energies

Article
Performance Analysis of Permanent Magnet Motors
for Electric Vehicles (EV) Traction Considering
Driving Cycles
Thanh Anh Huynh 1 ID
and Min-Fu Hsieh 2, * ID

1 Department of Systems and Naval Mechatronic Engineering, National Cheng Kung University,
Tainan 70101, Taiwan; hthanhanh86@gmail.com
2 Department of Electrical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 70101, Taiwan
* Correspondence: mfhsieh@mail.ncku.edu.tw; Tel.: +866-06-275-7575 (ext. 62366)




Received: 1 May 2018; Accepted: 25 May 2018; Published: 29 May 2018


Abstract: This paper evaluates the electromagnetic and thermal performance of several traction
motors for electric vehicles (EVs). Two different driving cycles are employed for the evaluation of the
motors, one for urban and the other for highway driving. The electromagnetic performance to be
assessed includes maximum motor torque output for vehicle acceleration and the flux weakening
capability for wide operating range under current and voltage limits. Thermal analysis is performed
to evaluate the health status of the magnets and windings for the prescribed driving cycles. Two types
of traction motors are investigated: two interior permanent magnet motors and one permanent
magnet-assisted synchronous reluctance motor. The analysis results demonstrate the benefits and
disadvantages of these motors for EV traction and provide suggestions for traction motor design.
Finally, experiments are conducted to validate the analysis.

Keywords: Electric vehicles; IPMSM; SynRM; PMa-SynRM; driving cycle

1. Introduction
Electric vehicles (EVs) have become more and more attractive in recent years, as they are
considered as the most viable solution to help protect the environment and to achieve high energy
efficiency for transportation [1]. In EVs, traction motors are the key component for propulsion,
which requires high torque and power density, wide speed range, high efficiency, high reliability,
low noise, and reasonable cost. Interior permanent magnet synchronous machines (IPMSMs) have
emerged as the brightest candidates, which have been widely used for EV (or hybrid EV) tractions,
such as Toyota Prius and Nissan Leaf. These electric motors may be designed with different rotor
topologies, where rare-earth magnet is often employed to achieve high performance [2]. However,
the material cost of rare-earth magnet is high and the supply is mainly controlled by few countries
owning the mineral resources. Some EVs adopt propulsion solutions without rare earth permanent
magnet (PM), such as Tesla Model S, which uses copper rotor induction motors (IMs). However,
the starting current of IMs can be high and this is disadvantageous for battery duration [3]. In response
to the demands for rare-earth-free or less-rare-earth traction motors, PM-assisted synchronous
reluctance motors (PMa-SynRMs) can be an excellent candidate [4]. The PMa-SynRM is often designed
with ferrite magnets or small amount of rare-earth magnets in the rotor core. The weaker or less PM
can be potentially demagnetized during high performance operation (e.g., high armature reaction or
flux weakening). Also, the rotor should be well designed in order to gain as much reluctance torque as
possible in order to compensate the loss in electromagnetic torque due to less amount of PM used [4,5].
On the other hand, the EVs require high torque for starting at zero speed, acceleration, climbing,
and high power for cruising at highway speeds [6]. Therefore, traction motors are usually designed

Energies 2018, 11, 1385; doi:10.3390/en11061385 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2018, 11, 1385 2 of 24

to produce peak torque or power that is several times the rated values. However, for frequent urban
or suburban driving, traction motors can be mostly operated in low torque, low power, and low
efficiency conditions. This would lead to energy waste and the cruise range reduces. To investigate
the effect of driving conditions on design of traction motors, some established driving cycles could
be employed to test the vehicles. Degano and Carraro [7,8], based on the torque profiles of selected
driving cycles, determined some representative operating points of traction motors for PMa-SynRM
global optimization. Nguyen and Wang [6,9] proposed a method to calculate the losses and to
optimize the design of a surface-mounted PM motors (SPMSM), according to a selected driving
cycle. Sarigiannidis [10,11] evaluated the energy consumption, optimized the design, and compared
the performance of a fractional-slot concentrated-winding SPMSM and IPMSM based on the New
European Drive Cycle (NEDC). Yang [12] determined the target torque and the speed curve based
on a driving scenario and the design for an axial-flux permanent magnet (AFPM) was optimized to
minimize energy consumption. Most of these studies focused on evaluating and minimizing the losses
and energy consumption of traction motors. However, the evaluation of traction motor designs by
employing driving cycle test results has not been comprehensively studied. The performance of an
IPMSM was evaluated using a driving cycle [13]; however, the thermal issue was not considered for
the traction motor to satisfy the driving cycle. Thermal imaging was employed in diagnosis of faults
that are related to temperature rise for industrial induction motors [14,15]. The thermal problem can
be even more crucial for traction motors with high performance operations, and therefore, the thermal
analysis is considered to be critical. The design factors of tractions motors should involve flux linkages,
inductances, torque generation, and thermal condition. More study is also required for EV tractions
while using PMa-SynRM.
This paper compares two IPMSMs and one PMa-SynRM (all using rare-earth magnet) that are
based on two standard driving cycles: the Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule (UDDS) and
Highway Fuel Economy Driving Schedule (HWFET) [16]. These driving cycles are employed to
comprehensively test the traction motor performance in terms of torque, efficiency, and thermal
condition. The torque–speed envelope is derived under the current and voltage limits that the inverter
can supply. Thermal analysis is performed to check the temperature of the magnets and windings
under various loading conditions. Based on the analysis, the benefits and the disadvantages of the
IPMSMs and PMa-SynRM for EV tractions can be fully elaborated. Some suggestions regarding the
design of EV traction motors are provided. Finally, experiments are conducted to verify the analysis.

2. Target Traction Motors and EV

As previously mentioned, two IPMSMs and one PMa-SynRM with rare-earth magnet are
investigated. Among these motors, the PMa-SynRM is a less-magnet option with a dominant reluctance
torque. This would make its torque performance at high speed different to that of the IPMSMs,
whose electromagnetic torque dominates. For fair comparison, some design constraints for the motors
are listed, as follows:

(a) output power: greater or equal to 10 kW (this makes a total power of 20 kW for the EVs.
Explained later);
(b) torque density: greater or equal to 30 Nm/L;
(c) maximum current density: 16–17 Arms /mm2 ;
(d) outer stator diameter: 160 mm;
(e) air gap: 0.5 mm;
(f) number of slots: 36;
(g) winding configuration: distributed winding; and,
(h) efficiency: greater or equal to 95%.

Figure 1a shows the design of the IPMSM with double-layers PM. This rotor design can reduce
the torque ripple due to the harmonics that are induced by the flux barriers/magnets with the stator
Energies 2018, 11, 1385 3 of 24

Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 24

teeth. The reluctance torque can also be improved although the electromagnetic torque (hereafter
called
called PM torque) may
PM torque) may be be slightly
slightly reduced.
reduced.TheThegreater
greaternumber
numberofofmagnet
magnetpoles
polesusually
usuallygenerates
generatesa
ahigher
highertorque
torquefor
forthe
thesame
samecurrent
currentlevel;
level;however,
however,ititalso
alsorequires
requiresmore
moreroom
roomfor
foreach
eachpole.
pole.

Figure 1.
Figure 1. Traction
Traction motors
motors using
using rare-earth
rare-earth permanent
permanent magnet
magnet (PM): (a) double-layers
(PM): (a) double-layers interior
interior
permanent magnet
permanent magnet synchronous
synchronous machines
machines (IPMSM).
(IPMSM). Rotor
Rotor material:
material: 50CS1300.
50CS1300. Stator
Stator material:
material:
25CS1500HF; (b)
25CS1500HF; (b) V-shaped
V-shaped IPMSM.
IPMSM. Rotor
Rotor material:
material:35CS550.
35CS550.Stator material:
Stator material:25CS1500HF;
25CS1500HF; and,and,
(c)
PM-assisted synchronous reluctance motors (PMa-SynRM). Rotor material: 50CS1300.
(c) PM-assisted synchronous reluctance motors (PMa-SynRM). Rotor material: 50CS1300. Stator Stator material:
25CS1500HF.
material: Permanent
25CS1500HF. magnet: magnet:
Permanent NdFeB-N35H, Br = 1.2TB@r =201.2T
NdFeB-N35H, °C, @
Hc20 ◦ C, H
= 915 kA/m. AllkA/m.
of the All
cases are
c = 915 of the
distributed
cases windings.windings.
are distributed

The V-shaped IPMSM that is shown in Figure 1b is known to possess the advantages of flux
The V-shaped IPMSM that is shown in Figure 1b is known to possess the advantages of flux
weakening capability [17]. The PM position and dimension for the V-shaped design are also arranged
weakening capability [17]. The PM position and dimension for the V-shaped design are also arranged
to satisfy the constraints given previously. The iron loss of the V-shaped design is expected to be
to satisfy the constraints given previously. The iron loss of the V-shaped design is expected to be
greater than that of the double-layers one because the harmonics in the air gap flux density
greater than that of the double-layers one because the harmonics in the air gap flux density distribution
distribution may increase the stator core loss.
may increase the stator core loss.
Figure 1c shows the design of the PMa-SynRM using rare earth PM with each piece having the
Figure 1c shows the design of the PMa-SynRM using rare earth PM with each piece having the
same dimension. This PMa-SynRM adopts five flux barriers per pole to reduce the torque ripple and
same dimension. This PMa-SynRM adopts five flux barriers per pole to reduce the torque ripple and
to increase the reluctance torque. Only four of the barriers are filled with PMs (except the outermost
to increase the reluctance torque. Only four of the barriers are filled with PMs (except the outermost
one) for each pole, as seen in Figure 1c.
one) for each pole, as seen in Figure 1c.
Using thin electrical steel laminations for motor core would reduce iron losses and enhance
Using thin electrical steel laminations for motor core would reduce iron losses and enhance
traction motor efficiency [18,19]. However, thin laminations are usually expensive [18]. Therefore, as
traction motor efficiency [18,19]. However, thin laminations are usually expensive [18]. Therefore,
a compromise between loss reduction and material cost, thin laminations can be used for the stator
as a compromise between loss reduction and material cost, thin laminations can be used for the stator
(with alternating flux) and common laminations (e.g., thicker with a possible higher saturation flux
(with alternating flux) and common laminations (e.g., thicker with a possible higher saturation flux
density) are for the rotor. This may improve the efficiency by 2% to 2.5%, as demonstrated in [19].
density) are for the rotor. This may improve the efficiency by 2% to 2.5%, as demonstrated in [19].
This idea is adopted here. In Figure 1, thin laminations (20CS1500HF) are employed for the stator due
This idea is adopted here. In Figure 1, thin laminations (20CS1500HF) are employed for the stator due
to the alternating flux that generates significant iron losses and other materials (50CS1300 or 35CS550)
to the alternating flux that generates significant iron losses and other materials (50CS1300 or 35CS550)
are utilized in the rotors. Note that all of the laminations are produced by China Steel Corporation in
are utilized in the rotors. Note that all of the laminations are produced by China Steel Corporation
Taiwan. The Neodymium Iron Boron (NdFeB) magnet used for all the three motors is N35H with a
in Taiwan. The Neodymium Iron Boron (NdFeB) magnet used for all the three motors is N35H with
remanence (Br) and coercive force (Hc) of 1.2 T and 915 kA/m, respectively.
a remanence (Br ) and coercive force (Hc ) of 1.2 T and 915 kA/m, respectively.
The main specifications and parameters of the motors are given in Table 1. As can be seen, the
The main specifications and parameters of the motors are given in Table 1. As can be seen,
PMa-SynRM is axially longer than the other two. All of the motors are designed to meet the
the PMa-SynRM is axially longer than the other two. All of the motors are designed to meet the
prescribed minimum requirements. Note that the design processes are not the focus in this paper,
prescribed minimum requirements. Note that the design processes are not the focus in this paper,
and thus will not be detailed here.
and thus will not be detailed here.
As shown in Figure 2, two traction motors, one in the front, and the other the rear drivetrains,
As shown in Figure 2, two traction motors, one in the front, and the other the rear drivetrains,
are employed to a light-duty vehicle and each is connected to the front or rear axles via a differential.
are employed to a light-duty vehicle and each is connected to the front or rear axles via a differential.
With the driving independence of the front and rear wheels, this offers advantages, such as fault
With the driving independence of the front and rear wheels, this offers advantages, such as fault
tolerance, excellent safety, and enhanced steering ability with an appropriate distribution of driving
tolerance, excellent safety, and enhanced steering ability with an appropriate distribution of driving
torque to the front and rear wheels according to operating conditions. This also helps to improve the
torque to the front and rear wheels according to operating conditions. This also helps to improve
stability of the vehicle by precisely distributing the braking torque to the front and rear wheels upon
the detection of a wheel slip or wheel lock [20]. Table 2 lists the parameters of the target EV. The
Energies 2018, 11, 1385 4 of 24
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 24

the stability
analysis of the
process forvehicle by precisely
the traction motors distributing the braking
while considering drivingtorque
cyclestoisthe front and rear
summarized wheels
in the flow
upon the detection of
chart shown in Figure 3. a wheel slip or wheel lock [20]. Table 2 lists the parameters of the target EV.
The analysis process for the traction motors while considering driving cycles is summarized in the
flow chart shown in Figure 3. Table 1. Motor specifications.

Parameter (Unit) Double Layers V-Shaped PMa-SynRM

Table 1. Motor specifications.
Max. power (kW) 10 10 10
Max. torque (Nm)
Parameter (Unit) Double 56Layers 56
V-Shaped 65
PMa-SynRM
Max. speed (rpm) 7000 7000 7000
Max. power (kW) 10 10 10
Rated
Max.power
torque(kW)(Nm) 6.6
56 6.6
56 65 6.6
Rated
Max.torque
speed(Nm)(rpm) 30
7000 700030 700030
Base speed @Rated
maximumpower (kW)torque (rpm) 6.6
≥1800 6.6
≥1800 6.6≥1500
Rated torque (Nm) 30 30 30
Base speed @ rated torque (rpm) ≥2100 ≥2100 ≥2100
Base speed @ maximum torque (rpm) ≥1800 ≥1800 ≥1500
No.@ofrated
Base speed slotstorque (rpm) 36
≥2100 36
≥2100 ≥2100 36
No.No.
of poles
of slots 368 368 36 4
No.No.
of ofturns
poles 84 85 4 6
Max.No. of turns
current (A) 4
110 5100 6 80
Max. current (A) 110 100 80
Outer rotor diameter (mm) 94 109 94
Outer rotor diameter (mm) 94 109 94
Stack length
Stack length (mm)
(mm) 86
86 9090 120120
Coil pitch
Coil pitch 4 33 9 9
PM amount per pole (mm 3) 7740 8100 5760
PM amount per pole (mm ) 3 7740 8100 5760
Current
Current density
density @@ ratedtorque
rated (A/mm22))
torque (A/mm 8.3
8.3 8.3
8.3 8.3 8.3

Figure
Figure 2.
2. Schematic
Schematic of
of aa front
front and
and rear
rear drives of light-duty
drives of light-duty vehicle.
vehicle.

Table 2. Vehicle specifications.

Table 2. Vehicle specifications.
Parameter (Unit) Value
Parameter
Radius (Unit) (m)
of wheels Value
0.265
Radius
Vehicleof wheels (m)
mass (kg) 0.265
950
Vehicle mass (kg)
Mass correction coefficient 950
1.04
Mass correction coefficient 1.04
Gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
Gravitational acceleration (m/s2 )
9.8
9.8
Rolling resistancecoefficient
Rolling resistance coefficient 0.011
0.011
Airmass
Air massdensity
density (kg/m
(kg/m 3 ) 3) 1.225
1.225
Aerodynamic drag coefficient
Aerodynamic drag coefficient 0.4
0.4
Vehicle frontal 2) 2.14
Vehicle frontalarea
area(m(m 2) 2.14
Differential gear ratio 7
Differential
Battery pack nominal gear ratio (V)
voltage 7
310
Battery pack nominal voltage (V) 310
Energies 2018, 11, 1385 5 of 24
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 24

Figure
Figure 3.
3. The
The analysis
analysis process
process for
for traction
traction motors
motors with
with driving cycle.
driving cycle.

3. Theoretical Background
3. Theoretical Background
To satisfy the required performance of the EV shown in Table 2 and Figure 2, the designed
To satisfy the required performance of the EV shown in Table 2 and Figure 2, the designed motors
motors should possess
should possess excellentexcellent capabilities
capabilities in terms in terms of flux-weakening
of flux-weakening and peak and peak
torque torque
output output
under the
under the inverter current and voltage limits. Thus, the first constraint is the maximum current
inverter current and voltage limits. Thus, the first constraint is the maximum current and the maximum
and
the maximum voltage for the IPMSMs and PMa-SynRM, which can be given by [21]:
voltage for the IPMSMs and PMa-SynRM, which can be given by [21]:
I s q Id 2  Iq 2  I s _ max (1)
Is = Id 2 + Iq 2 ≤ Is_max (1)

2 2 V V
 
q
Vs_max = p p ( L L
Vs _ max I
d
d d
m )2 + LqLI q I
2 ≤ DC
I d+ λ
m q q √ DC (2)
(2)
3s3ωs

where IIss and

where and IIs_max are armature
s_max are armature current
current andand the
the maximum
maximum current
current provided
provided by by the
the inverter,
inverter,
respectively; IIdd and
respectively; and IIqq are d- and
are d- q-axis currents,
and q-axis currents, respectively; Ldd and
respectively; L and LLqq are d- and
are d- q-axis inductances,
and q-axis inductances,
p number of pole pair; λ m is PM flux linkage; ω s is rotor speed; V
respectively; p is number of pole pair; λm is PM flux linkage; ωs is rotor speed; Vs_max is maximum
respectively; is s_max is maximum
phase voltage;
phase voltage; and,and, V VDC
DCisisbattery
batteryvoltage
voltageapplied
appliedto tothe
theinverter.
inverter.
The induced
The induced back back electromotive
electromotive force
force at
at the
the maximum
maximum speed
speed isis determined
determined by:by:
VVDC
E=
E pλ
pmmω
s_max
s _ max 
√
≤ DC (3)
(3)
33
where EE is the induced back
back electromotive
electromotive force
force (BEMF)
(BEMF) and
and ω
ωs_max ismaximum
s_max is maximumrotor
rotorspeed.
speed.
To maximize
To maximize the
the flux
flux weakening
weakening capability
capability and constant-power speed
and constant-power speed range
range that
that is
is required
required by
by
the traction motor, the
the following
following ideal
ideal condition
condition should
should be
be satisfied
satisfied [21]:
[21]:
 LLd IIs
λmm = (4)
(4)
d s

for IPMSM and

for IPMSM and
 LLqqIIss
λmm = (5)
(5)

for PMa-SynRM [22]. However, this is only an ideal condition. Practically, the stator flux linkage
should be carefully designed with a limit, so that PM would not be demagnetized. If the design cannot
Energies 2018, 11, 1385 6 of 24

for PMa-SynRM [22]. However, this is only an ideal condition. Practically, the stator flux linkage
should be carefully designed with a limit, so that PM would not be demagnetized. If the design
cannot fully meet the conditions in Equations (4) or (5), a reasonable high constant power speed range
can still be achieved if the values of both sides are as close as possible. Note that the conventional
d-q-axis definitions with respect to PM flux linkage are different for IPMSMs and PMa-SynRMs [21,22],
since the IPMSM is essentially a PM motor, while the PMa-SynRM is basically a SynRM with enhanced
performance using PMs. Note that the definitions of d- and q-axis for the two types of motors are
indicated in Figure 1, and these are used for all of the analysis and results that are presented.
Traction motors should be maintained at high efficiency for a speed range that is as wide as
possible. This may be achieved by employing the maximum torque per ampere (MTPA) control at low
speed for peak torque and the flux weakening control at high speed. For a wider speed range, a lower
back EMF is needed (i.e., lower λm ), and this indicates an increase of d-axis inductance and reluctance
torque referring to Equation (4) for IPMSMs [22]. For the two types of motors, the output torque can
be calculated by [6]:

T = 32p λd Id , Iq Iq − λq Id , Iq Id




λ ( I ,Iq )−λd ( Id =0,Iq ) λq ( Id ,Iq )
= 23 p λd Id = 0, Iq Iq + d d


Id Id Iq − Iq Id Iq (6)
3




= 2 p λm Iq Iq + Ld Id , Iq − Lq Id , Iq Id Iq

where λd and λq are, respectively, d- and q-axis flux linkage, p is number of pole pair, Id and Iq are,
respectively, d- and q-axis currents excitations.
The flux linkages of the motors can be defined by:



λm Iq = λd Id = 0, Iq (7)




λd Id , Iq = Ld Id , Iq Id + λm Iq (8)



λq Id , Iq = Lq Id , Iq Iq (9)

It can be seen from Equations (1)–(6) that a small value of pλm is preferred for low induced BEMF
at high speed. In contrast, a large value is desirable for high torque and high efficiency. Therefore,
the PMa-SynRMs may require higher total electric loading than that for IPMSMs to achieve the same
torque that is required.

4. Performance Evaluation of Traction Motors

The design characteristics of the two types of motors under no-load and load conditions are
evaluated using finite element analysis (FEA). The PM flux linkage at no-load is given in Figure 4.
As can be seen in Figure 4a, the PM flux linkage of the V-shaped IPMSM is higher than that of
the double-layer one. This is due to a higher amount of PM that is used in the V-shaped design.
However, the total torque of the two IPMSMs is designed to be equivalent at the same current
density by using full coil pitch windings on the double-layer IPMSM and the short-pitch windings
for the V-shaped one. Figure 4b shows the PM flux linkage at no-load of the PMa-SynRM, which is
apparently smaller than that of the IPMSM. The major torque of IPMSMs is contributed by PM flux.
This is different for PMa-SynRM, whose torque mainly comes from the flux linkage that is produced
by current excitation. Thus, using large amount of PM does not help improve the output torque
of the PMa-SynRM, but increase the material cost [5]. Therefore, the PM volume in PMa-SynRM
should be kept small, but the risk of demagnetization should be avoided by maintaining the required
performance [5].
Inductance variation plays a critical role in the speed range of the IPMSM and PMa-SynRM,
as indicated in Equations (4) and (5). Therefore, accurate calculation of the inductance variation in the
entire operating range is necessary, especially when saturation occurs. Figures 5–7 show the inductance
Energies 2018, 11, 1385 7 of 24
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 24
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 24

inductance
variation for entire
for the the double-layer IPMSM
operating range. Asiscan
smaller than that
be observed, theof the V-shaped
variation one. This
of the d-axis might be
inductance for
inductance for the double-layer IPMSM is smaller than that of the V-shaped one. This might be
partially
the causedIPMSM
double-layer by the iron bridges
is smaller in that
than the V-shaped rotor that
of the V-shaped one.creates additional
This might flux paths.
be partially caused This
by
partially caused by the iron bridges in the V-shaped rotor that creates additional flux paths. This
leads to a higher saliency ratio and a wider speed range for the double-layer case, where
the iron bridges in the V-shaped rotor that creates additional flux paths. This leads to a higher saliency the saliency
leads to a higher saliency ratio and a wider speed range for the double-layer case, where the saliency
ratioand
ratio S isadefined as: range for the double-layer case, where the saliency ratio S is defined as:
wider speed
ratio S is defined as:
S  Lq Ld (10)
SS=  Lqq /L
Ldd (10)
(10)
for IPMSM, or
forIPMSM,
for IPMSM,or or
SS= LLd /LL (11)
(11)
S  Ld Lqqq (11)
for
forPMa-SynRM.
PMa-SynRM.The Theinductance
inductancevariation
variation in
in Figure 7 shows aa high high saliency
saliencyratio
ratioofofthe
thePMa-SynRM.
PMa-SynRM.
for PMa-SynRM. The inductance variation in Figure 7 shows a high saliency ratio of the PMa-SynRM.
This indicates that the high reluctance torque can
This indicates that the high reluctance torque can help help to maintain the operation at high speed
operation at high speed for forthe
the
This indicates that the high reluctance torque can help to maintain the operation at high speed for the
PMa-SynRM.
PMa-SynRM.
PMa-SynRM.

Figure 4. Comparison of PM flux linkage of IPMSM and PMa-SynRM: (a) IPMSM and (b) PMa-
Figure4.4.Comparison
Figure Comparisonofof PM
PMflux linkage
flux of IPMSM
linkage and and
of IPMSM PMa-SynRM: (a) IPMSM
PMa-SynRM: and (b)
(a) IPMSM andPMa-SynRM.
(b) PMa-
SynRM. Reference angle starts from q-axis.
Reference angle starts from q-axis.
SynRM. Reference angle starts from q-axis.

Figure 5. d-q-axis inductance of double-layer PM IPMSM: (a) Ld, (b) Lq.

Figure5.5.d-q-axis
Figure d-q-axis inductance
inductance of
of double-layer
double-layer PM
PM IPMSM:
IPMSM: (a)
(a) LLdd,,(b)
(b)LLq.q .
Energies 2018, 11, 1385 8 of 24
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 24

Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 24

FigureFigure 6. d-q-axis inductance of V-shaped PM IPMSM: (a) Ld, (b) Lq.

6. d-q-axis inductance of V-shaped PM IPMSM: (a) Ld , (b) Lq .
Figure 6. d-q-axis inductance of V-shaped PM IPMSM: (a) Ld, (b) Lq.

Figure
Figure7.7.d-q-axis
d-q-axisinductance
inductance of PMa-SynRM:
PMa-SynRM:(a)
(a)LdL, d(b)
, (b)LqL. q.
Figure 7. d-q-axis inductance of PMa-SynRM: (a) Ld , (b) Lq .
Figure
Figure 8 showsthe
8 shows theflux
fluxlinkage
linkage characteristics
characteristics of of the
the IPMSM
IPMSM(double-layer)
(double-layer)with withdifferent
different
current
current excitations
excitations andandphase
phaseangles
anglesthatthat were
were calculated
calculated using usingEquations
Equations(7)–(9) (7)–(9) based
based ononthethe
PMPM
Figureflux8 shows
linkage
the
and
flux linkage
inductance
characteristics
previously obtained.
ofIt
the
is
IPMSM
observed
(double-layer)
that the IPMSM can
with
be
different
potentially
current
flux linkage and inductance previously obtained. It is observed that the IPMSM can be potentially
excitations and phase
demagnetizedwith
demagnetized
angles
withhigh that were
highcurrent calculated
current excitation
excitation and using
and deep Equations
deep flux flux weakening.
(7)–(9)
weakening.Therefore,
based on
Therefore,thethe
the PM
armature flux
armature
linkage
and inductance
current,
current, previously
current
current angle,
angle, obtained.
torquefor
torque It
forMTPA
MTPAis observed
control, and
control, andthat flux
flux the IPMSMoperations
weakening
weakening can be potentially
operations should
should bebe demagnetized
carefully
carefully
analyzed excitation
with high current
analyzed in in order to achieve
order and deep
to achieve a asufficient
sufficient and safe speedTherefore,
flux weakening.
and safe speed range. range.Figures the9 9armature
Figures and 10 showcurrent,
and 10 show the calculated
current angle,
the calculated
armature current, current angle, and torque characteristics of the IPMSM for wide speed range. At
armature
torque for MTPA current,
control, current
and angle,
flux and torque characteristics
weakening operations of the IPMSM
should be for wide analyzed
carefully speed range. inAtorder to
the armature current below 54.8 A, the IPMSM cannot achieve the maximum speed (7000 rpm), as
the armature
achieve a sufficient current
and10. below
safe 54.8 A, the IPMSM cannot achieve the maximum speed (7000 rpm), as
shown in Figure Thisspeed
is because range.
the low Figures
armature9 currentand 10 show
cannot the calculated
sufficiently weaken the armature
PM flux current,
shown in Figure 10. This is because the low armature current cannot sufficiently weaken the PM flux
current angle, and the
to extend torque characteristics
operating speed withinof thethe IPMSM
voltage limit. for The wide
PM flux speed
can berange.effectivelyAt weakened
the armature for current
to extend
the the operating
armature current speed than
greater within 54.8theA voltage
(current limit.
density The 9.7PMA(7000flux can be effectively weakened for
rms/mm 2), for the cases beyond which
below 54.8 A, the
theaarmature IPMSMcurrent cannot achieve the maximum speed rpm), as shown in Figure 10. This is
rangegreater
can bethan 54.8 with
A (current density 9.7 Beyond
Arms/mmthe 2), for the cases beyond which
wide speed reached the voltage limit. base speed, the armature
becauseathewide low
currentspeed armature
range can
is maintained
current
andbethe cannot
reached
currentwith
sufficiently
phasethe anglevoltage weaken
limit. for
is increased Beyondthe PM the base
flux weakening
fluxuntilto extend
speed, thethe
the operating
armature
maximum
speed within speed. Note that the base speed depends on the voltage or the power limit. High armature current current
current the
is voltage
maintained limit.
and the The
currentPM flux
phase can
angle be
is effectively
increased for weakened
flux weakening for the
until armature
the maximum
speed. Note Athat
leadtheto abase speed depends 2 ), for
greater than 54.8
would also (current density
low base speed.9.7 A rmson
Figure /mm the
10 voltage
shows or
thatthethethe
cases
IPMSMpower beyond
hitslimit. High
which
the voltage armature at a current
a wide
limit speed range
base
can be reached with the voltage limit. Beyond the base speed, the armature current isamaintained
would
speed also
of lead
2500 to
rpm a low base
(achievable speed.
base Figure
speed), 10
an shows
armature that the
current IPMSMof 54.8 hits
A, the
and voltage
a current limit at
density base
of
speed
9.7 Aofrms2500
/mmrpm (achievable
2 without base speed),
force cooling. an armature
Nevertheless, the speed current
range of of 54.8 A, andcan
the IPMSM a current density
be enhanced if of
and the current phase angle so is that
increased for flux weakening until the maximum speed. Note that the
9.7 better
Arms/mm cooling is usedforce
2 without more current
cooling. can be input
Nevertheless, the speed to improve
rangethe torque
of the IPMSM at high canspeed.
be enhanced if
base speed
betterdepends
Contrarily,
cooling ison
usedthe
the so voltage
that moreor
PMa-SynRM canthe
current power
achieve
can be limit.
theinput
maximum toHigh speed
improve armature
(7000
the rpm)
torque current
atwith
highlow would
armature
speed. also lead to
a low basecurrent
speed.
Contrarily, Figure
(lower than10
the 40shows
A) for the
PMa-SynRM thatcanthe
MTPA IPMSM
and
achieve flux hits the operations,
theweakening
maximum voltage
speed (7000 limit at a with
as shown
rpm) base
in speed
Figures
low of 2500 rpm
11 and
armature
(achievable 12.
current This
base (loweris due
speed), thantoanthe
40 lowforPM
armature
A) theflux linkage,
current
MTPA and which
of flux
54.8 A,can
weakeningand be a easily
current weakened
operations, density withofa9.7
as shown small
Armsarmature
in Figures /mm11 and2 without
12. current.
This is Therefore,
due to the the
low torque-speed
PM flux curve can
linkage, which be canextendedbe under
easily voltage limit
weakened with toa asmall
high armature
speed.
force cooling. Nevertheless, the speed range of the IPMSM can be enhanced if better cooling is used so
However, the base speed reduces at maximum torque where the voltage saturates due to the high
current. Therefore, the torque-speed curve can be extended under voltage limit to a high speed.
that more current can be input to improve the torque at high speed.
However, the base speed reduces at maximum torque where the voltage saturates due to the high
Contrarily, the PMa-SynRM can achieve the maximum speed (7000 rpm) with low armature
current (lower than 40 A) for the MTPA and flux weakening operations, as shown in Figures 11 and 12.
This is due to the low PM flux linkage, which can be easily weakened with a small armature current.
Therefore, the torque-speed curve can be extended under voltage limit to a high speed. However,
the base speed reduces at maximum torque where the voltage saturates due to the high current and
winding resistance. The high current weakens the PM flux and it increases the reluctance torque,
leading to speed extension under the voltage limit.
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 24
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 24

current2018,
Energies and11,
winding
1385 resistance. The high current weakens the PM flux and it increases the reluctance
9 of 24
current and winding resistance. The high current weakens the PM flux and it increases the reluctance
torque, leading to speed extension under the voltage limit.
torque, leading to speed extension under the voltage limit.

Figure 8. Flux linkage variations on (a) d- and (b) q-axis of IPMSM with respect to current and current
Figure Fluxlinkage
Figure 8. Flux linkagevariations
variations
onon
(a) (a) d- and
d- and (b) q-axis
(b) q-axis of IPMSM
of IPMSM with respect
with respect to current
to current and
and current
angle.
current
angle. angle.

Figure 9. (a) Current and (b) current angle variation of IPMSM with speed.
Figure 9.
Figure 9. (a)
(a) Current
Current and
and (b)
(b) current
current angle
angle variation
variation of
of IPMSM
IPMSM with
with speed.
speed.
Energies 2018, 11, 1385 10 of 24
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 24
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 24

Figure 10. (a) Torque-current angle and (b) torque-speed curves of IPMSM.
Figure 10.(a)
Figure10. (a)Torque-current
Torque-current angle
angle and (b) torque-speed
torque-speedcurves
curvesofofIPMSM.
IPMSM.

Figure 11. (a) Current and (b) current angle variations of PMa-SynRM with speed.
Figure 11. (a) Current and (b) current angle variations of PMa-SynRM with speed.
Figure 11. (a) Current and (b) current angle variations of PMa-SynRM with speed.
Energies 2018, 11, 1385 11 of 24
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 24

Figure 12. The torque-speed curves of PMa-SynRM.

Figure 12. The torque-speed curves of PMa-SynRM.

5. Driving Cycle Applications

5. Driving Cycle Applications
The combination of UDDS and HWFET driving cycles is used to evaluate the traction motor
The combination of UDDS and HWFET driving cycles is used to evaluate the traction motor
performance based on the vehicle specifications, including the battery and the drivetrain properties,
performance based on the vehicle specifications, including the battery and the drivetrain properties,
as shown in Table 2. The combined UDDS and HWFET is converted into traction motor speed, as
as shown in Table 2. The combined UDDS and HWFET is converted into traction motor speed,
shown in Figure 13a. The UDDS is suitable for urban lightweight vehicles with 23 start-stop cycles
as shown in Figure 13a. The UDDS is suitable for urban lightweight vehicles with 23 start-stop cycles
and a maximum speed of 91.2 km/h. There are two phases of speed: a “cold start” phase of 505 s for
and a maximum speed of 91.2 km/h. There are two phases of speed: a “cold start” phase of 505 s
a distance of 5.78 km with 41.2 km/h average speed, and a “transient phase” of 864 s in the total
for a distance of 5.78 km with 41.2 km/h average speed, and a “transient phase” of 864 s in the total
duration of 1369 s. The HWFET is used to test the thermal condition of the traction motors without
duration of 1369 s. The HWFET is used to test the thermal condition of the traction motors without
stop cycles. It is suitable for highway driving with an average speed of 77 km/h and a peak speed of
stop cycles. It is suitable for highway driving with an average speed of 77 km/h and a peak speed of
97 km/h in a total duration of 765 s and 16.45 km route [16].
97 km/h in a total duration of 765 s and 16.45 km route [16].
The torque of the traction motor should be generated and delivered to satisfy the vehicle
The torque of the traction motor should be generated and delivered to satisfy the vehicle dynamics
dynamics during the operation of the prescribed driving cycles, i.e., short-term overload (peak)
during the operation of the prescribed driving cycles, i.e., short-term overload (peak) torque output
torque output for acceleration/climbing, and the effective energy utilization in the medium- and high-
for acceleration/climbing, and the effective energy utilization in the medium- and high-speed ranges.
speed ranges. Therefore, the root-mean-square (RMS) torque is defined to relate the operating
Therefore, the root-mean-square (RMS) torque is defined to relate the operating condition to the
condition to the thermal limits of the traction motors in the driving cycle, as given by [8]:
thermal limits of the traction motors in the driving cycle, as given by [8]:
t
v 1 2 2
Trms u ZTt2 (t )dt (12)
ut
1 t1
u cycle 2
Trms = t T (t)dt (12)
tcycle
where tcycle is the time period of the entire driving cycle t 1 and T(t) is the instantaneous torque.

Figure 13 shows the motor speed, load torque, and power in the motor mode, and the
where tcycle is the
regenerative time period
braking mode of the entire
over driving cycle
the combined UDDS andandT(t) is the instantaneous
HYFET torque.
driving cycles, where the
Figure 13 shows the motor speed, load torque, and power in the motor
maximum speed is 97 km/h. It can be seen that for the target vehicle, the driving cycle requires a mode, and the regenerative
braking
maximum mode overand
torque thepeak
combined
powerUDDS and HYFET60
of approximately driving
Nm and cycles,
20 kW, where the maximum
respectively. speedthe
However, is
97 km/h. It can be seen that for the target vehicle, the driving cycle requires
RMS torque is about 29.5 Nm and the average power is only 5.4 kW for the whole cycle. Note that a maximum torque and
peak powerand
the torque of power
approximately 60 Nm by
that is required andthe20vehicle
kW, respectively.
calculated above However, the RMS
is assumed torque
to be evenly isshared
about
29.5 Nm and the average power is only 5.4 kW for the whole cycle. Note that
by the front and rear motors, as seen in Figure 2. Therefore, the motor specifications in Table 1 satisfy the torque and power
that
this is required
vehicle byprescribed
if the the vehicledriving
calculated
cyclesabove is assumed
are used. to be evenlyofshared
The performance by the and
the IPMSMs frontPMa-
and
rear
SynRMmotors,
will beas seen in Figure
evaluated based 2. on
Therefore,
the torque theand
motorpower specifications in Table
that is required for 1the
satisfy this vehicle
prescribed drivingif
the prescribed driving cycles are used. The performance of the IPMSMs
cycles. Note that, practically, this lightweight vehicle may not be suitable for highway driving. and PMa-SynRM will be
evaluated
However, basedit wouldon make
the torque andreference
a useful power that is required
if the highwayfor the prescribed
driving driving in
can be included cycles. Note that,
the analysis for
practically, this lightweight vehicle
design considerations of traction motors. may not be suitable for highway driving. However, it would make
a useful reference if the highway driving can be included in the analysis for design considerations of
traction motors.
Energies 2018, 11, 1385 12 of 24
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 24

Figure 13. Motor (a) speed; (b) torque; and, (c) power over the driving cycles.
Figure 13. Motor (a) speed; (b) torque; and, (c) power over the driving cycles.
6. Comparison of Motor Performance in Driving Cycles
6. Comparison of Motor Performance in Driving Cycles
Again, the FEA (JMAG software) is used for simulation of the motor electromagnetic
Again, the FEA
performance. (JMAG
Figure software)
14 shows theistorque-speed
used for simulation
curves ofof the motor
IPMSMelectromagnetic
(double-layer) performance.
and PMa-
Figure 14 shows
SynRM under the torque-speed
the curves ofconditions,
peak and continuous the IPMSMwhere(double-layer)
the maximum and PMa-SynRM
torque of the under
IPMSM the peak
and
and PMa-SynRM is 57 Nm and
continuous conditions, where68 the
Nm, respectively.
maximum Theofrated
torque conditions
the IPMSM and of the motors isshould
PMa-SynRM 57 Nmbeand
determined
68 Nm, usingThe
respectively. thermal
ratedanalysis, which
conditions ofwill
the be discussed
motors later.
should beNevertheless,
determined at this stage,
using thermal theanalysis,
rated
whichtorque
will of
beboth types oflater.
discussed motors is preliminarily
Nevertheless, determined
at this byrated
stage, the the root-mean-square torqueofthat
torque of both types was is
motors
calculated from the driving cycles using Equation (12), which is 29.5 Nm. Then,
preliminarily determined by the root-mean-square torque that was calculated from the driving cycles beyond the rated
usingtorque in Figure
Equation (12),14, the speed
which is 29.5gradually
Nm. Then, increases
beyond bythe
increasing the current
rated torque angles
in Figure 14,for
theflux weakening
speed gradually
with the same current amplitude. Thus, the two IPMSMs have similar characteristics.
increases by increasing the current angles for flux weakening with the same current amplitude. Thus,
the two IPMSMs have similar characteristics.
Energies 2018, 11, 1385 13 of 24
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 24

Figure 14. Torque distribution profiles for (a) IPMSMs and (b) PMa-SynRMs over the driving cycles.
Figure 14. Torque distribution profiles for (a) IPMSMs and (b) PMa-SynRMs over the driving cycles.

It can be seen in Figure 14, that, under the UDDS and HWFET driving cycles, some operating
pointsIt are
canhigher
be seen in Figure
than the rated 14,conditions
that, under of the
bothUDDS
the IPMSMand HWFET driving cycles,
and PMa-SynRM. For thesome operating
PMa-SynRM,
points are higher than the rated conditions of both the IPMSM and
some operating points are even out of the maximum capability. This appears that the 10 kW PMa- PMa-SynRM. For the PMa-SynRM,
some operating
SynRM is insufficientpoints forare
highevenspeedoutoperation
of the maximumof the vehiclescapability.
due to This appears
the small thatEven
torque. the 10 for kW
the
PMa-SynRM is insufficient for high speed operation of the vehicles
IPMSM, the rated power is slightly too low for high speed driving. It should be noted that operation due to the small torque. Even for
thehighway
in IPMSM, the mode rated powerlasts
usually is slightly too low
for a long for high
period speed
so that thedriving. It should be
rated condition of noted that operation
the traction motors
in highway mode usually lasts for a long period so that the rated
should cover this driving cycle. From the previous results, it is found that the PMa-SynRM seems condition of the traction motorsto
should
be cover
suitable forthis
lowdriving
speed cycle.
operation, Fromsuch
the previous
as urban results,
bus, since it isitsfound
output that the PMa-SynRM
power drops at high seems to
speed.
be contrast,
In suitable for thelow IPMSMspeed operation,
can be easilysuch as urban
improved for bus,
highsince
speeditsoperation
output power drops at high
by improving speed.
the cooling
In contrast, the IPMSM can be easily improved for high speed operation
capability or modifying the design (no forced cooling so far). This accounts for the importance of by improving the cooling
capability
thermal or modifying
design and analysis, the design
which (nowillforced coolinglater.
be discussed so far).Note This
thataccounts
the datafor the importance
sampling time is one of
thermalfor
second design
all ofand analysis, which
the operating pointswill
of bothbe discussed later. (i.e.,
driving cycles Noteallthat the dots
of the datain sampling
Figure 14).time is one
second for all of the operating points of both driving cycles (i.e.,
Figure 15a,b shows the efficiency map of the double-layers and the V-shaped IPMSMs. The all of the dots in Figure 14).
Figure
highest 15a,b shows
efficiency (dark theredefficiency
regions) for map theoftwo
the double-layers
cases is beyond and 96%theand
V-shaped IPMSMs. Theand
95%, respectively, highest
this
efficiency (dark red regions) for the two cases is beyond 96% and
is within a speed range of 2000 rpm to 4000 rpm and a torque lower than 30 Nm. The double-layers 95%, respectively, and this is within
a speed range
IPMSM of 2000 higher
has a slightly rpm to efficiency
4000 rpm and for aawider
torqueoperating
lower than 30 Nm.
range thanThethe double-layers
V-shaped one.IPMSM This couldhas
a slightly
be due to higher
a higherefficiency for a wider for
total Ampere-turns operating range than
the V-shaped IPMSM. the V-shaped
For the two one. This could
IPMSMs, be due to
the operating
a higher total Ampere-turns for the V-shaped IPMSM. For the two
points for the UDDS driving cycle (blue dots) mostly locate around 2000 rpm to 4000 rpm, where IPMSMs, the operating points for the
the
UDDS driving cycle (blue dots) mostly locate around 2000 rpm to
high efficiency region is. Meanwhile, the operating points for the HWFET driving cycle (green dots)4000 rpm, where the high efficiency
region
fall is. Meanwhile,
within the operating
the lower efficiency points
regions, for the
ranging from HWFET
5000 rpm driving
to 7000 cycle
rpm(green
for thedots)
two fall withinThis
IPMSMs. the
lower efficiency regions, ranging from 5000 rpm to 7000 rpm for the
may be caused by a large part of the armature current that is used to weaken the flux at high speed two IPMSMs. This may be caused
by a large
where deeppart of the
flux armatureiscurrent
weakening requiredthat(Figure
is used 8).to weaken
Contrarily, the flux
the at high speed where
PMa-SynRM achieves deep flux
higher
weakening is required (Figure 8). Contrarily, the PMa-SynRM achieves
efficiency at high speed due to the reduced armature current, as shown in Figure 15c. Therefore, it is higher efficiency at high speed
due to the
suitable forreduced
the HWFET armatureand current,
the higher as shown in Figure 15c.
speed operating points Therefore,
of the UDDSit is suitable
in terms forofthe HWFET
efficiency.
and the
The higher speed
maximum efficiencyoperating
is 95%pointsbeyond of 2000
the UDDS
rpm and in terms of efficiency.
it is maintained Thethe
until maximum
maximum efficiency
speed.
is 95% beyond 2000 rpm and it is maintained until the maximum
However, this PMa-SynRM requires a redesign or decent forced cooling in order to fully cover the speed. However, this PMa-SynRM
operating points of the driving cycles. Again, the data sampling time is also one second here.
Energies 2018, 11, 1385 14 of 24

requires a redesign or decent forced cooling in order to fully cover the operating points of the driving
cycles. Again,
Energies 2018,the
11, xdata sampling
FOR PEER REVIEWtime is also one second here. 14 of 24

Figure 15. Efficiency map of IPMSMs and PMa-SynRM over the driving cycles: (a) double layers
Figure 15. Efficiency map of IPMSMs and PMa-SynRM over the driving cycles: (a) double layers
magnet IPMSM, (b) v-shaped magnets IPMSM, and (c) PMa-SynRM.
magnet IPMSM, (b) v-shaped magnets IPMSM, and (c) PMa-SynRM.
7. Thermal Analysis with Driving Cycle
7. Thermal Analysis with Driving Cycle
Thermal analysis (using MotorCAD) for the IPMSMs and PMa-SynRM is conducted for the
Thermal
prescribedanalysis
driving (using
cycles. MotorCAD)
This would be forcritical
the IPMSMs
for the anddesignPMa-SynRM is conducted
of traction motors for the
since the
performance
prescribed drivingcan be limited
cycles. by thermal
This would conditions.
be critical for theFirst, the operating
design of tractionrange
motorsof the traction
since motors
the performance
forlimited
can be the driving cycles under
by thermal prescribed
conditions. First,temperature
the operating limits (PM:of
range 130
the°C; winding:
traction 140 °C)
motors forwithout
the driving
cycles under prescribed temperature limits (PM: 130 C; winding: 140 C) without forcedvaries
forced cooling is investigated. As shown in Figure 13b, ◦ the output torque of
◦ the traction motors cooling is
significantly within a driving cycle. Therefore, to represent the equivalent effect, the root-mean-
investigated. As shown in Figure 13b, the output torque of the traction motors varies significantly
square torque within a cycle is taken, as calculated by Equation (12). (29.5 Nm, as previously
within a driving cycle. Therefore, to represent the equivalent effect, the root-mean-square torque
discussed).
within a cycle is taken, as calculated by Equation (12). (29.5 Nm, as previously discussed).
Energies 2018, 11, 1385 15 of 24

Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 24

Figure 16 shows the torque-speed profiles under a series of temperature limits in the winding and
Figure 16 shows the torque-speed profiles under a series of temperature limits in the winding
magnet until the maximum limits (PM: 130 ◦ C; winding: 140 ◦ C) for the double-layer IPMSM. It can be
and magnet until the maximum limits (PM: 130 °C; winding: 140 °C) for the double-layer IPMSM. It
seen
canthat the effective
be seen torque oftorque
that the effective this motor
of thiscan achieve
motor 30 Nm 30
can achieve under the temperature
Nm under the temperature of 140of◦ C
limitslimits
for140
winding ◦
°C forand 130 C
winding andfor130
PM. °CNote thatNote
for PM. the PMthatused is N35SH,
the PM used is whose
N35SH,product maximum
whose product operating
maximum
temperature is 150 ◦ C. Similarly, as shown in Figure 17, the effective torque for the V-shaped IPMSM
operating temperature is 150 °C. Similarly, as shown in Figure 17, the effective torque for the V-
canshaped
also achieve 30can
Nm, with a slightly less with
peak amagnet ◦ C. Therefore, the PM of
IPMSM also achieve 30 Nm, slightlytemperature
less peak magnetof 124 temperature of 124 °C.
theTherefore,
V-shapedthe IPMSM is safer than that of the double-layer one, despite a slightly
PM of the V-shaped IPMSM is safer than that of the double-layer one, despite a slightly lower rated torque.
Thelower
analysis
ratedresults
torque.show that the results
The analysis double-layer
show that andthe V-shaped IPMSMs
double-layer can both operate
and V-shaped IPMSMsatcan theboth
rated
condition
operatewithout forcedcondition
at the rated cooling. However, water cooling.
without forced cooling should
However, still water
be employed
coolingtoshould
fully satisfy
still bethe
employed
UDDS, to fully satisfy
and particularly the UDDS,
HWFET drivingandcycles.
particularly HWFET driving cycles.
The thermal analysis for the PMa-SynRM
The thermal analysis for the PMa-SynRM without withoutforced
forcedcooling
coolingisisshown
shownininFigure
Figure18,18,where
wherethe
the motor
motor fails tofails
reachto reach the torque,
the torque, as calculated
as calculated by Equation
by Equation (12).(12). Water
Water cooling
cooling maymay help
help toto reducethe
reduce
the winding
winding and magnet and magnet
temperaturetemperature
and to fitand
intotothe
fitrequirement
into the requirement of the
of the driving driving
cycles cycles
for the for the
PMa-SynRM.
PMa-SynRM.
Nevertheless, Nevertheless,
the magnet the magnet
of PMa-SynRM should ofbePMa-SynRM
redesigned toshould be redesigned to avoid
avoid demagnetization.
demagnetization.
Figure 19 shows the temperature rise of the winding, stator, and PM of all the three motor in
the peak Figure 19 shows theconditions
and continuous temperaturefor risea of the winding,
period. As canstator,
be seen,andthePMwinding
of all the three motor inof
temperature thethe
peak and continuous conditions for a period. As can be seen, the winding temperature of the PMa-
PMa-SynRM is higher than that of the IPMSMs although their current densities are almost the same
SynRM is higher than that of the IPMSMs although their current densities are almost the same
(around 16.5 Arms /mm22 for peak torque). This is because the phase resistance of the PMa-SynRM
(around 16.5 Arms/mm for peak torque). This is because the phase resistance of the PMa-SynRM is
is double that of the IPMSMs. Therefore, the PMa-SynRM can only operate about 4 min at the peak
double that of the IPMSMs. Therefore, the PMa-SynRM can only operate about 4 min at the peak
condition and about 26 min at the rated condition, while the IPMSM can achieve 8 and 40 min,
condition and about 26 min at the rated condition, while the IPMSM can achieve 8 and 40 min,
respectively.
respectively.Also,Also,the thehigh
highwinding
winding temperature
temperature of of the
the PMa-SynRM
PMa-SynRMleads leadstotothe thehigh
highmagnet
magnet
temperature, as shown in Figure 18. The above analysis can also be verified
temperature, as shown in Figure 18. The above analysis can also be verified by the simulation results by the simulation results
with
with the driving cycles, as shown in Figure 20, where the winding temperature of the PMa-SynRM is is
the driving cycles, as shown in Figure 20, where the winding temperature of the PMa-SynRM
higher than
higher thanthat ofof
that IPMSM,
IPMSM,and andtherefore,
therefore,thetheIPMSMs
IPMSMs can can operate
operatemoremoresafely
safelythan
thanthe thePMa-SynRM
PMa-SynRM
forfor
thethe
driving
driving cycles.
cycles.

Figure 16. The temperature distribution profiles for (a) winding and (b) magnet of double-layer
Figure 16. The temperature distribution profiles for (a) winding and (b) magnet of double-layer IPMSM.
IPMSM.
Energies 2018, 11, 1385 16 of 24
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 24
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 24

Figure 17. The temperature distribution profiles for (a) winding and (b) PM of V-shaped IPMSM.
Figure 17.17.The
Figure Thetemperature
temperaturedistribution
distribution profiles for (a)
profiles for (a) winding
windingand
and(b)
(b)PM
PMofofV-shaped
V-shaped IPMSM.
IPMSM.

Figure 18. The temperature distribution profiles for (a) winding and (b) PM of PMa-SynRM.
Figure 18. The temperature distribution profiles for (a) winding and (b) PM of PMa-SynRM.
Figure 18. The temperature distribution profiles for (a) winding and (b) PM of PMa-SynRM.
Energies 2018, 11, 1385 17 of 24
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 24
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 24

Figure 19. The temperature rise for winding and magnet: (a) peak; and, (b) rated/continuous
Figure 19. The temperature rise for winding and magnet: (a) peak; and, (b) rated/continuous
Figure 19. The temperature rise for winding and magnet: (a) peak; and, (b) rated/continuous operations.
operations.
operations.

Figure 20. The temperature rise for winding and magnet: (a) UDDS, and (b) HWFET.
Figure20.
Figure 20.The
Thetemperature
temperaturerise
rise for
for winding
winding and
and magnet:
magnet:(a)
(a)UDDS,
UDDS,and
and(b)(b)
HWFET.
HWFET.
Energies 2018, 11, 1385 18 of 24

8. Discussions
According to the previous analysis, the benefits and drawbacks of the IPMSMs and PMa-SynRM
for EV application are summarized as below:

- The IPMSMs possess the benefit of high PM flux linkage, low armature current, and current angle
to reach the maximum torque. Meanwhile, the torque of PMa-SynRM is almost derived from the
armature current. Therefore, a higher armature current and current angle are applied in order to
generate the maximum torque for PMa-SynRM.
- The PMa-SynRM can achieve very high speed at low armature current because the reluctance
torque and saliency ratio are higher than that of IPMSMs. In addition, the PMa-SynRM has
a higher efficiency at high speed than that of IPMSMs. This is the advantage of PMa-SynRM for
high speed application.
- To produce the same power as the IPMSMs, the PMa-SynRM should be designed with a higher
motor volume than that of the IPMSM. Moreover, higher electrical loading is needed for the
PMa-SynRM, and this can lead to temperature rise that limits the operating range.
- The IPMSMs are more advantageous in urban driving because of their higher performance and
efficiency at lower speed.
- The PMa-SynRM is more suitable than the IPMSM in the highway driving cycle in terms of
efficiency. However, the design should be improved by slightly increasing the PM amount so that
the winding temperature can be brought down and the torque at high speed can be enhanced.
This indicates a better design would lie between the two types of motors that are presented in
this paper in terms of PM amount that is employed or sharing between the PM and reluctance
torques. Moreover, better cooling may be necessary.

9. Experiments
The three motors were fabricated, as shown in Figure 21. The experimental results are shown
in Figures 22 and 23. In Figure 22, the BEMF (peak value) comparison shows that the simulations
and experiments agree well for the three motors. Figure 23 shows the torque and power versus speed
curves for the three motors at the prescribed rated conditions. It can be observed that the motors can
be achieved the 30 Nm rated torque and 6.6 kW rated power. However, the power for the PMa-SynRM
cannot maintain beyond 2100 rpm, while that for the IPMSMs can. Figure 24 shows the efficiency
versus speed curves of the three motors at the rated condition. Note that the three motors were
tested at different times for different projects so the measured speed ranges varied. The measured
maximum efficiency for the double-layers IPMSM, V-shaped IPMSM and PMa-SynRM are 96.7%,
95.6%, and 93%, respectively. The largest error between the simulations and the experiments for
the three motors is about 2.5% (based on the simulations). This indicates that the simulations and
experiments agree well. The error can be attributed to some factors that are not considered in the
simulations (e.g., mechanical losses). Figure 25 shows the peak torque of the IPMSMs and PMa-SynRM
at their own base speeds (Table 1), where all of the motors can achieve the maximum torque with the
maximum current excitation. The comparison in Figure 25 also shows that the FEA and experiments
agree well.
Unlike the thermal imaging method that is presented in [14,15], this paper employed the
thermocouples for temperature measurement of the double-layers IPMSM when considering facility
availability, as the test setup shown in Figure 26. To ensure the safety in the experiments, only a light
load is applied in simulation and measurement with a 34 Arms current, 1800 rpm speed, and 15 Nm
torque for 10 min operation. Figure 27 shows the simulation model and some sample temperatures in
different parts of the motor. Figure 28 shows the comparison between the measurement and simulation
for the motor housing within 10 min operation. Both cases agree well. Although the above experiments
are limited by the laboratory facilities, the accuracy of the simulations is still properly validated. Thus,
the simulations that are presented in this paper should be sufficiently reliable.
Energies 2018, 11, 1385 19 of 24
Energies
Energies 2018,
2018, 11,
11, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 19
19 of
of 24
24

Figure 21.
21. Prototypes
Figure 21.
Figure Prototypes of
Prototypes of IPMSMs
of IPMSMs and
IPMSMs and PMa-SynRM:
and PMa-SynRM: (a)
PMa-SynRM: (a) stator
stator of
of double-layers
double-layers IPMSM
IPMSM withwith winding,
winding,
(b) stator
(b) stator
(b) of
stator of V-Shaped
of V-Shaped IPMSM
V-ShapedIPMSM without
IPMSM without winding,
without winding, (c)
winding, (c) stator
(c) stator of
stator of PMa-SynRM
of PMa-SynRM with
PMa-SynRM with winding,
with winding,
winding, (d)(d) rotor
(d) rotor of
rotor of
of
double-layers
double-layers IPMSM
double-layersIPMSM with
IPMSMwith PM,
withPM,
PM, (e)
(e)(e) rotor
rotor
rotor of V-shaped
of V-shaped
of V-shaped IPMSMIPMSM
IPMSM without
without
without PM, and
PM,(f)and
PM, and (f) rotor
(f)ofrotor
rotor of PMa-
of PMa-
PMa-SynRM
SynRM
SynRM without
without without
PM. PM.
PM.

Figure
Figure 22.
22. Comparison
Comparison of
of back
back electromotive
electromotive force
force (BEMF)
(BEMF) of
of IPMSMs
IPMSMs and
and PMa-SynRM.
PMa-SynRM.
Figure 22. Comparison of back electromotive force (BEMF) of IPMSMs and PMa-SynRM.
Energies 2018, 11, 1385 20 of 24
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 24

Figure 23. Torque-power vs speed curve at rated condition: (a) double layers IPMSM, (b) V-Shaped
Figure 23. Torque-power vs speed curve at rated condition: (a) double layers IPMSM, (b) V-Shaped
IPMSM, and (c) PMa-SynRM.
IPMSM, and (c) PMa-SynRM.
Energies 2018, 11, 1385 21 of 24
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 24

Figure 24. Efficiency vs speed curve at rated condition: (a) double layers IPMSM, (b) V-Shaped
Figure 24. Efficiency vs speed curve at rated condition: (a) double layers IPMSM, (b) V-Shaped IPMSM,
IPMSM, and (c) PMa-SynRM.
and (c) PMa-SynRM.
Energies 2018, 11, 1385 22 of 24
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 22 of 24
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 22 of 24
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 22 of 24

Figure 25. Torque comparison of IPMSMs and PMa-SynRM.

Figure 25. Torque comparison of IPMSMs and PMa-SynRM.
Figure 25. Torque comparison of IPMSMs and PMa-SynRM.
Figure 25. Torque comparison of IPMSMs and PMa-SynRM.

Figure 26. Temperature measurement setup for the double layer IPMSM.
Figure 26. Temperature measurement setup for the double layer IPMSM.
Figure Temperature
26. 26.
Figure Temperaturemeasurement
measurement setup forthe
setup for thedouble
double layer
layer IPMSM.
IPMSM.

Figure 27. Thermal simulation model and temperature for the double layer IPMSM.
Figure 27. Thermal simulation model and temperature for the double layer IPMSM.
Figure 27. Thermal simulation model and temperature for the double layer IPMSM.
Figure 27. Thermal simulation model and temperature for the double layer IPMSM.
Energies 2018, 11, 1385 23 of 24
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 23 of 24

Figure
Figure28.
28.Temperature
TemperatureMeasurement
Measurement of
of double
double layer
layer IPMSM.
IPMSM.

10. Conclusions
10. Conclusions
This paper has investigated the characteristics of IPMSMs and PMa-SynRM in terms of
This paper has investigated the characteristics of IPMSMs and PMa-SynRM in terms of
electromagnetic and thermal performance via driving cycles for EV applications. It is found that the
electromagnetic and thermal performance via driving cycles for EV applications. It is found that
PMa-SynRM has an advantage in high speed operation for its high efficiency, despite insufficient
the PMa-SynRM has an advantage in high speed operation for its high efficiency, despite insufficient
torque. Instead, the IPMSMs possess better efficiency at low speed for the urban driving cycle. The
torque. Instead, the IPMSMs possess better efficiency at low speed for the urban driving cycle.
thermal analysis showed that the IPMSMs possess better performance than the PMa-SynRM subject
The thermal analysis showed that the IPMSMs possess better performance than the PMa-SynRM subject
to temperature limits. In addition, the analysis results show that the operating range of the motors
to temperature limits. In addition, the analysis results show that the operating range of the motors can
can be limited if proper cooling is not employed. Therefore, to achieve the same required
be limited if proper cooling is not employed. Therefore, to achieve the same required performance,
performance, the traction motors should be designed differently, according to the conditions with or
the traction motors should be designed differently, according to the conditions with or without cooling
without cooling systems and the cooling capacity. The analysis in this paper has demonstrated the
systems and the cooling capacity. The analysis in this paper has demonstrated the advantages and
advantages and disadvantages of the IPMSMs and PMa-SynRM for EV tractions and the suitability
disadvantages of the IPMSMs and PMa-SynRM for EV tractions and the suitability of these motors for
of these motors for specific driving cycles. Suggestions have also been provided for the design
specific driving cycles. Suggestions have also been provided for the design improvement of traction
improvement of traction motors for future study. Three prototypes were fabricated and the
motors for future study. Three prototypes were fabricated and the measurement validates the analysis
measurement validates the analysis in this paper.
in this paper.
Author
Author Contributions:
Contributions: Thanh
T.A.H.Anh Huynhand
conceived conceived and the
conducted conducted
researchthe research
and andpaper.
wrote the wrote the paper.
M.-F.H. Min-Fu
suggested
Hsieh suggested
the research theguided
topic, research topic,
T.A.H. to guided
complete Thanh Anh Huynh
the research to complete
and helped thefinalize
edit and researchthe
and helped
paper. edit and
M.-F.H. also
provided
finalize thethe laboratory
paper. Min-Fuspace
Hsiehand facilities
also providedfor the
thislaboratory
study. space and facilities for this study.
Acknowledgments: This
Acknowledgments: This work
work was
was in
in part
partsupported
supportedby byTaiwan’s
Taiwan’s Ministry
Ministry of
of Science
Scienceand
andTechnology
Technology under
under
contracts MOST 106-2622-8-006-001 and 106-2218-E-006-023. The authors would like to thank Jian-Shin Lai,
contracts MOST 106-2622-8-006-001 and 106-2218-E-006-023. The authors would like to thank Jian-Shin Lai, Ping-
Ping-Yuan Wang and the lab-mates for the assistance in experiments.
Yuan Wang and the lab-mates for the assistance in experiments.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
References
References
1. Ruiwu, C.; Chris, M.; Ming, C. Quantitative Comparison of Flux-Switching Permanent-Magnet Motors
1. Ruiwu, C.; Chris, M.; Ming, C. Quantitative Comparison of Flux-Switching Permanent-Magnet Motors
with Interior Permanent Magnet Motor for EV, HEV, and PHEV Applications. IEEE Trans. Magn. 2012, 48,
with Interior Permanent Magnet Motor for EV, HEV, and PHEV Applications. IEEE Trans. Magn. 2012, 48,
2374–2384. [CrossRef]
2. 2374–2384, doi:10.1109/TMAG.2012.2190614.
Won, H.; Hong, Y.K.; Lee, W.; Choi, M. Roles of coercivity and remanent flux density of permanent magnet
2. Won, H.; Hong, Y.K.; Lee,
in interior permanent W.; Choi,
magnet M. Roles motor
synchronous of coercivity
(IPMSM) andperformance
remanent flux fordensity
electricofvehicle
permanent magnet
applications.
in interior permanent magnet
AIP Adv. 2018, 8. [CrossRef] synchronous motor (IPMSM) performance for electric vehicle applications.
3. AIP Adv. Z.;
Mounir, 2018, 8, doi:10.1063/1.5007789.
Mohamed, B.; Demba, D. Electric Motor Drive Selection Issues for HEV Propulsion Systems:
3. Mounir,
A Comparative Study. B.;
Z.; Mohamed, Demba,
IEEE Trans. D. Electric
Veh. Motor
Technol. 2006,Drive Selection Issues
55, 1756–1764. for HEV Propulsion Systems: A
[CrossRef]
4. Comparative Study. IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol. 2006, 55, 1756–1764, doi:10.1109/TVT.2006.878719.
Wu, W.; Zhu, X.; Quan, L.; Du, Y.; Xiang, Z.; Zhu, X. Design and Analysis of a Hybrid Permanent Magnet
4. Wu, W.; Zhu,
Assisted X.; Quan, L.;
Synchronous Du, Y.; Xiang,
Reluctance MotorZ.;Considering
Zhu, X. Design and Analysis
Magnetic Saliencyof and
a Hybrid Permanent
PM Usage. Magnet
IEEE Trans.
Assisted Synchronous Reluctance Motor
Appl. Supercond. 2018, 28, 1–6. [CrossRef] Considering Magnetic Saliency and PM Usage. IEEE Trans. Appl.
5. Supercond.
Huynh, T.A.;2018, 28, 1–6,
Hsieh, M.-F.doi:10.1109/TASC.2017.2775584.
Comparative Study of PM-Assisted SynRM and IPMSM on Constant Power Speed
5. Huynh, T.A.; Hsieh, M.-F. Comparative
Range for EV Applications. Study2017,
IEEE Trans. Magn. of PM-Assisted SynRM and IPMSM on Constant Power
53, 1–6. [CrossRef]
Speed Range for EV Applications. IEEE Trans. Magn. 2017, 53, 1–6, doi:10.1109/TMAG.2017.2707125.
Energies 2018, 11, 1385 24 of 24

6. Wang, J.; Yuan, X.; Kais, A. Design Optimization of a Surface-Mounted Permanent-Magnet Motor with
Concentrated Windings for Electric Vehicle Applications. IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol. 2013, 62, 1053–1064.
[CrossRef]
7. Degano, M.; Carraro, E.; Bianchi, N. Robust Optimization of a Traction PMASR Motor according to a Given
Driving Cycles. In Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Electrical Machines (ICEM), Berlin,
Germany, 2–5 September 2014; pp. 270–276. [CrossRef]
8. Carraro, E.; Morandin, M.; Bianchi, N. Traction PMASR Motor Optimization according to a Given Driving
Cycle. IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 2016, 52, 209–216. [CrossRef]
9. Nguyen, P.H.; Hoang, E.; Gabsi, M. Performance Synthesis of Permanent-Magnet Synchronous Machines
during the Driving Cycle of a Hybrid Electric Vehicle. IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol. 2011, 60, 1991–1997.
[CrossRef]
10. Sarigiannidis, A.G.; Beniakar, M.E.; Kladas, A.G. Fast Adaptive Evolutionary PM Traction Motor
Optimization Based on Electric Vehicle Drive Cycle. IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol. 2017, 66, 5762–5774. [CrossRef]
11. Sarigiannidis, A.G.; Beniakar, M.E.; Kakosimos, P.E.; Kladas, A.G. Performance Evaluation and Thermal
Analysis of Interior Permanent Magnet Traction Motor over a Wide Load Range. In Proceedings of the
IEEE International Conference on Electrical Machines (ICEM), Lausanne, Switzerland, 4–7 September 2016;
pp. 2662–2668. [CrossRef]
12. Yang, Y.P.; Shih, G.Y. Optimal Design of an Axial-Flux Permanent-Magnet Motor for an Electric Vehicle
Based on Driving Scenarios. Energies 2016, 9, 285. [CrossRef]
13. Gu, W.; Zhu, X.-Y.; Li, Q.; Yi, D. Design and Optimization of Permanent Magnet Brushless Machines for
Electric Vehicle Applications. Energies 2015, 8, 13996–14008. [CrossRef]
14. Glowacz, A.; Glowacz, Z. Diagnosis of the three-phase induction motor using thermal imaging.
Infrared Phys. Technol. 2017, 81, 7–16. [CrossRef]
15. Glowacz, A.; Glowacz, Z. Diagnostics of stator faults of the single-phase induction motor using thermal
images, MoASoS and selected classifiers. Measurement 2016, 93, 86–93. [CrossRef]
16. United States Environmental Protection Agency, EPA Emission Standards for Light-Duty Vehicles and Trucks.
Available online: https://www.epa.gov/emission-standards-reference-guide/epa-emission-standards-
light-duty-vehicles-and-trucks (accessed on 30 April 2018).
17. Liu, X.; Chen, H.; Zhao, J.; Belahcen, A. Research on the Performances and Parameters of Interior PMSM
Used for Electric Vehicles. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 2016, 63, 3533–3545. [CrossRef]
18. Liu, C.T.; Chung, H.Y.; Lin, S.Y. On the electromagnetic steel selections and performance impact assessments
of synchronous reluctance motors. IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 2017, 53, 2569–2577. [CrossRef]
19. Huynh, T.A.; Hsieh, M.-F. Performance Evaluation of Interior Permanent Magnet Motors Using Thin
Electrical Steels. IEEJ J. Ind. Appl. 2017, 6, 422–428. [CrossRef]
20. Yuan, X.; Wang, J. Torque Distribution Strategy for a Front- and Rear-Wheel-Driven Electric Vehicle.
IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol. 2012, 61, 3365–3374. [CrossRef]
21. Soong, W.L.; Ertugrul, N. Field weakening performance of interior permanent magnet motors. IEEE Trans.
Ind. Appl. 2002, 38, 1251–1258. [CrossRef]
22. Guglielmi, P.; Boazzo, B.; Armando, E.; Pellegrino, G.; Vagati, A. Permanent-magnet minimization in
PM-assisted synchronous reluctance motors for wide speed range. IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 2013, 49, 31–41.
[CrossRef]

© 2018 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).