Lecture 3 - Transient Response and

Transforms

with only the amplitude response

 

The filters so far considered (Butterworth, Chebyshev and elliptic) were designed
in mind; the impulse response , and   
step response, may be poor. If we are concerned with preserving the signal shape,
then we may have to use a different type of filter (remember, nevertheless, that
low-pass filtering will inevitably round the corners of the waveform off and delay
it).

Consider a signal split into its Fourier components. To preserve shape, all
components must get through with the same gain factor and the same delay.
(Distortion due to frequency-dependent gain is amplitude distortion, that due to
frequency-dependent delay is phase distortion). If we low-pass filter, there is ob-

in fact a gradual falling-off of


 

viously a gain loss at higher frequencies, hence a “rounding-off” of the shape, but
does less damage to the shape than a fast

fall-off. For all frequencies passed to have the same delay, we need a phase lag 
proportional to in the pass-band.

Let!    with   constant; then an input   leads to an output
  #"     $!#"% ie. a delay of  for all frequencies, with the

amplitude changed from  to . In fact,for

  an & th-order
 all-pole filter, (' )+ *
as ' , , and so we cannot have - for all . But clearly linear phase in
the passband is better than non-linear phase (as Fig. 3.1)

3.1 Bessel-Thomson filters


teristic, we make the derivatives of , with respect to , zero at
  /.
These filters have a maximally-flat time delay; in order to arrive at such a charac-
, from the

30
 linear passband phase non-linear passband phase
φ φ

n π /2 n π /2

amplitude ω amplitude ω
passband passband

Figure 3.1: Linear phase in the passband.

02143 0  9: 8
;
to the &657 , for an & th-order filter. The first derivative, , is the time delay.
Thus:

< 
=>-? terms in
 + )>@BA and higher C
D  
=FEG?  +)
D  terms in and higher C

Consider &H I 
. A general 3-pole (no zero) transfer function, with low-
frequency time delay , might be written:

KJL  E#?MJ>N?PO KJE Q + ?POFR2SJQ R

+



 

  E
Therefore  E#?TU"VO + !W + "(FOXRL!W R
O X
O R ;
 Z:Y;8 Y[>[>[ ;9:\]8 \
+
f"VOXR2!W R
We need to find and so that are zero.

" 
_ 
` b
a 2
= 


 

  Z
 O 

^ Cc &ed A Eg"hO + !W +
h
" X
O R R
_k
ie. <ji d AUl Eg"VO + l + if we let 

l l
31
 D D D  9Es"tO + + ZEg" I OXR + u"v "VOXR R Z" 0 O + 
D   D m D l  E#?n=Wo dqpYr oo Yr C + m l 9Esl "tO + + l + l l
l A dqp l
D   F= Eg"vSO + ? I OXRw + ? I O + OXR x C ?n= 0 O + + " 0 O + OFR x C
ie. D   9Eyl"hO + +  + ?zl  "VOXR R  l + l
l l l
D  Es"n I OXRG"VO +  + ?MO + OXR x
Therefore D   Ey"j 0 O + "%EL + ?z{O l ++ " 0 OFR| l x ?PO +R }
l l l
We x coefficients.
O + X
O R
can choose and so that numerator and ;Z:8 denominator have the same l + and
l E  Then } a series expansion of (e.g. by dividing out) has no terms
between and . For this we need:

I OXRG"hO +  0 O + "nE and

O + XO R  O ++ " 0 OXR
O +~X OXR 
which gives +  AA
~



K
 L
J  E
Hence  E#?€J? +~ SJ>W  + ? A ~ KJW R
A
D  B=FEg" E ƒQ } ? E !WZ„G"
and D   00‚ EE 0‚ [>[>[ C
In general, for an & th order Bessel-Thomson filter:

KJL  E#?€J?MO KJW + ?MOXR2E KJW R ? ?MO SJQ

+ [>[>[
) )
D  …=FEg"hO + !Q + ?
D  ) [[>[ C
and
)
The coefficients are:

32
 &E O+ OXR Ox O~ O}
"
0 EL† I "
0†‚ E
†‡E ‚ "
ˆI Iˆ ††‹Š‰ 0 † 0 E LE †‡E . ‚ "
‚ EL†Š EL†Œ I LE †Š ˆ ‚ "
Œ ‚ †‡EE ˆ † II E . † ˆ Š ‚ LE † ˆ Š ‚ LE †qE Ž. I Š ‚
These coefficients can also be calculated from Bessel polynomials (hence the
name of the filter).

3.1.1 Poles of Bessel-Thomson filter

The poles tend to have larger damping factors than for other types; for example,
consider the case &€I
for Butterworth, Chebyshev (0.1dB ripple) and Bessel-
Thomson filters. If the poles are scaled so that each filter has the same 3dB cut-off
frequency, we obtain the plot of Fig. 3.2:

0.5

−0.5

−2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0

‘-’. [ ‚
Figure 3.2: Bessel-Thompson poles (x), Butterworth (*) and Chebyshev Type I  “ ’. [ E ‚ I  ‘T”•. [ ‚
‘z. [ ‰ 0 ˆ
(+). Dampings are Butterworth, , Chebyshev , and
Bessel-Thomson, .

33
3.1.2 Impulse response

  —– ;+ A ˜ ZEN" W™c˜ š 

The impulse response of Bessel-Thomson filters tends towards a Gaussian as the
filter order is increased (see below); . Hence the corre-
sponding step response has practically no overshoot, as in Fig. 3.3.

0.06 1

0.05 0.8
0.04
0.6
g(t)

r(t)
0.03

0.02
τ 0.4

0.01 0.2

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
t t

Figure 3.3: Bessel &› ‚ filter. Impulse response (left) and step response (right).

3.1.3 Delay characteristics

 &- ‰
& < 
The graph of phase lag vs. for Bessel-Thomson filters (up to ) is in Fig.
3.4. For the larger values of , (ie. constant delay) holds more exactly up
to a point where the signal gets through in any case. Thus, for large , the delay &
is flat over a large range of frequencies.
Attenuation frequencies, for example 20dB, can be determined by examining
the high-frequency behaviour of the filter:

E
& :œž sžŸ ¡ 
 
 O !Q 
) )
For an th order filter,

For &¢ E ,
E E   E
   E . '  .
For &^ 0 ,
E E   ‚ ˆX£
RA !W +  E . '  [

34
 0

n=1
−100

−200

−300
φ

−400

−500

−600

n=8
−700
0 2 4 6 8 10
ω

Figure 3.4: Bessel filter delays.

35
3.1.4 Comparison of delays for Bessel-Thomson & Butterworth
filters
Fig. 3.5 gives a comparison of the time delays for 6th-order Bessel-Thomson and
Butterworth low-pass filters. Only with the Bessel filter will there be minimal
waveform distortion in the pass-band.

4.5 Bessel

Butterworth
3.5

3
delay (s)

2.5

1.5

0.5
−1 0 1
10 10 10
log ω

Figure 3.5: Delays for Butterworth & Bessel filters.

3.1.5 Design of Bessel-Thomson low-pass filters

The main specification for Bessel-Thomson filters is usually that of a constant
delay (or linear phase response) over as large a band of frequencies as possible
(this requirement is often specified as the percentage deviation allowed from a
given delay at a specific frequency). As shown on the previous page, there will be
&
a minimum value of needed to meet that specification. Once is determined, &
the designer can check the steepness of the amplitude response for the low-pass
filter, but this is usually a secondary requirement. The main problem is caused
&
by the added circuit complexity for large values of , but this is true for all filter
types.

36
3.2 Analogue Frequency Transformations
We have now derived design procedures for low-pass filters using Butterworth,
Chebyshev or elliptic approximations to an ideal low-pass characteristic. The
high-pass (HP), band-pass (BP) and band-stop (BS) transfer functions can all be
obtained through well-known frequency transformations.

3.2.1 High-pass filters

U¤
U¤ J
We can transform low-pass (cutting off from ) to high-pass (cutting off up to
) by replacing in the low-pass transfer function by to give the high-pass
 ¤+ †J
transfer function. The amplitude response


 
¥¦  E
ZEG?M§T=‡ :
: ¨  + C Y©
is then mirrored about
U¤ in a log. plot since

 Lªe¦  E
9E ?P§«=‡ :>: ¨  + C XY©
2: : ¬|¨ ­ 0 :L: ®b¨ ­
(eg. response at  is now the same as that at  +A ).
U¤
Reminder:
U¤
= 3dB cut-off frequency for Butterworth filter
U¤ ¯ …°u±
= pass-band edge frequency for Chebyshev filter
= geometric mean for elliptic filter (usually)

Transfer function of high-pass filter


¥ X
¦ : °w¨Y ²;³µ´
In general the HP poles are different from the LP poles since HP pole 
(however, for Butterworth filters, the LP and HP poles are the same since the
coefficients are the same in reverse order – see example on next page).

37
Delay characteristics

KJ ' : ± ¨Y 
These do not transform in the same way as the amplitude response under the
non-linear frequency transformation given on the previous page; for ex-
ample, the low-pass phase lag of a Bessel-Thomson filter is approximately (
 
¶ : A˜ : AY ˜
constant). When this filter is transformed to a HPF, we have, instead a phase-lead
of , ie. a time advance of , which is non-uniform across the pass-band.

Design of high-pass filter

Design a Butterworth high-pass filter with a 3dB cut-off frequency of 2kHz and
at least 30dB attenuation at 500Hz:

1. Translate the specifications to those for the equivalent or “prototype” LPF:

U¥¦  · eª ¤+ ¦ U¤  ˆ . ..2™ rads/sec

¸ u¥‹¦…¹ p
R +
Let be the 30dB cut-off frequency for the LPF.

¸ u¥‹¦…¹   »
ˆ º E . ™ >
E Œ º E R
R
E. ™  . ™
p rads/sec

2. Design the prototype LPF to meet the required specification.

& – ¼ ½ q: ¬|­ÀÂÁ – žœ  agE a. ¯ ˆ E .  0 [ ˆ Š

œ a¿¾ :
¨ žœ 
n=3 meets the specification

3. For a I‹Ã 3 -order Butterworth LPF, 
KJL

¥¦  SA @ +4ÄQÆ Å ¨Ç @ +4ÄWA Æ Å ¨Ç Y @ ÄbÆ Å ¨Ç r


KJLL ªU¦ 
  J ¤+ 

¥¦  E#? 0  :
¨ È? 0 E  :
¨  + ? :
¨  R
± ± ±

38
 

: ±¨  R

KJLL Uª ¦  E#? 0  ± È? 0  ±  + 
ie. :
¨ :
¨ ? 
: ± ¨  R
the same as

KJLL ¥¦ except for 3 zeroes at the origin.


 
 

 L
 
¥ ¦ E 


 

 L
 ª e ¦ E
Finally,  É E ? : : ¨  } and thus  Ê #E ?z : : ¨  }
 E
Check: For  ...2™Ë

Ì ªU¦  A Ç \  Í . [ . E ‚ Œ , ie. 36dB attenua-
¯ AS@ Ä x
tion.

3.3 Band-pass filters

J
ËJ ? : ± ÎY
We can transform a low-pass filter to a band-pass filter by replacing in the low-
J ' ± ±: Y
pass transfer function by 
to give the band-pass transfer function (for band-
stop filters,
@Î
).
 ¯ ) U³ÏeÐ
is the geometric mean of the upper and lower cut-
off frequencies, ie.
original LPF.
) ; the BPF has the same total bandwidth as the

3.3.1 Frequency-response characteristics of band-pass filters


 L ¥¦  É E
E ?P§«=‡ :>: ¨  + C
J
J ? : ±Y  Ñ
 " :Y
If '
Î , then '
Î: .

 
 

 L
 W
Ò ¦ E
Therefore  E#?P§«=‡ :
¨Æ Æ ÎY  + ¹wY©
:
¸ d C
Note that putting ÔÓ
  or Ó d A  leads to the same
(for any H-function)
) )
and so the frequency response of the BPF isU¥‹symmetrical ¦  ·
 W
Ò Ì
¦ «
" 
on + a†Lulogarithmic
Q
Ò ¦ plot, as
indicated in Fig. 3.6. Under the transform
) so

39
 |G|

ωc

log ω

ω ωn ω log ω
l u
Figure 3.6: Lowpass to bandpass transform.

LPF BPF
"yU¤ U) ³
0
u¤ eÐ
" , 0
e
 Õ
Ð Ñ
" U
 ³  0 U¤ , despite what itU³Žlooks
Note: this does not mean that
if you work through using the transform it is easy to see that
"TUÐ like!
 U¤ .
In fact,

40
Phase characteristics
J y
J ? :± Y
Band-pass filters derived from low-pass prototypes using '
Î have char-
 onwhich
acteristics
SJ29¥¦ be ortheanti-symmetrical
are symmetrical (for amplitude) (for phase)

Z"# Z) ¥¦  complex conjugate of
 Z¥‹¦ , will have the same amplitude
about a logarithmic scale. Let low-pass transfer function;
but
opposite phase.

KJLÒW¦ 
KJ#?  )J + Z¥¦

Consider 
J  Ó  (factor Ó above centre frequency) and J   Ó d A  (factor
Ó below centre frequency). ) )

 Ó  ZÒQ¦ 
Ö=| Ó  ?    )+ C ¥¦ 
Ö=|6 Ó " ÓXd A ; C ¥¦
) ) Ó ) )

 Ó d A  ZÒW¦ 
Ö=| Ó d A  ?   ) +  C ¥‹¦ 
f=|6 Ó d A " Ó ] C ¥¦  =2
 Ó  ÒW¦ C2×
) ) ÓdA ) ) )
Therefore these two frequencies get passed with the same amplitude  but opposite
phase, as can be seen in Fig. 3.7. Note that the component at
shifted.
) is not phase-

Transfer function of BPFs (approximate treatment)

J vØ be a pole of
SJLZ¥¦ Ù
J ? : α Y

KJLÒW¦ . i.e.
Let . Then  Ø
n is the equation for the poles of

J + " Ø J#?V + z.

)
J  0fE Ü
Poles at

Ú Û  Ø0  + Ñ
"  +  Ø 0fÚ   Û Eg"v 0 Ø  +
) ) )
Ø
(NB: is complex!) JՖ Ú   ?
° If
)fÝÞÝ Ø
, as is often the case (narrow-band filter), poles are at
)
+

Ú   )
ie. the pole pattern is reproduced at half-scale,
but with the origin transferred to

41
 Bode Diagrams

From: U(1)
−20

−25

−30

−35

Phase (deg); Magnitude (dB) −40

−45

−50

−55

−60

800

600

400
To: Y(1)

200

−200
−1 0 1
10 10 10

Frequency (rad/sec)

Figure 3.7: Band-pass filter Bode plot - amplitude (top) and phase (bottom).

Design of band-pass filters

Design a Butterworth band-pass filter that meets the following specifications:
ß à ³ = 600 Hz
lower cut-off frequency
ß upper cut-off frequency à Ð = 900 Hz
ß Minimum attenuation of 50dB for à-á 0 .. Hz and à(â 0 ‰ . . Hz
Answer

1. Translate the band-pass specifications to those of a low-pass prototype:

U¤  e Ðã"Ñu³  E £ ..‹™ "%E 0 ..‹™¢ Œ . .‹™ rads/sec
 +  U³ [ eÐ  9E 0 ..2™  [ ZE £ ..‹™  ie   E ˆ ‰ 2. ™ rads/sec
) )
42
  ˆ ‚ ˆ u
 ‹
¥ ¦ u
 W
Ò ›
¦ " L
: : ä ÎY ­ ‚ ˆ " + ~ „ Y
For  . .2™ or ..‹™ ,   . .‹™ A A{å4x æA]å å;å]* å;*
ie.
U¥¦  ‚ . ..‹™ rads/sec (or à = 2500Hz)
2. Design the prototype LPF to meet the required specification.

–
¼ ½ ‡
  {
¼ ½  E .~ . ¯ E . 0 ‰‡E

¬ 
­ À Á
& ¼ ½ ¾ :
¨  ¼ ½  } å]å]å;*  [
:
 å]å;*
ç = 3 meets the specification

KJLL ¥¦  +4ÄbÅ ¨Ç +4ÄWA Å ¨Ç Y ÄbÅ ¨Ç
Therefore, we have
AS@ Æ @ Æ @ Æ r

KJL
ÒW¦  
KJG?  )J + L ¥‹¦  E
EG? 0  ± @ :
¨ Î È? 0  ± Y ±!@ :
: ¨ ÎY  + ?z ± Y ±!@ :
: ¨ ÎY  R
± Y : Y

J R

SJLLÒW¦  J } ?MO ~ J ~ ?PO J x ?POFè RJ R ?MO J + ?MO J ?PO
i.e. x +
A å
écêWë Ó ë   ¤ R
Oè   } OXR   ¤R ? ˆ U¤S +
O å  0 U) ¤S x O x  0  ¤+ ? I  + )
O +A  0  ¤+  ) + ? I  x O ~  0 u¤ )
) )
3.4 Conclusion
The frequency transformations, although highly non-linear, are appropriate for
transforming the standard low-pass filters (except for Bessel-Thomson filters) to
high-pass, band-pass and band-stop filters. This is because the frequency response
of the filters being transformed is an approximation to a piecewise constant char-
acteristic in the frequency bands of interest. Thus, taking the example of the ellip-
tic low-pass filter of Fig. 3.8, the non-linearity of the mapping affects the spacing
of the ripple peaks and valleys but has no effect on the amplitude of these ripples.
Therefore, the filters designed using this frequency transformation preserve the

&› ‚
equiripple character of the prototype filter. Figure 3.9 shows Butterworth Bode
plots for low-pass, high-pass and band-pass filters. All are filters.

43
 (a) (b)

From: U(1) From: U(1)

−5 −5

−10 −10

−15 −15
Phase (deg); Magnitude (dB)

Phase (deg); Magnitude (dB)

−20 −20

−25 −25

0 0

−50 −50
To: Y(1)

To: Y(1)

−100 −100

−150 −150

−200 −200
−1 0 1 −1 0 1
10 10 10 10 10 10

Frequency (rad/sec) Frequency (rad/sec)

Figure 3.8: Elliptic filters, &›I . (a) lowpass, (b) highpass.

44
 (a)
From: U(1)
−75

−80

−85
1000
To: Y(1)

−1000
−1 0 1
10 10 10

(b)
From: U(1)
−75

−80

−85
0
To: Y(1)

−500

−1000
−1 0 1
10 10 10
Phase (deg); Magnitude (dB)

(c)
From: U(1)
−20

−40

−60
1000
To: Y(1)

−1000
−1 0 1
10 10 10

Frequency (rad/sec)

Figure 3.9: Butterworth filters, &› ‚ . (a) lowpass, (b) highpass & (c) bandpass.

45