Neuroscience and Behavioral Physiology, Vol. 40, No.

8, 2010

Influence of Music with Different Volumes and Styles

on Recognition Activity in Humans

R. A. Pavlygina, D. S. Sakharov, UDC 612.822.3+612.821

V. I. Davydov, and A. V. Avdonkin

Translated from Zhurnal Vysshei Nervnoi Deyatel’nosti imeni I. P. Pavlova, Vol. 59, No. 5, 557–567,
September–October, 2009. Original article submitted October 27, 2008. Accepted April 28, 2009.

The efficiency of the recognition of masked visual images (Arabic numerals) increased when accompanied
by classical (62 dB) and rock music (25 dB). These changes were accompanied by increases in the coher-
ence of potentials in the frontal areas seen on recognition without music. Changes in intercenter EEG rela-
tionships correlated with the formation a dominant at the behavioral level. When loud music (85 dB) and
music of other styles was used, these changes in behavior and the EEG were not seen; however, the coher-
ence of potentials in the temporal and motor cortex of the right hemisphere increased and the latent periods
of motor reactions of the hands decreased. These results provide evidence that the “recognition” dominant is
formed when there are particular ratios of the levels of excitation in the corresponding centers, which should
be considered when there is a need to increase the efficiency of recognition activity in humans.

KEY WORDS: recognition of masked visual images, EEG, music.

Ukhtomskii regarded the dominant as one of the main
principles of intercenter interactions [18]. The formation of a
stable focus of excitation in the CNS leads to rearrangements
in intercenter relationships such that the focus dominant at a
given moment in time is enhanced on activation of other
structures not directly related to the ongoing activity. Studies
of the properties of dominants in animals [1, 12–14] and
humans [4, 10] have used the light and sound stimuli which
are standard in experimental conditions for activating the sen-
sory systems as the stimuli inducing dominant foci. When the
sensory stimulus used was altered in frequency or intensity,
its effects on the dominant focus were enhanced. This led to
the idea of using music to enhance existing dominant states,
as it can be regarded as a stimulus having the most appropri-
ate action on the brain because both musical structure and
brain electrical activity are non-stationary and polymor-
phous. The use of music in studies of the dominant in humans
is appropriate because it is experienced in everyday life and,
when positive tests are obtained, is recommended for increas-
ing the efficiency of many types of work activity.
Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology, Russian
Academy of Sciences, Moscow; e-mail: sakharovdm@yandex.ru.
A number of studies have been performed [7–9, 11] in
which a stationary focus of excitation was created in the
CNS using a model based on the recognition of masked
visual images (Arabic numerals) with enhancement of the
ongoing dominant state using music. Recognition during
music at a particular volume led to increased recognition
efficiency.
Ukhtomskii held that on establishment of intercenter
interactions on the principle of the dominant, the ratio of the
levels of excitation in these centers was of great importance.
If excitation in the center testing the dominant focus
increased strongly, the focus could be inhibited. The present
study is a logical continuation of these studies. The aim was
to compare behavioral and electroencephalographic
changes occurring in relation to the volume and style of the
music heard.
METHODS
A total of 19 healthy right-handed subjects aged 18–47
years, of both genders, with normal hearing, who were not
professional musicians, took part in the study. In all cases,

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TABLE 1. Proportions of Experiments (%) in which P and T Changed in Different Environmental Conditions
Types of P T
changes in
P and T w wk1 wk3 wr1 wr3
Increase 45 50 67 67 33
Decrease 45 45 33 33 54
No change 10 5 0 0 13
Notes. P is the proportion of correctly recognized stimuli (%); T is the mean decision-taking time, msec; w is work without music; wk1, wk3, wr1, and wr3
are work accompanied by classical or rock music at volume levels 1 and 3.
the spontaneous EEG contained an alpha rhythm with dif-
ferent strengths. The subjects’ eyes were open throughout
the experiment.
The studies were performed in two stages: a prepara-
tive stage (subjects were trained to the motor skill and
image recognition) and an experimental period (recognition
with EEG recording). The masked visual images (MVI)
consisted of the numerals “5,” “6,” “8,” and “9” presented
as illuminated dots on the screen, along with so-called sham
signals consisting of randomly illuminated dots. The mask-
ing process consisted of inactivating a number of the points
making up the image of the numeral or activating a number
of additional points on the screen. The masking level was
12%. Subjects had to respond to all stimuli by pressing the
corresponding keys with the left hand in response to the
numerals “5” and “6” and with the right hand in response to
the numerals “8” and “9;” the space bar had to be pressed in
response to sham stimuli. The duration of image presenta-
tion was 200 msec. The mean interstimulus interval was
8–10 sec. In each experiment, the subject was presented
with an average of 95 stimuli. The baseline EEG was
recorded during the first 10 min. Subjects then recognized
masked images for 12.5 min and continued during the next
12.5 min with music playing at a selected volume and style.
Each experiment used a single type of musical accompani-
ment. Breaks between experiments lasted 3–7 days. Each
subject took part in one or two control experiments, where
they continued to recognize visual images without music
during the second half. The efficiency of recognition activ-
ity was evaluated using the paired Wilcoxon test.
Rock music consisted of recordings by the Rolling
Stones at two volume levels, music fragments having mean
intensities of: r1 = 25 dB and r3 = 62 dB above the hearing
threshold. Classical music was by Mozart, also at two vol-
ume levels: k1 = 35 dB and k3 = 62 dB. It should be noted
that professional musicians regard music at volumes of up
to 70 dB as quiet. In addition, a series of experiments
involving seven subjects using louder music was also per-
formed: piano concertos by Mozart (k4) and Schnittke (a4;
avant garde) and music by the Rolling Stones (r4) and the
Russian group Ariya (h4, hard rock) with a mean volume of
Pavlygina, Sakharov, Davydov, and Avdonkin
w wk1 wk3 wr1 wr3
55 40 26 33 20
40 55 68 67 67
5 5 6 0 13
85 dB above the hearing threshold. The method using music
has been described in detail in a previous report [15].
EEG recordings were made using 16 leads distributed
using the standard 10–20% system. A total of 170 experi-
ments were performed. Mean EEG coherence (Coh) values
were analyzed using a fast Fourier transformation in standard
physiological frequency ranges: Δ = 1–4 Hz, θ = 4.25–8 Hz,
α1 = 8.25–10 Hz, α2 = 10.25–13 Hz, β1 = 13.25–20 Hz,
β2 = 20.25–30 Hz, and γ = 30.25–40 Hz. Artifact-free EEG
segments were processed in MATLAB 5.2. The analysis
epoch was 4 sec and the sampling frequency was 256 Hz.
Changes in Coh were assessed in 56 intrahemisphere pairs.
Only significant changes in EEG Coh were assessed
(p < 0.05) for each subject using the Mann–Whitney test
and for the whole group using Student’s test. Differences in
integral coherence levels using music of different styles and
volumes were assessed using the χ2 test.
RESULTS
Assessment of MVI recognition efficiency with musi-
cal accompaniment identified changes in the proportion of
correctly recognized images (P) as compared with the first
half of the experiment, when recognition took place without
music; changes in the mean decision-taking time through
the experiment (T) were also assessed.
MVI recognition efficiency changed with musical
accompaniment. The nature of the changes depended on the
style of the music and its loudness, and individual variations
were seen. Table 1 shows that in most experiments (67%),
efficiency in terms of the proportion of correctly recognized
stimuli (P) increased on recognition accompanied by music
k3 and k1, while no such tendency was seen when subjects
worked with music k1 or r3. When recognition continued in
the second half without music, there were no differences
between the numbers of experiments in which recognition
efficiency increased or decreased (Table 1, w). This type of
change in P was seen on recognition while music k1 was
playing. Working with music always showed a predomi-
nance of experiments in which the decision time decreased.
Influence of Music with Different Volumes and Styles on Recognition Activity in Humans 879

Fig. 1. Changes in stimulus recognition efficiency with quiet music. P is the proportion of correctly recognized stimuli (%); T is the
decision-taking time. White columns (w) show recognition without music; dark columns show recognition with classical (wk3, 62 dB)
or rock (wr1, 25 dB) music. Significant changes in efficiency: *p < 0.005, **p < 0.0015.

Fig. 2. Changes in intrahemisphere Coh of potentials on recognition of masked visual images. A) Positions of electrodes on subjects’ heads, 10–20%
scheme, used for plotting maps. B) Maps of changes, where continuous lines show significant increases and dotted lines show significant decreased
in Coh functions compared with baseline. α2, β1, β2, and γ are frequency ranges. C) Overall (all leads and frequency ranges) numbers of cases with
significant increases (dark columns) and decreases (light columns) in Coh in the left (LH) and right (RH) hemispheres during image recognition com-
pared with baseline. The vertical axis shows the proportions with increases or decreases in Coh as percentages of the total number of possible
changes. 95% confidence intervals are shown.
880 Pavlygina, Sakharov, Davydov, and Avdonkin

Fig. 3. Maps of changes in intrahemisphere Coh of potentials during recognition of masked visual images accompanied by clas-
sical music at 62 dB. For further details see caption to Fig. 2, B.

TABLE 2. Numbers of Intrahemisphere Pairs with Increased Coh during Recognition of MVI Without and With Music Compared with Baseline

Conditions LH RH LH + RH

w 97 63 160

wk1 94 70 164

wk3 106 89 195*

wr1 115 103 218**

wr3 87 66 153

Notes. LH = left hemisphere; RH = right hemisphere. Experiment types: recognition without music (w); recognition with music wk1, wk3, wr1, wr3.
Significantly different changes compared with baseline: *p = 0.023; **p = 0.0015.

Figure 1 shows data on changes in MVI recognition
efficiency with music k3 and r1. Significant differences were
identified using the paired Wilcoxon test. The proportion of
correctly recognized stimuli increased by an average of
6.7% (n = 38, p = 0.0015) with music k3. Rock music
increased recognition efficiency by 4.2% (n = 38, p = 0.005).
A significant decrease in reaction time, by an average of
70 msec, was seen with music k3 (n = 38, p = 0.0015) and
r1 (n = 38, p = 0.005).
Recognition of masked visual stimuli produced a par-
ticular structure of coherence connections: Coh of potentials
(in relation to baseline) increased in the frontal areas of the
cortex, particularly in the left hemisphere, between all
recording points (Fig. 2, A, Student’s test, n = 72, p < 0.05).
This was particularly marked in the α2, β1, β2, and γ fre-
quency ranges. In addition, there were increases in Coh of
potentials in the frontal and occipital areas of the cortex in
both hemispheres. These changes were accompanied by
decreases in the connectedness of potentials in the temporal-
central-occipital areas. As the structure of Coh connections
on recognition of MVI was topographically similar in all fre-
quency ranges, only changes in the high-frequency oscilla-
tion bands (10–35 Hz) are plotted; as shown by the results of
previous experiments, these are the most reactive to expo-
sure to music [6]. It should be noted that recognition never
increased Coh between potentials in the temporal and frontal
areas of the cortex of the right hemisphere (Fp2–T4).
Figure 2, B shows overall data for all leads and frequen-
cy ranges in terms of the numbers of cases of significant
increases (dark columns) and decreases (light columns) in
Coh in the left and right hemispheres as compared with
baseline (χ2, n= 72, p < 0.05). The data provide evidence
that recognition forms a left-sided asymmetry. The number
of cases with increases in combined potentials in the left
hemisphere was significantly greater than the number with
increases in the right hemisphere.
Recognition of images accompanied by music
increased the extent of the main pattern of Coh connections
formed on recognition without musical accompaniment
(Fig. 3, Student’s test, n = 72, p < 0.05). It should be noted
that music increased Coh between potentials in the frontal
and temporal areas of the right hemisphere (Fp2–T4) in the
α2, β1, β2, and γ ranges which had been absent on recogni-
tion without music (compare Fig. 2 and Fig. 3). With the
aim of obtaining a clearer view of the contribution of music
to the EEG pattern as compared with working without
music, the numbers of intrahemisphere pairs with increased
levels of connectedness were analyzed in comparison with
Influence of Music with Different Volumes and Styles on Recognition Activity in Humans 881

Fig. 4. Change in the efficiency of recognition of masked visual images accompanied by loud (85 dB) classical
music, rock music, hard rock music, and avant garde symphonic music (total, wm). Significant changes in effi-
ciency: *p = 0.002. For further details see caption to Fig. 1.

baseline in conditions of isolated recognition of stimuli and
on recognition accompanied by music (Table 2). In all
recognition conditions, the number of pairs with increased
biopotentials Coh levels was greater in the left hemisphere
than in the right. As changes occurred in both hemispheres,
Table 2 shows the total numbers of pairs with increased Coh
in the left and right hemispheres (LH + RH). The number of
pairs with increased Coh levels was significantly greater
during work accompanied by music k3 (χ2 test, n = 392,
p = 0.023) and r1 (χ2 test, n = 392, p = 0.0015) as compared
with working without music. Music of the same volume
was effective for MVI recognition (Table 1).
Louder music was used in the same experimental con-
ditions and the same methodology. No changes in the per-
centage of correct responses were seen. However, there was
a reduction in latent periods (T) by an average of 65 msec
(paired Wilcoxon test, n = 28, p = 0.002). Figure 4 shows
overall data for all subjects and all types of music used.
The structure of Coh connections showed no increase
in Coh between the frontal and temporal cortex in the right
hemisphere – Fp2–T4 (Fig. 5, A, Student’s test, n = 28,
p < 0.05). There was also no asymmetry in the number of
Coh connections in the left and right hemispheres (Fig. 5, B),
i.e., the changes in Coh seen with quieter music and leading
to increases in recognition efficiency, did not occur. Loud
music produced an increase in Coh between potentials in
the temporal and central cortex of the right hemisphere
(C4–T4). As during recognition subjects responded to MVI
alternately with the left and right hands, differential analy-
sis of the movement latencies of both hands was performed.
As shown in Fig. 6, most experiments showed reductions in
recognition latency with the left hand (paired Wilcoxon test,
n = 15, p = 0.046).
DISCUSSION
The literature contains reports of studies providing evi-
dence that hearing music influences the cognitive activity of
the human brain. Some cases showed positive effects. Thus,
music promotes solution of temporospatial tasks in tests with
mental rotation or recognition of mirror images [24, 28]. Most
schoolchildren prefer to study with the radio or television on
[27]. Music improves measures of verbal memory [20]. We
believe that studies in this direction are often constructed
methodologically on the principle of the dominant. However,
unfortunately, the authors use only qualitative analysis of
brain states on the basis of tests and verbal responses, with-
out EEG studies. Results obtained using music of different
volumes and styles have not been reported. We believe that
people have long used music as a factor enhancing ongoing
dominant states. Music is used before military engagements
to promote the fighting spirit of the combatants and to inten-
sify religious feelings during services in temples. A report in
882 Pavlygina, Sakharov, Davydov, and Avdonkin

Fig. 5. Changes in intrahemisphere Coh of potentials during recognition of masked visual images accompanied by loud (85 dB)
music of different styles (overall). A) Maps of changes. B) Total (all leads and frequency ranges) numbers of cases with signifi-
cant increases or decreases in Coh in the left and right hemispheres (compared to baseline) on recognition of images accompa-
nied by loud classical (wk4) and rock (wr4) music. For further details see caption to Fig. 2, B, C.

the German periodical Journal of Marketing noted that peo-
ple’s purchasing tendency increases by 65% if there is music
in the shop [23].
We interpret our data showing that music of a certain vol-
ume and style increased recognition efficiency as a manifesta-
tion of the mechanism of the dominant, whose main property
is summation. In our experiments, music was not presented
before testing, when it could significantly alter the initial state
of the CNS and influence the results of subsequent work.
During the initial 2–3 experiments, the subjects learned to rec-
ognize the images. In the main experiment, the subjects again
had to recognize 95 stimuli, and it was only after this that
recognition with music was trialed. The experimental condi-
tions promoted the formation of a stable focus of excitation in
brain structures associated with recognition activity, music
only then being used. A certain level of activation of the audi-
tory analyzer is required for irradiation of excitation to other
brain structures, including those in which the excitation focus
was created, to occur. Summation of excitation takes place,
one measure of which is an increase in ongoing activity.
We will consider the data obtained from analysis of the
spatial organization of neocortical potentials in different
states in humans. Recognition of masked visual images pro-
duced a significant increase (compared with baseline) in
Coh values between potentials in the frontal area and
between potentials in the frontal and occipital zones of both
hemispheres. Left-sided asymmetry in the connectedness of
potentials in the frontal cortex was noted. These changes
were more marked in the high-frequency ranges. Activation
of the frontal areas of the cortex is known to occur during
performance of various types of cognitive activity [3, 5, 19,
25]. Asymmetry in the coherence of potentials in the frontal
areas of the cortex may provide further support for the view
that the left hemisphere is more involved in the analytical
process of decision-taking than the right [16]. Increases in
the connectedness of potentials in the frontal-occipital areas
are probably a reflection of decision-taking in relation to
visual images. The greatest increase in Coh in the high-fre-
quency band appears to be related to the fact that recogni-
tion reflects brain cognitive activity characterized by these
particular frequencies [2, 17, 22, 29].
The main spatial structure of Coh connections of
potentials in the neocortex arising on recognition persisted
when music enhancing the dominant at the moment of the
activity was used. Image recognition with music of a par-
ticular volume strengthened the main pattern of Coh con-
nections seen during work without music. Music alone
leads to a right-sided asymmetry in people who are not
musicians [6, 15, 21, 30]. Results from fMRI studies have
demonstrated that music in “non-musicians” is addressed to
the right temporal-occipital area of the cortex, i.e., the
“musical brain” [26]. The left-sided asymmetry characteris-
tic of recognition processes persisted and increased during
recognition accompanied by music. Significant changes
were seen on recognition accompanied by classical (62 dB)
and rock (25 dB) music, which correlated with the forma-
tion of a dominant at the behavioral level. Music with these
same characteristics increased image recognition efficiency.
The ratio of the levels of excitation in two centers
between which integrative connections are established on
Influence of Music with Different Volumes and Styles on Recognition Activity in Humans
Fig. 6. Proportion (%) of experiments in which recognition accompanied
by loud music decreased the latencies of motor responses of the left (LH)
and right (RH) hands. 95% confidence intervals are shown.
the principle of the dominant is important. If excitation in
the center testing the dominant focus increases strongly, the
focus can be inhibited [18]. Working from this proposition,
we performed a series of experiments using louder music –
at 85 dB. Apart from classical and rock music, hard rock
and avant garde symphonic music was also used. This
music did not lead to increases in correct responses; there
was only a reduction in motor reaction times. The structure
of coherence connections lacked any increase in Coh
between potentials in the frontal areas of the cortex; left-
sided asymmetry in the numbers of coherence connections
in the left and right hemispheres was also not seen. Thus,
those changes in Coh seen when work was accompanied by
quieter music and led to an increase in the proportion of
correct recognition trials were absent. It was characteristic
that in the absence of changes in Coh in the frontal cortex,
there were increases in Coh between potentials in the tem-
poral and motor cortex of the right hemisphere. Music in
this case appeared to affect the motor area of the cortex,
thus decreasing that motor reaction time to stimuli. As sub-
jects had to respond with their right and then left hands
alternately during recognition, we performed a separate
analysis of latency for each hand. All subjects were right-
handed; latency of left hand movements showed greater
changes on hearing music (decreases in latency), which is
consistent with the increase in Coh in the right temporal-
883
motor cortex. We take the view that changes in reaction
time when loud music was used were not associated with
the recognition process but reflect the influences of music
on the motor centers. Increased motor activity is seen in
people when loud music is played in discotheques.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Recognition of masked visual images (Arabic
numerals) by humans showed increased probabilities of
correct recognition and decreases in decision-making times
in conditions in which work was accompanied by classical
(62 dB) or rock (mean 25 dB) music.
2. Increases in the coherence of potentials in the
frontal areas of the cortex, particularly marked in the left
hemisphere, were seen during recognition of masked visual
images, along with increases in the connectedness of poten-
tials in the frontal-occipital areas. This structure of coher-
ence connections of potentials was more marked in the
high-frequency EEG band. Coherence decreased in the tem-
poral-central-occipital areas in both hemispheres.
3. The extent of the main pattern of coherence connec-
tions formed on recognition without musical accompaniment
increased during recognition of masked visual images with
musical accompaniment (classical music at 62 dB, rock
music at a mean 25 dB). In addition, there was an increase in
the connectedness of potentials in the frontal and temporal
areas of the right hemisphere in the high-frequency ranges.
4. When recognition was accompanied by classical
music at 62 dB or rock music at a mean 25 dB, intercenter
EEG ratios correlated with the formation of a dominant at
the behavioral level.
5. When music of other styles and high volume was
used (classical, rock, hard rock, avant garde symphonic at
a mean 85 dB), there were no changes in the proportions of
correct responses. The only significant changes consisted
of reductions in the latencies of motor reactions, especial-
ly of the left hand. Music at this volume led to increases in
coherence between the temporal and central cortex in the
right hemisphere.
6. Comparison of the results obtained from recognition
with music of different volumes and styles leads to the con-
clusion that the “recognition” dominant forms at a particu-
lar ratio of levels of excitation in the corresponding centers,
which must be considered when there is a need to increase
the efficiency of recognition activity in humans.
This study was supported by the Russian Humanities
Scientific Foundation (Grant No. 08-06-00150a).
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