Studies in Business and Economics no.

14(3)/2019

DOI 10.2478/sbe-2019-0055
SBE no. 14(3) 2019

DIMENSIONS OF NATIONAL CULTURE – CROSS-

CULTURAL THEORIES

ȚÎMBALARI CAROLINA
Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu, Romania

Abstract:
Over the past three decades, after Hofstede presented his proposal about cultural differences,
many authors have presented their dimensions of national culture. The aim of this article is to give a
synthesis of the proposal from significant authors and show a set of models of cultural dimensions
based on theoretical and pragmatic analysis such as models of Hofstede, Trompenaars, GLOBE,
Inglehart, Schartz. Also, examples used in this paper help more to understand the importance of
research national culture.

Key words: culture, national culture, cultural dimensions, Models of national culture, Hofstede,
Trompenaars, Globe

1. Introduction

There are many definitions of culture that contain elements like: values, beliefs,
attitudes. From a conceptual perspective the term “culture” is preserved from Latin, where
initially was defined as “land culture” (Hofstede G., Hofstede G.J., Minkov M., trad. Zografi
M., 2012) and later explained as: „the combination of agricultural engineering necessary
for major harvesting”. Over time, culture has become a broader activity, including activities
from all fields, having the same purpose: the achievement of results and benefits. From a
narrow perspective, culture means „civilization”, „soul polishing” in most western languages
through education, art, literature.
Many researches and analyses have been conducted regarding a clear and
concise definition of culture. The Romanian dictionary defines culture as: „all material and
spiritual assets created by humanity and institutions necessary for communication with
these assets” (Romanian Dictionary, 2019).

2. General considerations of national culture.

From a wider perspective, sociologists and anthropologists use the term “culture”
as a mental soft: thought process, feeling and action of an individual. Over the years,

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philosophers from Baden School, represented by V. Windelband and H.Rickert. (Herciu,

2007), have developed a reasoning process regarding. In Romania, Tudor Vianu has
focused on this topic and considered that “cultural assets are items of desire and desire
includes these assets as correlative objects.” (Vianu, 1942)
Geert Hofstede described culture as: “the collective planning of mind is the
process that distinguishes members of a group or class from other people” (Hofstede G.,
Hofstede G.J., Minkov M., trad. Zografi M., 2012). In other words, being considered a
collective phenomenon, shared with individuals from the same social environment, it is
learned and developed in time, in the environment in which it exists, differing by human
nature and individual personality. (Hofstede, 2012).
According to hierarchical levels of mental planning of Hofstede, human nature is a
common human trait and triggers the mental and physical functioning which can be
learned and developed through accumulated and inherited experience. The development
of each person as an individual or in a group, evolves our ability to react to various
psychological circumstances, feelings, urges, uniquely to our culture.
On the opposite side, personality represents inherited features, it even associates
with hereditary genes of each individual.
From the actual standpoint, each nation is a generator of unique and personal
culture, possessing specific traits. This way, culture was laminated in 3 layers: inner (basic
concepts about life), middle (virtues and standards) and outer layer (symbols and
products). (Burdus, 2004)
At first glance, the cultural layers have been similar to Maslow’s hierarchy of
needs, in which shape. It is important to distinguish virtues and needs. Virtues of a person
determine the manner this individual will proceed in order to satisfy a need.
Therefore, the outer layer is represented through symbols on one side and through
products on the other side. Here, the reference is made both on symbols such as: actions
(deeds, gestures and behavior), verbal (catchphrases, words, specific expressions), as
well as materials (clothing, architecture).
The middle layer is represented by virtues and standards. Standards highlight the
opinion of an individual/group between what is right and wrong, while virtues are
connected to an individual/group’s ideals through understanding of good and evil.
The basic concepts about life represent the inner layer, the most profound,
because it denotes the way resources are organized by different groups of people. Over
time, this layer indicates the development pattern of each region.

3. The Model from Geert Hofstede’s perspective of national culture

The dutch researcher Geert Hofstede expressed his urge and interest on cultural
differences, at the end of 1960s. Therefore, 2 years later, after multiple researches, he
published the book: Culture consequences. First, he focused on theoretical aspects,
theories reasoning, so that he could follow up with several forms of his research: collection
of statistical data, quizzes, teaching, replica studies.
Until defining culture, he described culture manifestations through 4 factors that
comprise the fundamentals of cultural differences: a) symbols (words, gestures, images),

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b) heroes (behavioral models), c) rituals (collective activities, lectures, ceremonies) and d)

assets.
Thus, the in-depth research made by Hofstede, represented a study between the
IBM company employees from over 40 states, need to understand the dynamic culture of
nations. He demonstrated there are some national and regional cultural groups that affect
directly the style life and improvement of society and institutions, which are resilient
through time. Summarizing the most important differences from this study, according to
Hofstede website (https://www.hofstede-insights.com/models/national-culture/) and of
course assuming it might appear in the cultural background, the 6-D’s are identified:

Table 1. 6-D Hofstede Model (adjusted by author)

G. Hofstede’s cultural
dimensions - 6D
PDI
(Power Distance Index)
IDV
(Individualism versus Collectivism)
MAS
(Masculinity versus Femininity)
UAI
(Doubt versus Confidence)
attitude, leadership model based on rules and policy
model based on flexible standards, informal attitude
Characteristics
Official or unofficial acceptance degree of the
dominance phenomenon.
Remoteness versus power > low chance of cultural
development and low access to legacy
Remoteness versus power < people equality
regarding social development
Independence and freedom of an individual regarding
the group he/she belongs to
Individualism > developed country
Collectivism > under-developed country
Equally distribution rights between genders
Masculinity - performance and money
Femininity- social assets and interpersonal relations
The expansion degree of cultural programs for its
members to feel comfortable or uncomfortable
In cultures which avoid strong uncertainty: formal
In cultures which avoid low uncertainty: leadership

LTO (Long term orientation versus
Short term orientation)
IND (Indulgence versus Constraint)
Resources associated with long term orientation >
control and persistance
Resources associated with short term orientation <
tradition and recognition
Indulgence - feelings and desires satisfaction (ex:
free time, marriage, friends and shopping)
Constraint - conditioning of desire fruition of its
members and lack of life happiness

Without doubt, Hofstede has developed the most useful and practical cultural
model. His framework was recognized by many researchers in various area of activity. In
other words, Hofstede outline 6 essential issue which all countries face: a) The power
distance of people- social difference; b) Inequallity of gender; c) The relationship between
the individual and collective; d) Certainty or uncertainty results for economic and social

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processes; e) Which term is most affiliated, short or long? f) Conditioning of desires and
pleasures;
As example, a comparison between countries (Top 4 countries by population)
China, India, USA and Indonesia using the Hofstede model, according to Hofstede website
(https://www.hofstede-insights.com/product/compare-countries/), results in:

Fig.1. Compared countries using the Hofstede Model

(Source: https://www.hofstede-insights.com/country-comparison)

If we explore these countries through culture of the 6-D Model, presented by

Hofstede website (https://www.hofstede-insights.com/country-
comparison/china,india,indonesia,the-usa/) we can get:

Table 2. Country comparison used 6-D Hofstede Model

6-D
CHINA INDIA USA INDONESIA
Model
At 80 score, China India mark huge on The little low result Indonesia has score
is in top rankings of this dimension is 77, on PDI (40) is 78 - a big result
PDI – i.e. a So, illustrate an presented as the dimension which
inequalities appreciation for expasion to which demonstrate the
amongst nation are hierarchy from top- fewer influential Indonesian profile:
acceptable. The down structure. representatives of respect to hierarchy,
PDI
relationship institutions and admiration to top
between superior organizations within management.
subordinate- tends a country hope and
to be contradictory. accept that influence
and power is shared
unequally.
At a score of 20 India, with a score of USA is one of the Indonesia is a
IDV China is a 48, is a society with most Individualist Collectivist society
extremely both characteristics cultures in the world, with a low score of

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6-D
CHINA INDIA USA INDONESIA
Model
collectivist culture collectivistic and scored 91, according 14.
where people act in Individualist. to Hofstede website.
the interests of the It confirmation for
group. significance on
equal rights in
society and
institutions.
China is a India is considerate USA is also Indonesia record
Masculine society a Masculine society Masculinity country, 46- low masculinity,
66 score –success with 56 score of this identify a score 62, considered more
adjusted and dimension. Is and this can be look feminine nation.
driven. So, many actually very in the exemplary
MAS
Chinese people will Masculine in American role
prefer work over definition of success patterns.
family. and power.

China has a low India on this The US scores Indonesia scores

score on dimension scores 40 below medium with (48) on this
Uncertainty and has a medium a low score of 46, on dimension and
UAI Avoidance – 30. low choice for this dimension. means that it has a
avoiding uncertainty. low preference for
avoiding
uncertainty.
China record 87 India is a dominant Americans are very Indonesia
LTO, which result choice in Indian practical and prefer determines that it
that it is a very culture cannot be to verify new has a rational
rational culture. In identified. information, for culture similar with
LTO this type of example to check China, with the
societies, it is time if it is true. So, same beliefs.
considered that they are oriented to
truth depends on short time.
condition and time
In this dimension, India Restraint USA scores as an Indulgence score for
China has a score culture-low score of Indulgent (68) This, Indonesia is low of
low of 24, that 26. is reflected by the 38 Restraint culture,
means China following such as China and
IND restrained society. It contradictory India.
is charateristics for perspective and
this society behavior
cynicism and
pessimism.
(Source: https://www.hofstede-insights.com/country-
comparison/china,india,indonesia,the-usa/)

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On a different note, Hofstede’s 6-D model has been applied in cross-cultural

research many years, and has an important contribution to understanding different cultures
in many types of context.

4. The Model from Fons Trompenaars ’s perspective of national culture

The economist, Fons Trompenaars’s concern regarding culture began from his
master’s research, in which he addressed the organizational pattern of different cultures.
Conducting his activity in business, the majority of global companies which he interacted
with offered him the opportunity to examine cultural differences, as well as permanent
access to data. Trompenaars developed a model with 7 scales (A.Maleki,M.de Jong,
2014).

Table 3. 7-D Trompenaars Model (adjusted by author)

Trompenaars’s cultural dimensions
Universalism versus Particularism
Individualism versus collectivism
Neutral culture versus emotional culture
Specific culture versus dissipated culture
Earned statute versus granted statute
Sequential culture versus synchronic culture
Internal control versus external control
Research question
What is most important: Law or relations?
We or I? How do we operate?
Individual interests or collective interests?
Do we expose our feelings?
Introverted or extroverted?
How do we split private life from work? How
much do we engage?
Do we need to prove our statute or is it
granted to us?
Motivation or lack of motivation?
One at a time or all together?
How do we perceive time?
Synchronic - collectivism and
particularism/sequential - relation cause-effect
Do we deal with the environment or work with
it?
The relationship between humankind and
nature

In the book “Riding the Waves of Culture: Understanding Diversity Cultural in

Business”, authors Fons Trompenaars and Charles Hampden - Turner declared that
cultural differences happen between societies and instituttions, and the manner of
conducting activities is directly affected by it. So, according to them, culture is describe “as
the way in which a group of people solves problems and reconciles dilemmas”
(Trompenaars & Hampden- Turner, 1997, p. 6).

5. Model from GLOBE perspective of national culture

The GLOBE research program or otherwise called "Global Leadership and

Organizational Behavior Effectiveness" was illustred in 1991 by Robert J. House of the
Wharton School of Business, University of Pennsylvania. In his volume I, on the study of

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cultural differences was "Culture, leadership and organizations: the GLOBE study of 62
companies” results about 17,300 intermediary managers from 951 different organizations
from activites like: food processing, financial services and telecommunications industrie
In volume II, dedicated to the same research topics, "Culture and Leadership
worldwide: The GLOBE book of in-depth studies of 25 companies", completed the
conclusions of the volume I with analyzes of leadership literature in the country,
information achieved from interviews, focus discussion groups and formal analyzes of print
media to contribute in-depth profile of leadership concept and leadership behavior across
the 25 cultures. Thus, the GLOBE model identifies 9 cultural dimensions:

Table 4. 9-D GLOBE Model (adjusted by author)

GLOBE cultural dimensions Definition
The size of company, organization or group
Uncertainty avoidance depend on social norms, rules and strategy to
reduce the uncertainty of eventual events.
This dimension can be explained for
Performance Orientation motivations and remunerations group members
for developing achievement and excellence
Collectivism in the group. It is express by honor, dignity and loyality in
organizations or societies.
Members of a community/collective expect
Power distance
influence to be shared equally.
Gender inequality in a collective try be
Gender equality
decreased
The dimension which inspire and remunerate
Human orientation individuals for being honest, attentively to
others altruistic, caring and helpful.
The organization and the society motivate the
Institutional collectivism collective disseminate of resources, activities
and the collective decisions.
Assertiveness People are self-assured and aggressive in their
relationships with others.
People can involve in future-oriented behaviors,
Future Orientation like as delaying pleasure, planning and
investing in time.

6. Model from SCHWARTZ’S perspective of national culture

Shalom Schwartz, an Israelian sociologist, collected between 1988 and 1992 data
from 38 nations describing 41 cultural groups. His study conducted in a model of cultural
values, identified in three basic societal issues:
a) The relationship between the individual person and the group;
b) Social behavior;
c) The purpose of people in social world.
All of these issues were adapted to cultural framework, which consists of seven
dimensions, such as (S. Schwartz, 2008):

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Table 4. 7-D SCHWARTZ’S Model (adjusted by author)

SCHWARTZ’S Dimensions Cultural values
A cultural significance on perpetuation of the
Embeddedness
characteristic and control of decisions. (social
(Conservatism)
order, respect for tradition, security)
In a harmony culture, rather than follow self-
improvement, people accept their place in the
Harmony
world happyful. People here put greater
emphasis on the group than on the individual
In this kind of culture, everyone is considered to
be equal and everyone is expected to show
Egalitarianism
concern for everyone else. And, so what?

Determine the independent pursuit of ideas and

plans, can be theoretical, political and so one. In
Intellectual Autonomy embeddedness cultures it is hard to control what
people are thinking, though actions can be taken
to manage intellectual
Is the independent pursuit of pleasure, seeking
Affective Autonomy
happines by any means without censure. In
many societies there are limits.
In a mastery culture, individuals are looking for
success through personal action. This may
Mastery
benefit the person and/or the groups to which
they exist. It’s characterized independence,
courage, ambition and competence.
In hierarchical cultures, there superior positions
Hierarchy and inferior. It’a a clear and specific structure.

7. Model from Inglehart’s perspective of national culture

Ronald Inglehart has done a research paper on cultural changes, their

interconnections with various aspects of social life, as well as their measurement. Thus,
together with Christian Welzel they defined two predominant dimensions on the cultural
map: (Inghlehart, Welzel, 2005)
a) Traditional versus secular-rational values – in this culture, religion is
significant, parent-child relation, difference to authority and traditional family
beliefs. People who adopt these beliefs also reject divorce, abortion and
suicide. Nations with secular-rational values have the contrary preferences to
the traditional values. These nations place less emphasis on religion,
traditional family beliefs or authority. Divorce, abortion, and suicide are seen
as relatively acceptable.
b) Survival versus self-expression values - place attention on economic and
physical security. Self-expression values offer high priority to environmental
protection, growing tolerance of newcomers, gender equality and origin, and

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rising demands for participation in decision-making in economic and political

life.
Conform to the authors: "These two dimensions explain more than 70 percent of
the transnational variation in a factor analysis of ten indicators and each of these
dimensions is strongly correlated with scores of other important orientations." (Inghlehart,
Welzel, 2005)
Later, in 2017, Inglehart and Welzel's cultural dimension map was shared in
clusters: Latin America, Baltic Cluster, South Asian, English, Catholic, Orthodox and
Protestant Europe, Confucian, African-Islamic, and Cluster speakers.

Fig. 2. The Inghlehart Cultural Model

Source: https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias/2015/12/151201_chile_conservador_crz

The Inghlehart cultural map result the societies emphasis on traditional and
survical values. The countries with traditional vs secular-rational values are represented by
Confucius and South Asia cluster, especially islamic societies. The strongest on survival
versus self-expression values is represented by protestant cluster, countries such as
Sweden, Denmark and Canada.
So, the most important conclusions for Inghlehart cultural model, are:
a) In modern world values is changing with elements of modernity;
b) Values differ from society to another by generation, religion, ethnicity,
education;
c) Culture zone reflect different culture patern result by historically pathways .

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8. Conclusions

Culture is one of the most important treasure of the nation. It can be compared
with the precious arm in an unpredictable and modern world that is able to move things.
The result of this synthesizing work is the emphasize the different concerns about culture.
The purpose of this paper was: a) to identify some methods on measuring nation
culture (from comparative culture theory); b) to give a theoretical and conceptual brief
analysis; c) to teste Hostede’s Cultural Model to 4 countries;
Comparative analysis in this paper has contribution to dissemination of academic
knowledge and result that all countries have individual cultural profile determined by
norms, beliefs, religions, traditions.
From the Hofstede model (6-D) to the Globe project (9D), is clearly understanding
that those models are applicable in research of national culture. In comparision above,
using Hofstede Model it was illustrated that these four countries with similar population are
different regarding cultural dimensions. According to these analysis, USA has a power
culture that believes in unequally and democratic values, harmony between gender and
equal rights, pattern behaviors, taking responsibilities themselves, strong support to
indulgence. In other words, is a national culture model, in that case.
It is likely clear that the Hofstede Model is the most practical and known to
understand management in a country. A good overview on cross cultural comparison
offers us the possibility to better understand with what kind of people or organizations we
have to work or to collaborate. Applications of these models can be used in different ways,
such as economics, international business and of course in management.
Finally, in conclusion, in a dynamic and modern environment a strong culture can
be a significant driver oriented by performance and success of nation.

9. References

Burduș, E. (2004), International comparative management, București, Editura Economică

Herciu, M. (2007), Comparative management. Sibiu., Editura ULBS
Hofstede G. (1994), Culture and Organisations, Intercultural Cooperation and its importance for
survival, Software of the mind. Profile books
Hofstede G., Hofstede G.J., Minkov M., trad. Zografi M., (2012), Culturi și organizații: Softul mental:
cooperare interculturală și importanța ei pentru supraviețuire. București, Humanitas
Hofstede G , Hofstede G.J., Michael Minkov. (2012) Culturi și organizații. Softul mental. Humanitas
Maleki, A., de Jong, M., (2014), A proposal for Clustering the dimensions of national culture,
Vol.48(2), pp. 107-143
Ronald Inglehart, Christian Welzel. (2005), Modernization, Cultural Change, and Democracy: The
Human Development Sequence, Cambridge University Press. 333
S. Schwart, The 7 Schwartz cultural value orientation scores for 80 countries, Research Gate
Publication, 2008
Trompenaars, F. & Hampden-Turner, C. (1997), Riding the Waves of Culture: Understan Cultural
Diversity in Business, Second Edition, London & Santa Rosa, Nicholas Brealey Publishing
Limited
Vianu, T. (1942). Introducere în teoria valorilor întemeiată pe observația conștiinței. București,
Editura Cugetarea, pp.30

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https://www.hofstede-insights.com/country-comparison)
https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias/2015/12/151201_chile_conservador_crz
https://dexonline.ro/definitie/cultura (Romanian Dictionary, 2019)
https://www.hofstede-insights.com/models/national-culture/
https://www.hofstede-insights.com/country-comparison/china,india,indonesia,the-usa/

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