C1.

2 - UNIT 2
GRAMMAR
MODALS AND SEMI-MODALS

As you all know, modal verbs (​must, can, should, etc.) are used to express an
opinion, an attitude or to control a possible action. For example:

You ​mustn’t let ​yourself get overtired. ​(strong advice)

​ hould have become ​a teacher, but I didn’t. I wish I had. ​(regret)

Is

On the other hand, semi-modals (​dare, had better, need, ought to, used to​) are in
some ways formed like modal verbs and, in some ways, they are like main verbs.
Take a look at these examples:

​ eedn’t ​waste time on this.​ (No third person ​-s​, like a modal verb)
He n

You ​don’t need to​ get up early.​ (Using ​do​, as the main verb)

In this unit, we’re going to review the most important functions that modal verbs and
semi-modal verbs can express and learn new ones:

1. ​Obligation and necessity​: ​must / have (got) to, need to

2. ​Lack of necessity​: ​not have to, need not, not need to

3. ​Prohibition and criticism​: ​mustn’t, shouldn’t, can’t, couldn’t, may not, should /
shouldn’t have

4.​ Advice, recommendation​: ​must, should, ought to, had better

5. ​Permission​: ​can, could, may, might

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6. ​Ability​: ​can, can’t, could, might, be able to

7. ​Possibility and probability​: ​can, could, may, might, should

8. ​Deduction​: must, can’t, couldn’t

9. ​Other uses and alternatives to modals

MODALS AND SEMI-MODALS I

In this section, you will learn and ​review the most important modal and semi-modal
verbs.

1. OBLIGATION AND NECESSITY: ​must / have (got) to, need to

● Use ​must / mustn’t to express strong obligation when we impose this on

ourselves and a strong opinion.

​ ust ​study harder.

Im

​ ustn’t f​ orget to feed the cat.

Im

You ​must ​recycle glass.

● Use ​have to / need to​ for an obligation imposed by someone else.

​ ave to​ finish this report by Friday.

Ih

● Use ​must / have to / need to​ to express general necessity.

​ eeds to​ exercise as much as possible.

Everyone n

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2. LACK OF NECESSITY: ​Not have to, need not, not need to

● Use ​not have to, need not, not need to​ to express lack of necessity.

You ​don’t have to / needn’t / don’t need to get up early today; it’s Sunday! (It’s not
necessary).

The semi-modal ​need ​has no past simple form. Instead, we use ​didn’t need to or
didn’t have to​ when we express ​no obligation in the past​:

​ idn’t need to​ go to the supermarket​. (So I didn’t.)

Id

Affirmatives with the semi-modal ​need + i​ nfinitive without ​to ​are ​not
common​ and they are used in ​formal contexts​ (without ​to)​ .

​ eed ​know the name of the person who made the complaint.
Nobody n

3. PROHIBITION AND CRITICISM​: ​mustn’t, shouldn’t, can’t, couldn’t, may not,

should / shouldn’t have

● Use ​mustn’t ​or ​shouldn’t​ when the prohibition is imposed by the speaker.

You ​mustn’t ​forget to bring it back.

You ​shouldn’t b
​ e so reckless!

● Use ​can’t ​or ​may not​ when the prohibition is imposed by someone else.

Your daughter ​can’t​ drink alcohol yet. She’s too young.

The Bank ​may not e

​ ffect commodities transactions for its own account.

● Use ​couldn’t ​to​ ​express prohibition in the past.

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 ​ ouldn’t l​ ive in that house without the rental agreement.
They c

​ past participle to express regret or

● Use ​should / shouldn’t + ​have +
criticism of a past action.

You ​should have told​ me before! Now it’s too late.

You ​shouldn’t have told ​her off!​ (criticism)

4. ADVICE AND RECOMMENDATION: ​must, should, ought to, had better

● Use ​must ​for strong advice and recommendations:

You ​must ​visit the Eiffel Tower.

● Use​ should / ought to​ when the advice is less strong.

You ​ought to ​protest.

We rarely use ​ought to​ in questions and negative statements.

● Use ​had better (not) to talk about actions we think people should do or which
are desirable in a specific situation. The verb form is always ​had​, not ​have,​
and it is followed by the infinitive without ​to​.

We ​had better​ start thinking anew.

You’​ d better not tell​ your kids about it.​ (It’s not a good idea)

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5. PERMISSION: ​can, could, may, might

● Use ​can, could, may, might ​to express permission.

Can I​ borrow your laptop?

Could I​ ask you to do me a favour?​ (polite)

May ​I help you? (​ more formal)

I wonder if I ​might ​draw your attention.​ (formal, polite)

6. ABILITY: ​can, can’t, could, might, be able to

● Use ​can / can’t ​for general ability in the present and future. Use ​could /
couldn’t​ for general ability in the past.

​ an’t s​ wim.
Ic

​ ouldn’t p
Ic ​ lay the piano when I was a kid, but now I c
​ an!​

● Use ​was able to to express that someone was successful in doing something
on one occasion.

My daughter ​was able to​ pass her driving test last month.

● Use ​wasn’t able to or ​couldn’t f​ or negative general and specific ability in the
past.

​ eren’t able to ​memorise all the words before the exam.

They w

● Use ​managed to​ or ​succeeded in​ to express ability as well.

​ anaged to​ ​(​was able to​) ​write 60 words per minute.

Im

​ ucceeded in​ halving the production costs.

We have s

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7. POSSIBILITY AND PROBABILITY: ​can, could, may, might, should

● Use ​can, could, may a ​ nd ​might f​ or things that are possible in theory and for
possibility in the present or future.

Don’t get too close. You ​could i​ nfect the baby.

​ ay ​be some cancellations in the next flight.

There m

● Use ​can, could, may, might + ​have ​+ past participle to talk about specific
possibilities in the past.

I can’t bear to think what ​might h

​ ave happened.

This is the typical dress that Queen Victoria ​may h

​ ave worn.

​ r ​might ​(​+ ​have ​+ past participle) to express criticism or

● Use ​could o
annoyance.

​ ould ​have come a bit earlier. Now it’s too late!

You c

They ​might​ have come to the wedding. They just didn’t want to.

● Use ​may or ​might ​(well) to acknowledge something is true, before introducing

a contrast.

It ​might ​well have been worse, but the police arrived and solved the conflict.

8. DEDUCTIONS: ​must, can’t, couldn’t

● Use ​must ​for something we are sure about because it is evident.

​ ust ​be heavy. Take a look at the tracks on the grass!

The animal m

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 ● Use ​must​ + present perfect to express a deduction in the past.

I ​must have misunderstood​ you since I didn’t see anyone at the bar last night.

● Use ​can’t ​or ​couldn’t​, and not ​mustn’t​ in negative sentences.

It ​can’t ​be true! ​(Not​ *​it mustn’t be true​!)

9. Other uses and alternatives to modals

● Use ​shall f​ or commands in formal contexts.

​ hall not (shan’t) b

You s ​ e entitled to cancel any services requested with us.

● Use ​will​ to express annoyance.

​ ill ​play the guitar at home at full volume.

She w

● Use ​be to​ ​+​ ​infinitive​, ​under no obligation​ ​and ​feel / be obliged to​ +
infinitive ​to express obligation and necessity.

​ re to meet​ the commitments under the Kyoto Protocol.

All countries a

​ nder no obligation t​ o provide this information.

The Centre is u

Don’t f​ eel obliged to speak​ with your ex-husband again.