Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Decolonisation in Indochina
19th century continued the spread of European colonies around the world
History and identity of Indochina were forged in conflict
Nationalism is responsible for the defeat of the French, who occupied Vietnam since 1860s
Peasant villages were forced to provide free labour and there was heavy taxation burden
Imperialism ultimately meant political subjugation and economic exploitation, protests and local rebellion
were a normal reaction
The French used extreme force and collective punishment to control these uprisings. While this opposition
was local and unorganised, they posed no real threat to French control
o Impact of French Rule in Vietnam
Economic impact
Peasant yearning for land reform grew stronger as French landlords took over the best land. Peasants were
forced into sharecropping, often having to pay 40% of their crop output to landlords
State monopolies over essential products such as salt, alcohol and opium ensured high prices. Additional taxes
such as corvee (forced labour) and the galbee (salt tax) were imposed
Economic developments that did occur benefited only the elite Vietnamese who cooperated with the French.
Nearly all managers/technicians were French
The French exploited Vietnam’s mineral reserves. By 1938, 53% of Vietnams, exports went to France; 57%
of all imports came from France. To France, Vietnam was a huge economic mine
Political Impact
All the key judicial, police and civil jobs were taken by the French. They were eleven times as many French
bureaucrats used in Vietnam as they were British used in India. The Mandarins were displaced and those who
cooperated were corrupt
Some Vietnamese gained a French education and even went to France to study. However, on their return they
discovered that despite their qualifications they could often earn no more than the lowliest French Worker
Included the declaration of a ceasefire in the Indochina war and the formal division of Vietnam
As a result, North Vietnam and South Vietnam was separated by a 5km demilitarised Zone at
the 17th parallel
Agreement of Stipulating that free elections were to be held in Vietnam in 1956
Idea was that elections would allow the people of the South to decide if they would want
unity with the North
The Geneva conference also saw Cambodia and Laos as fully independent states and acknowledged
as neutral parties and for French forces to withdraw
Agreements for the return of refugees to their homes
International commission was created to oversee the implementation of the agreements reached
Viet Minh is removed and becomes the people’s the army (only some people) after the French loss
The temporary division of Vietnam was a compromise that Ho accepted under pressure from China and the
USSR
Source: Karnow
“The Geneva conference produced no durable solution to the Indochina conflict, only a military truce that awaited a
political settlement, which never really happened. The conference was merely an interlude between two wars-or
rather, a lull in the same war”
Source: Pentagon Papers
“Conclusion emerges from the obvious contrast between public and private comment of Administration officials and
organs is where American Diplomacy fell down was not the conference but during the Indochina crisis as a whole”
“All revised American negotiationary principles had emerged unscathed; but America objectives in Indochina-the
elimination of the Viet Minh threat, preservation of the strategically Vital Tonkin Delta, and obstruction of
Communist political and military expansionist policies in the region”
“United States had admirably maneuverer at Geneva in its self-limited role of interested party, but the administration
convinced that any attrition of what had been regarded as “Free World” territory and resources was inimical to
America global interests, could only view the settlement the acceptance of terms from communist victors”
“Task in Vietnam the two years ahead was therefore to work with what had been ‘retained’ in the hope, by no means
great, that the Diem government could pull the country up by its bootstraps in time to present a meaningful alternative
Ho Chi Minh’s DRV”
Focus Study
2
– Modern History – Topic 3 – 2020
Conflict in Vietnam, 1954- 1964
North Vietnam (under Ho Chin Min) and South Vietnam (Ngo Dinh Diem) set about consolidating power and
establishing the independent legitimacy
Ho established the Lao Dong party (Vietnamese Workers Party) as a successor of the Indochina Communist
Party in 1951
Key aim of the Lao Dong central committee (main policy making) was to establish, socialist Vietnam
By 1960, the communists under Ho and the Lao Dong Party had largely achieved political and economic
stability in North Vietnam. The south had never achieved this.
Diem failed to gain support for his people
The promised elections scheduled in South Vietnam for 1956 failed to take place. The communists of the
North had hoped these elections would unite the country; and their failure to occur resulted in growing
tensions between North and South Vietnam
Political, Social, Economic and Military Developments within North and South Vietnam
Leadership aims of North and South Vietnam were to build their respective nations and consolidate political
power
Both Vietnams aimed to establish themselves as viable and stable nation states in South-East Asia. Each
developed according to their political aims and philosophies
In the North, that meant transforming what had been ruled as a French Colony into a socialist state
The South looked to establish a capitalist system
Both sought support from powerful outsiders to achieve their goals
North attained economic support from both the Soviet Union and China
South looked to the United States for economic aid
Social in the south rejected Diem, and his unpopularity grew after a wave of public protests was staged by
members of South Vietnam’s Buddhist majority
Civil unrest and resistance led to the US and Diem’s own army, the ARVN, conspiring to have him
assassinated
4
– Modern History – Topic 3 – 2020
(1958) land reform was pursued through a cooperative strategy (economic policy ere individuals
work to achieve a common purpose or target a collective ownership of land, individual wealth and
property is banned) this was largely successful
Shortage of arable land (suitable for growing crops) geography also challenges the economic aims of
North Vietnam
North had never been self-sufficient and relied on imports of rice and other foodstuffs from the South
The end of 1960, the land reforms were yielding results, with rice production reaching more than
double the amount harvested before the First Indochina War
More than 100 new factories had been constructed and the country was mining its own coal – North
Vietnam was also achieving the economic targets for industry set in the first three year plan
(economic plan modelled on Communist Chinese economic policies, where socialist policies would
be introduced and the economy converted to a communist system during the first three years of the
regime)
Land reform – Key focus do the peasant pop (Agricultural reform tribunals – redistribute land – Degenerated
into witch hunt, purging landlords “feudalists”).
North provided considerable support for the Southern Viet Cong Groups
The North Vietnamese Army (NVA) was the conventional of North Vietnam
The NVA grew significantly in size and capability from 1963. This regular army, established to fight a
conventional war
Cohesion created through effective propaganda
Communist ideas embedded in cultural Vietnamese traditions
Ideals such as freedom, victory and loyally stressed
Mass associations linked to Lao Dong (Youth association, peasants association) also controlled journalists etc
American involvement in Vietnam stemmed from anti-communist policies that the US government had
developed in the 1940s, as a response to the Soviet Union’s exertion of sphere of influence (a geographic
region in which a foreign power has significant military, political and economic influence or control) over
Eastern Europe and the 199 communist revolution in China
Belief that the threat of communism to the American way of life was real and had to be resisted
US President Harry S. Truman’s anti-communist – ‘Truman Doctrine’, were based on the theory of
‘containment’ (strategy to stop the expansion of an enemy best known as the cold war).
Strategy by which the United States thought the spread of communism throughout the world would be
stopped
During the First Indochina War, the US desire to stop the spread of communism was so great that Truman
promised $400 million in military and financial aid to anti-communist forces in South and North Vietnam
(President Dwight D. Eisenhower – came to power in 1953) – He believed that if South Vietnam were to fall
to communism, it would trigger a chain reaction across the rest of South-East Asia
o Aim of stopping the dominoes from falling that Eisenhower set about establishing an anti-communist
state in South Vietnam under Diem
o This engagement that the US would, over time, find exceedingly difficult to abandon
Self-interest, Prestige
Pressure that democrats were not “soft” on communism
Feb 1964: Secret raids on N Vietnam: Aim was to attack economic targets and limit help to VC
March 1964: The pentagon develops detailed bombing plans. Targets were firstly NV military sites and
guerrilla sanctuaries in Cambodia and Laos. The second targets were Norther infrastructure sites
6
– Modern History – Topic 3 – 2020
Early March the Johnson administration prepared a draft congressional resolution which would give the
president power to take whatever action he wanted to against the communists.
August 1964: The Tonkin Incident
During the late July 1964 the USS Maddox was involved in patrols off the Coast of North Vietnam
o The Maddox moved close to the coast (with 7km) and claimed by Hanoi as being in NV territorial
waters
o This was a provocative act on the part of Maddox. NV vessels in retaliation and attacked the Maddox.
The crew of Maddox claimed the then sank a NV patrol boat and damaged two others before leaving
the area
Two days later the Maddox and the USS C Turner Joy returned to the area and claims were
made by the US authorities were found to be untrue. That the US vessel had been attacked
again
This could have as a result of a confusion cause by the storm or a deliberate lie from the US
to have an excuse to retaliate
o Johnson acted quickly and decisively, and stated that US would not allow its vessels to be attacks with
“impunity”
o Air raids quickly followed against various targets in NV including Haiphong
(Kolko) “This was an astute move”
o It shows his firm and decisive leadership and did not take things further making Vietnam a negative
election issue, but the Tonkin resolution was passed
Tonkin Resolution
Nixon had the difficult task of brining American troops but still convincing President Thieu that the South
was not being deserted. He needed Hanoi to negotiate in the Paris Peace talks and to prove that America was
not weakening (he was trying to make sure he was not aggravating anti-war feeling at home
In 1969, the US military began operation Phoenix
o The purpose of Phoenix was to neutralise Vietcong chiefs and their supporters by having the
Americans and the ARVN adopt more guerrilla tactics
o It was an effective program that significantly weakened Vietcong’s strength. Almost 20 000 were
capture, of whom 6000 were killed
o As a response, in early 1969, the NVA launched a new offensive on the South
o Nixon’s response was to try severing links between NVA supporters and their supply routes
7
– Modern History – Topic 3 – 2020
In March 1969, Nixon ordered the secret bombing of Cambodia. This was known as Operation Menu and
Nixon’s aim was twofold.
1. To destroy communist HQ on the border
2. Disrupt the Ho Chi Minh trail
The tactic failed. This was the ‘mad man’ in action. The NVA eased up on their offensive, but the communist
HQ and HCM trail remained intact
Nixon’s policy became quite complicated. He began putting diplomatic pressure on China and the USSR to
put pressure on the North. Objectives were constant:
1. US withdrawal with honour
2. The survival of the Thiu regime and South Vietnam
3. His own re-election
In 1970 he has only made a little progress in improvements. The NVA had launched another offensive in
February. In May, 30,000 US and ARVN troops invaded Cambodia to root out the Communist bases
The invasion was a failure. No bases were found. Invasion flamed anti-war protests. Nixon faced unpopular
unrest and was now faced with a US senate that was eager to limit the seemingly unlimited power that the
President had acquired since the Tonkin resolution
Declining Morale of American Forces inside South Vietnam
It was not convincing for young Americans to go to war as they knew American were losing and Saigon was
corrupted
Nixon had to prove Vietnamisation was working. In February 1971, 5000 ARVN troops were sent into Laos
to attack NVA supply lines. This was operation Lam Son. It was a disaster. Within 2 weeks, half of the ARVN
troops were dead, and this was reported back to America
By the end of 1971, the president had achieved a little. The ARVN was unreliable and the North was not
compromising, the Russians and the Chinese were failing to pressure Hanoi to make concession, Nixon was
skinning in the polls due to the popular unrest at home.
o Johnson directed the US foreign policy towards Vietnam following the assassination of Kennedy
(Nov 1963)
o Johnson was a commanding presence and more comfortable with domestic issues than foreign policy
matters
o In 1964, he oversaw the passing of the Civil Rights Act into law, ending the legal segregation of the
discrimination against black Americans
o The civil rights act was part of Johnson’s ‘Great Society’s Programs’, which also included
government spending on education, medicine and transportation to aid equality between different
groups in the united states
Facing a presidential election in November 1964, Johnson wanted to appear moderate and limited the conflict
in Vietnam to bombing raids on targets in North Vietnam
He easily defeated conservative republican Barry Goldwater
o Goldwater was ‘a hawk’ – who believed that the United States should ramp up its military
involvement and fight the war to win
The United States appeared to adopt a kind of ‘carrot and stick’ policy towards North Vietnam under Johnson
In April of the same year he appeared to seek a diplomatic solution by calling for ‘unconditional discussions.
This was the carrot.
The stick was a major bombing campaign against North Vietnam, code-named ‘Rolling Thunder’, which
began in March 1965 and continued until October 1968
o 3-year program (1965-68) of constant bombing of North Viet installations with particular focus on the
HCM trail
o Reaction was different to what Americans were hoping to achieve – the worse the bombing got the
greater the morale and determination of the Vietnamese
o Westmoraland mid-67 there were only 285,000 VC left, CIA 500,000 – truth is they did not have any
idea
8
– Modern History – Topic 3 – 2020
o 643,000 tons of bombs dropped
o 5900 million cost
o 900 aircraft lost
Early in the bombing campaign, Johnson agreed to a change in the role of the US marines in Vietnam.
o They would no longer just guard bases in order to protect aeroplanes; they would go out into the
South Vietnamese countryside on active ‘search and destroy’ missions
North Vietnamese remained unchanged from their terms at Geneva in 1954 and demanded that the US
recognise the national rights of the Vietnamese people to be independent
They commanded the United States to withdraw troops from South Vietnam and to stop all acts of war against
North Vietnam
Heavily depended on support from Communist countries
Chinese rice imports essential during disaster of Agricultural Tribunals in 1954-7
Soviet Technological aid important in building DRV’s industrial sector
End of 1950s Sino-Soviet split-DRV avoided taking sides
Source: Robert Schulzinger
“Between late 1964 and the middle of 1965 – that the United States passed ‘the point of no return’ in Vietnam.”
Johnson was afraid that a communist takeover of Vietnam would lead to a conservative domestic political
backlash in the United States that would lead to the repeal of his beloved domestic reforms
o Late 1955, 60 per cent of the American People saw the Vietnam War as their country’s most urgent
problem, and only 20 percent favoured a withdrawal
9
– Modern History – Topic 3 – 2020
The Americans and the South Vietnamese controlled the major cities and the key arterial roads, especially
during the daytime
Countryside, jungle and night belong to the Viet Cong and NVA
o During the night they moved troops and supplies, laid mines, set booby traps, and arranged ambushes
The Viet Cong and the NVA avoided major confrontations and were largely on the defensive
They always chose the time and place of any engagement carefully and set ambushes on jungle trails or on
roads. Americans arrived in helicopters in landing zones and became targets of ambushes.
Source: American Statistics of Vietnam War Casualties, National Archies of the United States of America
1. Just over 58 000 Americans were killed in the conflict in Vietnam, 41 000 were killed in action. 382
deaths were self-inflicted
2. The average age of American servicemen killed was 23 years old
3. The youngest American killed in the conflict was 15 years old
4. Eight American Women died in the conflict, all of them nurses
5. The deadliest year of the conflict of America was 1968 with 16 899 killed
Strategy & Tactics
10
– Modern History – Topic 3 – 2020
guerrillas – Tunnels were barely wide for a
person to crawl through.
(Karnow) “Vietcong benefited from the
image of the Vietming… and their promise
of a future was enticing… yet for all their
brutality, Vietcong terrorism was usually
selective)
The US forces the ARVN
US employed conventional tactics. This included:
o Search and Destroy
o Cordon and Search
o Reconnaissance in Force
Attrition warfare was adopted an overarching strategy by the United States under General William C.
Westmoreland, following the escalation of action during 1964 and 1965
Americans used overwhelming firepower and resources to make the ware too costly for North Vietnam and
the Viet Cong to continue fighting
Success of strategy was measured in the number of bombing raids and the ‘body counts’ of Viet Cong dead
reported
The aim of saving American lives, Westmoreland used massive amounts of destructive airpower, utilising
accurate artillery to support infantry (soldiers fighting on foot) in the field
Oversaw the use of chemical defoliants (chemical sprayed in dense jungle areas causing leaves to fall off
trees and expose potential troop movements) to clear jungle and make it harder for the enemy to hide
United States also planned to win the support of the civil-population through ‘hearts and minds’ – (a
campaign in which one side seeks to prevail not by the use of superior force, but by making popular appeals to
sway supporters of the other side) operations, aimed at making popular appeals to Southerners to sway them
from supporting the Viet Cong
o Appeals took form of providing education and aid to villagers, and assisting in village building
programs
o The failure by the government in Saigon to provide land and social reform in many cases basic
services failed to pacify or win hearts and minds.
Contradictions inherent in these opposing strategies meant that United States and the ARVN failed to win
over the peasant population
‘Search and Destroy’ missions became the primary US and ARVN tactic
This tactic was problematic as the Viet Cong fighters blended in with Civilians
Both Viet Cong and the NVA was skilled at concealment, and made excellent use of tunnels and underground
base in peaceful villages
Source: Water Boyne, How the Helicopter Changed Modern Warfare, 2011, P.128
“From 1961 to 1965, the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong were learning much from the American efforts to use
helicopters to profitably employ South Vietnamese troops”
US and the ARVN established a permanent presence in some places to challenge the Viet Cong through a
system of fire-support bases (a fortified US/ARVN position established in an area known to be desired or
threatened by the enemy)
o These were well-fortified and self-contained artillery bases that acted as a forward position in enemy
territory
o Bases could be supplied by helicopters and could call on artillery support from nearby fire-support
positions
Viet Cong and the NVA knew where the Americans where the Americans were; but the Americans rarely
knew just where or when the enemy would strike
11
– Modern History – Topic 3 – 2020
Source: R.D. Schulzinger, A time for War, 1997, pp. 195-6
“Frightened, unfamiliar with guerrilla warfare, not well led, many American soldiers soon saw all Vietnamese as the
enemy.” ‘I’d just as soon shoot a South Vietnamese as VC’ was a common refrain.
Evaluate/ Assess Strategies and Tactics
US military power drove US foreign policy. As a result, the US fought a one-dimensional war in which they
failed to connect with the people of the SVN
The US required more than military victories such as Tet. They required political victories but could not
achieve them
The NV military was totally subordinate to the political leaders of North Vietnam. This was a major factor in
ensuring the north’s ultimate victory
North Vietnamese willingness to accept large casualties and years of war were factors the US and SVN could
not defeat or match
Few subtle warning signs than attack was coming, all of which was ignored by the Americans
NVA initially conducted a siege of the US military base at Khe Sanh as a diversion to distract the American
high command
January 1968, Viet Cong and the NVA forces exploited the Vietnamese New Year celebrations known as
‘Tet’ to launch a series of carefully coordinate attacks simultaneously across South Vietnam, employing 84 00
troops
o As a result, 48 provincial capitals, five major cities and 64 district capitals – including Saigon (US
embassy located) came under attack
o The Viet Cong controlled the city of Hue near the North-South border and proceeded to take bloody
revenge against the South Vietnamese
o Attacks marked the beginning of two week of intense fighting and a huge loss of life until the US
troops and the ARVN managed to repel the offensive
Westmoreland claimed that the communist side had failed in its objectives as the people of the South did not rally to
support communists
Viet Cong suffered major losses that the NVA, after rebuilding its force, wold now take the lead role in the
war in the South
North claimed to have achieved a strategic objective to provoke a challenge to the Americans so strong that it
would force them to de-escalate their commitment to the war
Westmoreland’s stance that American victory was in sight at the time of the Tet Offensive has been criticised.
Westmoreland’s was correct in his assessment that Tet was a communist defeat.
o From a broader strategic point of view, despite the losses, it proved to be a victory for the North as
images of the offensive were shown on US television and in newspapers, which was significantly
undermined support for the war among the American People and gave weight to the claims of the
anti-war movement
At the time of Tet Offensive, the total number of US troops in Vietnam had risen 500 000 and the number of
Americans who wanted to see the troops return home grow steadily
Until 1968, majority of Americans thought victory was close
Walter Cronkite (a respected American News anchor) evidenced his shock at seeing Americans fight it out for their
embassy in Saigon when he announced: ‘I thought we were winning the war”
War
People’s opinion for the war
The action that is taken both on the ground in Vietnam and back home in the USA
January 30th: North Vietnamese communist launch Tet offensive. The assault contradicts the Johnson
administration’s claims that the communist forces are weak, and the U.S. backed south is winning the war.
February 7th: After a battle for the Vietnamese village of Ben Tre, an American officer tells Associated Press reporter
Peter Arnett, “It became necessary to destroy the town in order to save it”. The quotation, printed in newspapers
nationwide, becomes a catchphrase for opponents of the Vietnam War
February 8th: At South Carolina State Campus, police open fire on students protesting. Three die and 27 are injured
February 28th: Walter Cronkite – CBS TV special says on his recent tour of Vietnam US war effort is “mired in
stalemate” and amplifies public scepticism of the war
March 16th: Mai Lai Massacre (not known to the public until November 1969 – but points to wider issues as a good
example of the mindset of the American Soldiers after Tet
March 31st: As war pressure mounts – President Johnsons announces he is not running for election
April 4th: Martin Luther King assassinated. Riots increase over 100 cities leaving 39 people dead, more than 2,6000
injured and 21 000 arrested
May 10th: US and NV begin peace talks in Paris
June 4th: Robert Kennedy assassinated
June 19th: Poor people’s campaign climaxes in the Solidarity Day rally for Jobs, Peace and Freedom in Washington.
Fifty thousand people join the 3,00 people and rally for the demands of the Poor people’s campaign on solidarity day.
August 28th: Democratic National Convention in Chicago, Police and Illinois National Guardsmen go on rampage,
clubbing and tear gassing hundreds of anti-war demonstrators, news reporters and bystanders.
November 5th: Nixon Wins Presidency
Extra Information:
“The watershed of Tet, however, was not in South Vietnam but in the United States, where the American
people… has lost their stomach for an inconclusive bloodletting without any measure of success” (Hannah)
“Television brought the brutality of war into the comfort of the living room. Vietnam was lost in the living
rooms of America – not on the battlefields of Vietnam” (McLuhan)
13
– Modern History – Topic 3 – 2020
The Tet offensive was an initiative of the North Vietnam Army to have civilian population of South Vietnam
join them in their offensive and efforts to overthrow the South Vietnam Government, forcing the withdrawal
of the united states armed forces
The Plan
Entitled by NV General Giap as the “General offensive, General uprising’ – plan was designed to overthrow
the South Vietnamese government
Four Goals:
1. 44 cities in SV would be attacked by North Vietnam and Viet Cong forces simultaneously, to create panic
and confusion
2. ARVN units would be isolated and destroyed, leading to their surrender
3. Hanoi’s show of strength would cause people of SV to rise up and overthrow the regime of President
Thieu
4. Series of ‘false fronts’ would be created as diversions are not directly connected with the major offensive.
Hoped these false fronts would tempt the US forces away from the safety of their bases, making them
susceptible to Giap’s troops
a. Giap Planned to have 3 false fronts
i. Loc Ninh – North Saigon
ii. Dak To – Central Highlands
iii. Khe Sanh – Small base just south of 17th parallel and 10km from Laos
During 1967 – US and SV intelligence theories received direct and indirect warnings suggesting a major
confrontation with Hanoi in the future
March 1967: Some Viet Cong Units that were captured possessed maps of Saigon’s sewer system
October 1967: (Hanoi publically released resolution 13, 3 regiments of NVA troops began moving down to
the HCM trail, US 25th infantry division captured Viet Cong orders)
General Giap’s false fronts:
o Loch Ninh (Purpose of attack to test Saigon’s outer defence network, after heavy fighting, V. Cong
units occupied the city for 6hrs, then withdrew
o Dark To (Proved to be the costliest single battle in Vietnam war, 3-days 1,200 V.Cong died, US lost
300 and nearly 1000 wounded )
o Khe Sanh: (The siege at Khe Sanh was the first act in the 1968 drama, General Westmoreland had
placed 6000 marines at KS to check NVA activity (it was fragile around the border)
th
20 January – NVA unleased a month-long bombardment
o (America held out with the help of B-52s (Operation of Niagara) bombing the surrounding hills, Was
a death trap which was televised in the US, operation Pegasus was launched to relieve the situation (to
do this the US diverted troops away from towns and cities of South Vietnam, leaving them to assault))
o Battle lasted for 2 months – 10 000 communists lost their lives
31st January 1968 – six major SV were attacked
o Hostilities in other parts (included Saigon) didn’t begun until 1 st of Feb as communication between
Viet Cong and NVA were poor
o Giap’s plan of simultaneously attacking all targets had failed, but the intense campaign nearly took
South Vietnam to its knees
o Saigon in flames for nearly 1 week as troops fought in the streets
US embassy temporarily occupied by Viet Cong
o Khe Sanh – (one of Giap’s false fronts) was only saved after massive US bombings decimated the
Vietnamese
o Hue NV units occupied the city for 26 days – casualties for both sides.
o Minor offensive between March and June 1968 until NV and VC withdrew.
Outcomes
14
– Modern History – Topic 3 – 2020
Tet offensive failed and losses were high:
o Over 50 000 Viet Cong and NV had been killed – took NLF 4 years to recover
o SV – 2500 lost & US – 1000 lost (significantly lower)
Tet Offensive – Military success for US and ARVN forces
Reason’s for Hanoi’s Loss
Giap’s plan was too ambitious – called for a victory which did not occur
Underprepared – troops were overextended, undersupplied and without reinforcements
SV forces withstood NV and did not retreat as Giap anticipated
US air power was able to provide crucial support to SV
No uprising of the SV population which was anticipated – despite the fact that there were many Viet Cong
sympathisers residing in SV
Leonard Bushkoff covers the usual arguments about Tet (i.e. military failure/ psychological victory) however,
he further states that what it did was to bring Americans crashing down to reality, he agrees that Tet was a
tactical American Victory, but that its effect on the American consciousness made it a defeat. He claims that
Tet exposed the lie of “Cold War rhetoric” and “superpower egotism”
Photo journalist Niel Davis points out that the Americans and the ARVN managed to recapture the most of the
territory that had been taken by the communists, but that because of the media had presented Tet as a defeat,
the anti-war movement had been given a boost. The media presented the attack on the American embassy as a
moral defeat
“Our Tet Plans require absolute secrecy and all soldiers took an oath of silence. Therefore, when fighting
began, our supporters did not know what to do. Most were afraid and confused and did nothing. They did not
know about Tet offensive beforehand. We took a risk by not telling the people beforehand. We also failed
because we underestimated our enemies and overestimated ourselves. We set goals which we realistically
could not achieve” (General Van Tra)
Tet was a combined conventional military offensive from the NVA and VC and is a turning point in the
Second Indochinese Conflict.
The Tet Offensive was the tactical implementation of the North Vietnamese strategy. Remember, the
difference between a strategy and a tactic. The Tet Offensive also marks a change in direction of the North
Vietnamese strategy, as Tet is an all-out conventional attack (rather than a guerrilla style attack) on the ARVN
and US forces in the South.
Tet is a complete military defeat for the North and a military victory for the South. However, this was not the
way the offensive was perceived by the American media and public. Images of the US Embassy being
attacked and of a captured Viet Cong soldier (Nguyen Van Lam) being executed by ARVN General Loan
(Chief of Police).
The main aims of the Tet Offensive were political. They wanted:
o Spark a revolution!
15
– Modern History – Topic 3 – 2020
o To put political pressure on the US President. Hanoi recognised that the Presidency was vulnerable to
public opinion in a democracy. Remember, the NLF leadership fought the political war first and
foremost and the military war second
“There is no such thing as a single strategy. Ours is always a synthesis, simultaneously military, political and
diplomatic – which is why quite clearly the Tet offensive had multiple objectives”. – General Giap.
US foreign policy now changes with the fall of LBJ (he does not contest the next election) and the rise of
Nixon with his new policy of withdrawal rather than containment.
American Bombing
American bombing and artillery firepower had a massive impact on SV’s ability to feed itself
Cluster bombs often remained, ready to release their deadly impact
Large parts of the country were consumed with the vast array of unexploded mines and shells; some still
remaining so today
A bomb that had targeted a dyke could well leave an area of land previously capable of growing crops
submerged in sea water
In the early 1960’s SV had been a net exporter of rise. By 1965 it had become a net importer of rice
Fundamental political impact that the conflict had on the South was a pattern of regime instability
The Geneva conference, which aimed to develop democratic freedoms in the South, were never realised
Ngo Dinh Diem in the Southern regime instituted policies such Agroville and the Strategic Hamlet
programs
o Which denied villagers their freedom and ensured that the regime would never attain popular support
o Culture of corruption was established under the Diem regime continue and the nation was ruled by a
succession of ‘governments by turnstile’ after his assassination
Former Air Marshall Nguyen Cao Ky and Army General Nguyen Van Thieu established the longest-serving
regime in 1967-75, when they ruled the south as military junta
o Military Junta (A military group that takes power by force and exercises its authority through power
and coercion (the opposite of democratic freedoms))
o Restrictions on civil liberties were tightened, land reform was never enacted, electoral fraud
continued, and all opposition was quickly extinguished
South became reliant on aid from the US, American imports damaged the developed South Vietnamese
industries
Until 1964 the GDP in the South outstripped the North two to one
16
– Modern History – Topic 3 – 2020
o Economy began to decline from this time by 1965 South Vietnam had begun to import rice illustrating
the turn-around in its economic status
Reduction of US troops from 1970, the economy went into freefall, with inflation rates reaching levels of
hyperinflation
South Vietnamese Society also transformed by the impact of American involvement in the Vietnam war
Establishment of large US baes in South created a network of bars and brothels to support this infrastructure
o Culture of drugs, gambling dens and black-market racketeering was fostered - the opposite of
traditional Confucian values
o South Vietnamese society was disrupted as more Vietnamese left the countryside for urban areas,
leading Saigon’s population increasing by 45 per cent to 3.3 million by 1970
o Society became increasingly materialistic as various consumer and military goods, food, cigarettes
and medicine were sold illegally on the streets of Saigon
War also significantly damages the environmental region on the South
o Much of the US bombing occurred over the North, US firepower targeting the Ho Chi Minh trail
destroyed areas of arable lands in the South and in turn impacted in civilians’ ability to feed
themselves
In an attempt to expose the jungle networks of the Viet Cong, the US air force’s use of the defoliant Agent
Orange in Operation Ranch Hand saw 19 million gallons of this chemical sprayed over Vietnam and Laos,
from 1961 to 1972
o Chemical immediately destroyed crops and forests, forcing people to relocate to urban areas
o Estimated four million Vietnamese people who were killed or wounded on both sides of the conflict,
millions suffered birth defects and cancer from the exposure of the chemicals
Compared with South, the North experienced political stability, following the reversal of the radical land
reform tribunals in 1960
Civilians in the north were united behind the political and military aims of the north
Source: Historian Sean Brawley
Suggest fighting a war against a superpower ‘left little time from internal dissent’
Morale in the North had not been destroyed, as had the American’s intention when they conducted major
bombing campaigns over the North including Operations Rolling Tunder (1965-8), Linebacker I (May-
October 1972) and Linebacker II (December 1972)
o Th bombings did succeed in destroying 4000 villages and disrupting transport and communication, as
roads and railways were favoured target of US planes
o Store trading hours were greatly reduced, and many people evacuated to the countryside
o Factories operated by a predominately female labour force, moved out of urban areas and
underground
100 000 civilians in the North were killed by the 2 million of bombs by the US air force, the collective
hardship and distasted actually led the society to unite
- The Arrival of - Americanisatio - The need to - The war had - Enormous loss of life –
US n of Vietnam dedicate nation detrimental estimates up to 3 million
Vietnamese cities and scares resources effect on the Vietnamese dead
society rapidly breakdown of to a war of landscape - Legacy of war – the
westernised traditional liberation - Whole forest sick/wounded/traumatised/
- Western - Threatened the prevented regions were those without limbs
material/ survival of expenditure on demolished by - Babies born with a series of
commercial traditional more worthy massive birth defects due to Agent
values gained Vietnamese projects bombing Orange
supremacy culture - By 1970s, - Irrigation/dyk - Vietnamese veterans
17
– Modern History – Topic 3 – 2020
- Western - Moving South faced e systems suffered from a range of
goods, cars, Peasants e.g. massive were cancers due to defoliants
investment, strategic inflation/black destroyed
music, Hamlets took market - B 52 bombing
fashion, them ancestor - US post-war left a cratered
prostitution, sites bans on trade landscape
and drug trade - All- and investment often
- Influx of Pervasiveness worsen things impossible to
western of US culture - Impact of cultivate
wealth aided bombing greatly - Massive use
the growth of reduced food of herbicides
corruption output and defoliants
- Decline of has left a large
village vast area of
life/movement SV a
to cities wasteland
- The legacy of
unexploded
bombs remain
a problem for
Indochina into
the 21st
century
Refugees:
As a result of both political persecution and economic hardship, tens of thousands of Vietnamese and
Cambodians tried to escape their countries via boat
Australia eventually took almost 250 000 Indochinese Refugees
The Nature and Significance of anti-war movements in the United States and Australia
Anti-War movement began developing on university campuses from the middle of the 1960s, and developed
in size and strength as the decade went on, and the justification for American involvement in the war was
more widely questioned
Actions taken at campuses across the country contributed to the growth of a moral general anti-war feeling
that spread into wider American society
Movement in Australia developed at the same time, also on university campuses primarily focuses on the
issues of conscription
o Conscription (soldier who did not volunteer for service and is serving a period in the armed forces as
mandated by the government)
Australian anti-war movement would also come to influence society as it highlighted the destructive nature of
the war to the general public
This saw pressure building on political leaders to find an exit strategy from the conflict
Reasons for the development of the Anti-war Movement
1. The US was not winning
a. Fundamentally reason behind the anti-war movement was because the US was not winning the war.
People questioned the legitimacy of the circumstances of the Tonkin incident, South Vietnam as a
worthy ally, and the Cold War rhetoric. Throughout 1967, the administration viewed the enemy had
been beaten. However, then the Tet came [Jan-Mar 1968] and anti-protest intensified in both scale of
violence. Following, the Tet offensive the perception was that US was not winning the war
2. Media Coverage
Vietnam War became known as ‘the lounge room war’ because television brought horrific images of Vietnam. E.g.
Scenes of Napalm attacks turning villages intro fireballs
18
– Modern History – Topic 3 – 2020
News outlets ran a tally count on their nightly news programs which showed how many Americans had died
in Vietnam (during the show the tally would tick over indicating that Americans were dying during that time)
In May 1969, Life Magazine ran edition of its magazine that contained photographs of 241 American soldiers
who had been killed that week
Early 1965, NYT and English Papers & the observer – reported VC captives and alleged civilian supporters
had been tortured
There was no official army censorship of new coverage. However, Westmoreland, military and administration
officials urged reporters to be sensitive in what they reported
o TELEVISION
Tv cameraman accompanied the troops in the fields sharing the risks of enemy fire
Vietnam became a ‘domestic’ story as TV networks featured individual soldier experiences, added to human
interest and drama
Proximity of journalists to the action put them in difficult positions. This is exemplified in the case of Morley
Safer (August 1965 – report produced for CBS) Reported on the American destruction of the village of Cam
Ne. His report showed US Gi’s setting the village on fire. (Johnson didn’t like that and had him investigated)
Each day in Saigon at 1700, a MACV representative would address journalists about day events to enforce
official military view. He would have charts, maps and masses of statistics this became known as the 5
O’clock follies soon became discredited as propaganda
Summary: Nature and Significance
(1965 onwards) More students, intellectuals and many young Americans began protesting against the Vietnam
war
Anti-war movement united organisations of that time that were challenging the status quo in America society
Ant-war movements can under the ‘hippy movement’ – Also became an extension of the feminist movement
and the American Civil Rights movement
Historians claim that anti-war movement was most powerful popular movement in America history – The
peace movement brough American society to the brink and ended the career of Johnson and Nixon
The war in Vietnam was lost on television, as the images of napalmed villages caused many to question
America’s moral right to wage war in Vietnam
The continuing loss of American troops and the nightly TV scenes of American soldiers returning home in
body bags around the country fuelled the anti-war movement
Sit-ins and teach-ins became commonplace and many universities became ungovernable. Vigils and burning
of draft cards resulted in protestors being jailed
The My Lai Massacre of 1968 reinforced the madness and brutality of the war in Vietnam and encouraged
more Americans to join the anti-war protest
At Kent state University in Ohio, police fired on anti-war protestors which resulted in the death of 4 students
In the 1970s, with the invasion of Cambodia, protest marchers increased in size and frequency. The Vietnam
moratorium movements spread around the world including to Australia,
In the early 1970s, popular support for the war was rapidly declining. Opinion polls suggested that more than
half of the Americans believed that the war was morally wrong
Karnow maintains, “That Nixon was effected by the anti-war feeling in that he tried to defuse it, however,
there was no real direct impact of these movements on his policies”
20
– Modern History – Topic 3 – 2020
Over 15 000 Australians served as conscripts in the Australian Army in Vietnam, of whom 200 were killed
o When the first conscripts died, opposition developed from student groups at universities, including the
group Youth Campaign Against Conscription, which organised protests and the burning of national
service papers
Opposition escalated when a group of mothers formed the Save our Sons in 1965
o This group would organise hiding places for men who sough to avoid conscription
From 1969, the movement seeped into mainstream society and the Australian trade union movement joined
opposition to the war, organisation protests and rallying its members
The Moratorium to end the war in Vietnam marches of 1970-71 illustrated the extent of opposition to the war,
as hundreds of thousands of people gathered in major cities across Australia to protest against Australia’s role
in Vietnam
o Last Australian troops were withdrawn from Vietnam in 1972
Following the My Lai Massacre outage, more (previously hidden) information leaked out to the public about the US
Government’s reason for being involved in Vietnam and its lack of confidence about how the conflict was developing.
The most influential of these revelations were the ‘Pentagon Papers’, where were published by the New York
Times in 1971. These revealed a number of attempted presidential cover-ups.
o Documents proved that successive presidential administrations had misled the public as to their actual
intentions in Vietnam
Revelations from the Pentagon Papers included:
Secretary of Defence Robert McNamara stated that the Eisenhower administration supported the South
Vietnamese Ngo Dinh Diem regime ‘not to help a friend, but to contain China’
Kennedy’s administration knew of plans to overthrow South Vietnamese leader Ngo Dinh Diem
Johnson’s promise to the nation to ‘seek no wider war’ after the Gulf of Tonkin incident in 1964 was dales.
He intensified convert warfare campaigns and planned overt campaigns from this time
Johnson ordered the bombing of North Vietnam in 1965, despite intelligence advice arguing it would not
cause North Vietnamese to cease their support of the Viet Cong in South Vietnam
21
– Modern History – Topic 3 – 2020
Supply of Weapons and aid to the North from both the Soviet Union and China continued, and the Ho Chi
Minh trail remained open to supply future offensives
The resolve of the Northern people remained firmly fixed behind their government’s aim to unify their
homeland
American policy makers had thought the Ho Chi Minh’s primary intention was to spread communism
throughout the region. As war went on, they recognised that powerful nationalistic forces were at work in
Vietnam and the North’s key aim was national unity
The US-friendly South Vietnam regime, which the Americans had helped to set up, never won wide
acceptance from people
o Rather, the harsh nature of the South’s regime was widely publicised, it served as, yet another tool
used by anti-war movement to challenge American involvement in the conflict
End of 1960s, general support for the war in the United States had evaporated, making it impossible for any
presidential administration to sustain the war
o Nixon responded to the new zeitgeist (‘spirit of times’) in the US electorate announced that he would
end America’s involvement in 1973
Nixon was determined to achieve his agenda of forcing North Vietnam to negotiate
o Strategy for doing this was the Operation Menu, converting a bombing campaign in Cambodia 1969,
designed to halt the communist infiltration into South Vietnam via the Ho Chi Minh and Sihanouk
Trails
o Nixon initiated the ruthless ‘Christmas bombing’ campaign, dropping 40 000 tonnes of bombs over
North Vietnam in December 1972
The strategy that Nixon applied was to appear unpredictable, ruthless, and ready to do whatever it took to see
the end of the conflict. This position he took would become known as Nixon’s ‘madman theory’
Source: Harry Robbins ‘Bob’ Haldeman (Nixon’s Chief of Staff), The ends of power, 1978, p. 122
Nixon had been recorded confiding: ‘I want the North Vietnamese to believe I’ve reached the point where I might do
anything to stop the war’, and that he wanted them to think: ‘We can’t restrain him when he’s angry – and he has his
hand on the nuclear button’
January 1973 – Representatives from the United States ad North Vietnam signed a peace treaty in Paris
which ended direct American involvement in Vietnam
The North saw US withdrawal as a first step towards its eventual victory and a unified Vietnam
US continued to aid the ARVN so that they could sustain their fighting force against the communist
Peace in Vietnam became an element of this reduction in tensions between the superpowers
22
– Modern History – Topic 3 – 2020
Corruption and inefficiency of the regime in the South
ARVN capabilities
WHY WAS THE US DEFEATED IN THE VIETNAM WAR?
1. It was military factors which decided the outcome of the war. The VC/NVA used tactics appropriate to the
country while the US tried to fight a conventional war. Guerrilla warfare combined with the power of
Vietnamese nationalism proved to be far more effective in the end than the vast array of power that the US
was able to USE
2. The fundamental reasons for the failure of the US war effort was its inability to sustain a credible and viable
regime in South Vietnam. From the days of Dim, the SV was a corrupt and brutal regime that never earned the
loyalty from the population and was seen as a US puppet. This was a stark contrast to the dedicated members
of VC/NVA who were clearly driven by nationalist idealism and spirit of self-sacrifice, and inspired HO
3. The power and determination of NV decided the outcome of the war. Inspired by HO, the North was able to
harness Vietnamese nationalism and maintain morale. It supplied southern fighters because of the Ho Chi
Minh Trail and Soviet/Chinese aid. Tet practically destroyed the VC so the NVA was responsible for the
victory against the US
4. The Tet offensive was the key factor responsible for the US defeat. The Ter was a political and psychological
defeat. It boasted the anti-war movement, showed the American people the government had been lying. The
destroyed Johnsons and changed the media coverage of the war. This changed the US war aims from victory
toe getting out of war with minimum loss of face
5. It was the power of anti-war movement that ultimately decided the course of the Vietnam war. The cold war
consensus had backed the early US war effort and broke down the support for the war. No democratic
government could sustain a war that half the population was against. Anti-war feeling destroyed the
government’s will to win and did great harm to the morale of the US troops
6. The fundamental reason for the US defeat was its failure to understand the true nature of the conflict. To the
Americans the war was part of the cold war. The US approach prevented American leaders realising that the
issue had been about Vietnamese nationalism and opposition to foreign rule. Fighting for nationalism suited
guerrilla warfare and sustained morale
WHY DID THE SOUTHERN REGIME COLLAPSE SO QUICKLY?
24
– Modern History – Topic 3 – 2020
Source: Ben Kiernan and Taylor Owen
“When the big bombs and shells came (the ordinary people’s minds) just froze up they would wander around mute for
three or four days. Terrified and half-crazy, the people were ready to believe what they were told… They kept on
cooperating with the Khmer Rouge, joining up with the Khmer Rouge…”
Upon his return to the country, Sihanouk himself inflated the ranks of the Khmer Rouge when he decided to
join forces and form a political coalition with them.
Sihanouk’s decisions created the platform for the rise of regime as people flocked to an organisation that had
the backing of their former sovereign
The Khmer Rouge, used and then discarded Sihanouk on their rise to power, were now strong enough to
commence a brutal civil war with the Lon Nol government from 1971.
By 1975, Lon Nol had been forced out of power and the Khmer Rouge occupied the Cambodian Capital
Phnom Penh
25
– Modern History – Topic 3 – 2020
Immediately after seizing power Khmer Rouge began burning books, destroying public buildings and
emptying the city of Phnom Penh of its 2 million people, who were forced into rural areas
Once the Khmer Rouge had the cities and towns firmly under control, the next step was to expand their
domination across rural Cambodia
Many people began to work 12 hours a day on collective farms under the iron hand of the guards who
watched their every move
In 1976 the Khmer Rouge engineered a 4 – year economic plan with the aim of modernising the agricultural
sector
As part of the plan, rice-yield targets were established, which the collective farms were expected to reach
Targets were very high and as a result overseer started to falsify the rice statistics to protect themselves
against the regime that did not accept failure. However, the inflated statistics led to a situation where rice was
exported to other communist countries while Cambodian citizens were left starving –
Source: David Chandler – “Several other practices were put in place. These included long working hours for everyone
(known as ‘following the sun’), rejection of Western-Style medicine, and an abolition of play. People with glasses
were assumed to be capitalists, as those with pale skin and soft hands were taken off to be killed. Work in the fields
began before sunrise and ended long after dark, with only short breaks in between”
Impact of the Khmer Rouge policies also affected Cambodian intellectuals and property owners. Schools and
hospitals were closed across the country, private property became the property of the state
Cambodians were advised to beware of spies and potential enemies of the new regime. This fear of ‘enemies’
gave rise to mass murder and concentration camps (called ‘re-education centrers’)
o Tuol Sleng was converted from a high school into a place of torture and interrogation
Staggering example of the persecution of intellectuals was in 1979 only 707 out 2300 Cambodian secondary
school teachers remained alive
Yale University Genocide program estimate that 1.7. million Cambodians lost their lives as both
Victims of organise violence and the great famine and ensured as a result of the radical egalitarian
(relating to the principle that all people are equal and deserve opportunities) collectivisation plans
Khmer Rouge foreign policy was aimed at protecting itself from foreign invasion
Kampuchea remained for the most part closed to the West
China assisted the regime in Cambodia with economic aid to support the implementation of the 4-year plan.
While international relations with the Vietnamese were positive, they too turned sour
Regime leaders hated Vietnamese and shared a collective paranoia about their intentions. Feared that Vietnam
might try creating Indochinese Federation with Vietnam at the top
From 1977, border raids in Vietnam territory and the violent execution of the villagers prompted the
Vietnamese to invade Cambodia on 7th of January 1979
Their plan to remove Pol Po and replace his government with a communist regime more sympathetic to Hanoi
Took 17 days for Vietnam to be overrun the Cambodia forces. Pol Pot fled to Wester Cambodia and a new
government was formed
26