,
1 L of palm oil was degummed for 30 min and added into 1 vol% of H3PO4 in 10 vol% in distilled water.
Esterification process was used to reduce the free fatty acid content in C. inophyllum to less than 2 wt%
prior to the transesterification process (Silitonga et al., 2016). In this experiment, optimization of esterifica-
tion process was performed with molarity ratios of oil to methanol (1:9, 1:10.5, 1:12, and 1:16.6). Different
catalyst concentrations of H2SO4 were used (0.5, 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 vol%) at 60°C with a stirring speed of
800 rpm for 60 min. Moreover, palm oil was esterified for a methanol molar ratio of 1:8, 0.5 vol% of H2SO4,
at 60°C, and a stirring speed of 800 rpm for 60 min. Furthermore, in order to remove impurities and reduce
acid in the esterified oil, the compound was evaporated by rotary evaporator during 0.5 h and settled in
funnel during 18 h. After the C. inophyllum palm oil (CIPO) and palm oil compound meet an acid value <4
mg KOH/g, transesterification process was treated by methanol (50 vol%) and KOH (0.5 vol%) as solvents,
with the temperature maintained at 60°C, and it was stirred for 90 min in a jacketed reactor. With the
completion of reaction, the mixed methyl ester was allowed a settling time of 4–6 h in a separating funnel.
Two layers were obtained with a top layer of C. inophyllum−palm mixed methyl ester and a bottom layer of
excess methanol and glycerin. In order to ensure the purity of the methyl ester mixture then it was
evaporated with a vacuum evaporator is used to remove any water contains in the mixture. Figure 1 shows
the flowchart of biodiesel production from crude palm and C. inophyllum mixed oil.

2.3. Gas chromatography analysis

Biodiesel composition was checked by gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and gas
chromatography flame ionization detector (GC-FID). GC-MS analysis was conducted using a gas
chromatograph (GC) (QP2010 Ultra, Shimizu, Shizuoka, Japan) equipped with RTX-5MS column.
Samples were injected at a column temperature 60°C. The column temperature was maintained at
200°C for 2 min and gradually increased to 240°C at a rate of 10°C/min, and then maintained for 9 min.
Detector and injection temperatures were 300°C. Moreover, GC-FID (7890A, Agilent Technologies,
Santa Clara, CA, USA) was equipped with HP-INNOWAX column (30 m × 0.320 mm × 0.25 µm), a
flame-ionization detector, split and split less injector, and helium as the carrier gas. An amount of 1 µl of
samples was injected at a column temperature 60°C. It was held for 2 min, programmed at 10°C/min up
to 200°C, programmed at 5°C/min up to 240°C, and held at 240°C for 7 min. Detector and injector
temperatures were 250°C. The carrier gas flow rate is 1.5 ml/min. Interpretation of fatty acid methyl ester
(FAME) mass spectrum by GC-FID was conducted following the European Standard EN 14103:2011
procedure.

2.4. Physicochemical properties

The physicochemical properties were tested according to the ASTM D6751 and EN 14214 standards.
Several tests such as kinematic viscosity, density, flash point heating value, acid value, FAME
 ENERGY SOURCES, PART A: RECOVERY, UTILIZATION, AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS 3

Crude oil mixture

Optimization
Optimization

Degumming
H2 SO 4 catalyst Oil-to-methanol
concentration molar ratio
0.5 % 1 : 10.5
Esterification
1.0 % 1 : 9.0

1.5% 1 : 12.0
2.0 % 1 : 16.6

Purification

< 4 mg KOH/g

Transesterification

Calophyllum
inophyllum-palm
methyl ester

Figure 1. Flowchart of biodiesel production from Calophyllum inophyllum−palm mixed oil.

content, and oxidation stability were performed to see the characterization of the fuel properties.
Table 1 shows the summary of the equipment used to analyze the properties of biodiesel.

3. Result and discussion

3.1. Effect of molarities of oil to methanol and catalyst concentration
Molarity ratios of oil to methanol oil and catalyst concentration influence the esterification
process due to the dependency of the equilibrium reaction on the structure of the molecule and
types of functional substituent of alcohols and acids (Kombe, 2015). In this study, affectivity of
methanol molarity and volume of catalyst in esterification process of C. inophyllum−palm mixed
oil were observed by using different oil to methanol molar ratios such as 1:9.0, 1:10.5, 1:12, and
1:16.6 and added concentration of catalyst to oil such as 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 vol%, respectively.
It was found that the amount of methanol is reacting in some steps, that are the primary
methanol are esterified most rapidly and completely, that is methanol gives the highest yield and
the most rapid reaction. Higher amount of methanol and catalyst is required to increase the
methyl ester yield in C. inophyllum−palm mixed oil. As a result, a two stages esterification

Table 1. List of equipment used for biodiesel properties.

Property Equipment Standard method Accuracy measurement
Kinematic viscosity Stabinger viscometer™ SVM 3000 (Anton Paar) ASTM D7042 ±0.01 mm2/s
Density DM40 LiquiPhysics™ density meter (Mettler Toledo) ASTM D127 ±0.1 kg/m3
Flash point NPM 440 Pensky–Martens flash point tester (Normalab) ASTM D93 ±0.1°C
Heating value 6100EF Semi-auto bomb calorimeter (Parr, Moline, IL, USA) ASTM D240 ±0.001 MJ/kg
FAME content QP2010 Ultra, Shimizu EN 14103 ±0.008% or 0.0008 min
Oxidation stability 873 Rancimat (Metrohm, Switzerland) EN 14112 ±0.01 h
4 N. DAMANIK ET AL.

process of C. inophyllum−palm mixed oil by using 1:16.6 of oil to methanol molar ratio and 2.0
vol% of catalyst at 60°C for 60 min can reduce acid value of C. inophyllum−palm mixed oil to
2.8 mg KOH/g.

3.2. Effect of purification process

In this study, purification process was done by evaporation and settlement sequence. The compound
was heated to a temperature of 60°C, at a maximum pressure of 72 bar, and a speed of 100 rpm, thus
promoting water bubbles. These water bubbles were considered to be a results of esterification
reaction between organic acid and alcohol (Kirk-Othmer, 2004; Dinkov et al., 2009). After evapora-
tion and vacuum process, settlement of compound in funnel is an effective way to separate water
presence. By 18 h of settlement process, water bubbles collected were in the bottom of the funnel by
gravity force. In addition, water separation is also needed in every step of production, since, at a high
temperature, water can hydrolyze the triglycerides to diglycerides and form free fatty acids (FFAs).
These FFAs react with the alkali catalyst to form soaps (Karmakar et al., 2010) which will reduce the
yield of production. Moreover, water content in CIPO will increase the peroxide formation, which
further oxidizes to form acids (Yaakob et al., 2014). On top of that, this purification process reduced
the acid value of CIPO below 4 mg KOH/g due to the capability of process to separate water
presence in compound.

3.3. Transesterification
CIPO with a high acid value was treated by alkali- and then acid-catalysed transesterifications for
biodiesel production. The FFAs were neutralized with alkali to form soap during the reaction (Ma
and Hanna, 1999). A complete transesterification is obtained by 1:3 of oil to methanol molar ratio.
However, in this study, after the acid value of CIPO falls below 4 mg KOH/g, it is reacted by 1:12 of
oil to methanol molar ratio and 0.5 vol% KOH. Because transesterification is a reversible reaction,
higher molar ratios are required to increase the miscibility and to enhance the contact between the
alcohol molecule and the triglyceride.
CIPO conversion into CPME was complete within 90 min. The conversion rate increases with
reaction time. The reaction was very slow during the first minute due to the mixing and dispersion
of methanol. From 1 to 5 min, the reaction proceeds very fast. The production of biodiesel slowed
down and reached the maximum value at about 15 min (Ma and Hanna, 1999). A high molar ratio
resulted in a greater ester conversion in a shorter time, which increases the biodiesel yield and
biodiesel purity (Ma and Hanna, 1999; Musa, 2016) and excess of the alcohol is used to allow its
phase separation from the glycerol (undesirable product) (Schuchardt et al., 1998). The time taken
for the separation process of CPME, excess methanol, and glycerol in a funnel was 2 h.

3.4. Fatty acid methyl ester characterization

The FAME contents found in CIME, POME, and CPME are given in Table 2. FAME of CIME,
POME, and CPME were within the required EN14103:2011 method, where the FAME must be
greater than 90%. The total FAME content is not 100% due to the unrecognized peak found in the
chromatograms and acceptable error for EN141003:2011 is restricted to repeatability limit and
reproducibility limit. The fatty acid profile has a direct impact on the chemical and physical
properties of biodiesel. All the biodiesel contain saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated
fatty acids. The total saturated and unsaturated fatty acid values of CIME, POME, and CPME were
found to be 99.63%, 99.39%, and 99.95%, respectively. Stearic acid (C19H38O2) was the predominant
fatty acid in CPME (46.9%), and palmitic acid (C17H34O2) content in POME is 56.3% and in CIME
is 33.51%. Oxidation stability is highly related to the saturated fatty acid. All chain saturated fatty
acids of the biodiesel fuels have the highest degree of saturation fatty acid. Besides, stearic and
 ENERGY SOURCES, PART A: RECOVERY, UTILIZATION, AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS 5

Table 2. Fatty acid methyl ester composition of Calophyllum inophyllum, palm, and Calophyllum inophyllum–palm mixed oil
biodiesels.
Nature of Molecular CIME (wt POME (wt CPME (wt
Name of compound compound formula %) %) %)
Nonanoic acid, 9-oxo-, methyl ester – C10H18O3 Saturated – 0.32 –
Nonanedioic acid, dimethyl ester – C11H20O4 Saturated – 0.49 –
2-Nonyl-1-ol,diethyl acetal – C13H24O2 Unsaturated – 1.12 –
Dodecanoic acid, methyl ester, lauric acid Tridecylic acid C13H26O2 Saturated 0.75 1.52 1.1
methyl ester
Undecanal dimethyl acetal – C13H28O2 Saturated – – –
Ethanone, 1–2[2-(5-hydroxy-1,1- – C14H24O2 Unsaturated – 0.26 –
dimethylhexyl)-
Methyl tetradecanoate Myristic acid C15H30O2 Saturated 13.6 7.61 6.8
ester
2-Dodecen-1-yl(-)succinic anhydride – C16H26O3 Unsaturated – 0.67 0
Pentadecanoic acid, methyl ester – C16H32O2 Saturated – 0 0
9-Hexadecenoic acid, methyl ester, (Z)- Palmitic acid C17H32O2 Unsaturated 14.4 1.21 1.1
ester
Hexadecanoic acid, methyl ester – C17H34O2 Saturated 22.26 56.3 –
Pentadecanoic acid, 14-methyl-, methyl Palmitic acid C17H34O2 Saturated 33.51 – 34.7
ester ester
Cyclopropaneoctanoic acid, 2-hexyl-, methyl Oleic acid C18H34O2 Saturated – – 1
ester
Heptadecanoic acid, methyl ester Palmitic acid C18H36O2 Saturated – 0.94 1.2
ester
9-Octadecenoic acid (Z)-, methyl ester Oleic acid C19H36O2 Unsaturated – – –
(Z)-9-Octadecenamide – C19H36O2 Unsaturated – 0.53 –
9-Octadecene, 1-methoxy-, (E) Fatty acid ester C19H38O Unsaturated – 1.54 –
Methyl stearate Stearic acid C19H38O2 Saturated 14.57 22.46 46.9
Methyl 18-methylnonadecanoate – C21H42O2 Saturated 0.54 3.25 7.2
Tetracosanoic acid, methyl ester – C24H48O2 Saturated – 1.8 –
Total Saturated 85.23 94.06 98.85
Unsaturated 14.4 5.33 1.1

myristic fatty acid contents provides a good oxidative stability in the FAME composition. Moreover,
a high oxidation stability of CPME also caused by the presence of antioxidant content such as methyl
tetradeconate (C15H30O2), pentadecanoic acid (C17H34O2) and heptadecanoic acid (C18H36O2). In
addition, pentadecanoic acid (C17H34O2) has improved the lubricant properties in CPME. Therefore,
CPME has high oxidation stability and can improve the quality of fuel.

3.5. Characterization of C. inophyllum palm oil methyl ester

Table 3 reveals the comparison of the standard ASTM D6751, EN 14214, diesel ASTM D975, POME,
CIME and CPME. CPME has a 0.4% lower density than CIME, hence, it impacted to a slightly lower
fuel mass delivery in fuel injection (Demirbas, 2008; Xue, Grift, and Hansen, 2011). Moreover,
kinematic viscosity in CPME is lower than that in CIME, and it is in the range of ASTM D6751

Table 3. Physicochemical properties of the palm, Calophylum inophyllum, and Calophylum inophyllum–palm biodiesels.
Standard limit Crude oil Biodiesel
ASTM Palm Calophyllum Mixed oil
Property D6751 EN 14214 Diesel oil inophyllym (50:50) POME CIME CPME
Kinematic viscosity at 40°C 1.9–6.0 3.5–5.0 2.98 43.28 55.99 49.64 4.4 4.8 4.5
(mm2/s)
Density at 15°C (kg/m3) 880 860–900 846.3 890 920 910 874 884 880
Flash point (°C) >130 Min. 101 80 280.5 190.0 175.0 246.5 179.0 160.0
Higher heating value (MJ/kg) – 35 45.3 38.4 37.5 37.9 36.4 37.3 37.9
Acid value (mg KOH/g) <0.50 <0.50 – 0.35 55.64 27.90 0.1 0.5 0.4
Oxidation stability at 110°C (h) >3 Min. 3 25 − − − 4.4 12.8 114.2
6 N. DAMANIK ET AL.

standard. Similar to density, viscosity also affects the fuel injection system, especially for the atomiza-
tion of fuel sprays. The lower viscosity of CPME increases fuel atomization, which enhances mixing
and driving to a complete combustion (Demirbas, 2008; Tan et al., 2013). The CPME flash point of
160°C is closer to that specified in the ASTM D6751 (biodiesel standard) which is >130°C compared to
the CIME flash point of 93.5°C. This result has addressed the biodiesel flash point problems in terms of
safety fuel handling. A higher flash point is safer for storage, handling and transportation, especially in
terms of flammable risk. On the other hand, CPME flash point of 160°C is also closer to that specified
in the ASTM D975 (diesel standard) which is 60°C–80°C compared to the POME flash points of 246.5°
C. A higher flash point of POME than CPME can result in a longer ignition delay time, causing some
combustion problems (Carareto et al., 2012; Nantha Gopal and Thundil Karupparaj, 2015). However,
heating values of CPME are lower than those of both CIME and POME, mainly because the crude oil
heating value that is used in this production is 37.98 MJ/kg, which means the production process did
not significantly change the heating value. It can be upgraded or degraded during the conversion
process from crude oil to biodiesel (Ofori-Boateng et al., 2012), depending on the energy applied
during the process. As shown in Table 3, a combination of C. inophyllum and palm oil resulted in a
high oxidation stability (114.2 h) compared to the POME (4.4 h). A high oxidation stability is caused
by a high antioxidant content in C. inophyllum (Liang et al., 2006; Knothe, 2007). Adding a 50.0 vol%
palm oil into C. inophyllum maintained the antioxidant content of CIPO during the biodiesel
production process. A high oxidation stability is needed to reduce the susceptibility of the biodiesel
to be oxidized, which is used in storage and handling, vehicle fuel tanks, and aging in high-temperature
engine fuel systems (Liang et al., 2006; Terry et al., 2006). Even though ASTM D6751 has set a lower
limit of more than 3 h, the European Standard (EN 14214) has set a limit of 6 h, and a much higher
oxidation number prevents the biodiesel from failure of storage stability (Bouaid et al., 2007;
Christensen and McCormick, 2014). Moreover, better oxidation stability of biodiesel supporting supply
chain and distribution of biodiesel, especially to remote area distribution that far away from biodiesel
production installation.

4. Conclusion
The crude CIPO blend was converted into C. inophyllum palm mixed methyl ester, and it was found
that the properties of mixed biodiesel fulfill the ASTM D6751 and EN 1214 standards. The
conversion process was performed via the esterification–purification–transesterification process. It
was found that the acid value of C. inophyllum palm methyl ester is 0.40 mg KOH/g. Furthermore,
the antioxidant content of C. inophyllum boosts the oxidation stability of the mixed biodiesel. The
oxidation stability of C. inophyllum palm methyl ester increases significantly to 114.21 h. Moreover,
the CPME flash point satisfies the safety requirements for fuel handling in the transportation sector.
It can be concluded from this study that C. inophyllum and palm mixed oil in biodiesel production
process improves the quality of biodiesel.

Funding
The authors would like to acknowledge the Ministry of Higher Education of Malaysia and The University of Malaya,
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia for the financial support under SATU joint scheme (RU018J-2016) and postgraduate research
grant (PPP: PG036-2014B) and Politeknik Negeri Medan, Medan, North Sumatra, Indonesia, under the Research and
Community Service Unit (UPPM-2017).

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