Chapter one

Introduction
Definitions of Research
 The word research is composed of two syllabuses, re and search. The dictionary
defines the former as a prefix meaning again, anew or over again and the latter as a
verb meaning to examine closely and carefully, to test and try or to probe. Together
they form a noun describing a careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in
some field of knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or principles.
 The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of current English lays down the meaning of
research as a careful investigation or inquiry especially through search for new facts
in any branch of knowledge.
 Research is a structured inquiry that utilizes acceptable scientific methodology to
solve problems and creates new knowledge that is generally applicable.
 Research is a systematic investigation to find answers to a problem.
 Research is a systematic, controlled empirical and critical investigation of
propositions about the presumed relationships about various phenomena.
 Research is defined as a search for knowledge.
 Research is a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific
topic.
 Research is an art of investigation.
 Research is a movement from the known to the unknown.
 Research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or
suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions
and reaching conclusions; and last carefully testing the conclusions to determine
whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.
 Research is the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of
generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in
construction of theory or in the practice of an art.
 Research is an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for its
advancement.
 Research is the pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and
experiment.
 Research is the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of
finding solutions to a problem.
 Research refers to the systematic method consisting of enumerating the problem,
formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analyzing the facts and
reaching certain conclusions either in the form of solutions toward the concerned
problem or in certain generalizations for some theoretical formulation.
Characteristics of Research
 From the above definitions it is clear that research is a process for collecting,
analyzing and interpreting information to answer questions. But to qualify as a
research, a process must have certain characteristics as listed below:
 Controlled
In exploring the causality relation to two variables, the study must be set in way that
minimizes the effects of other factors affecting relationship. In social science
 research, however, since controlling is almost impossible, the effect of the other
variable must be quantified rather.
 Rigorous
One must be very careful (scrupulous) in ensuring that the procedures followed to
find answers to questions are relevant, appropriate and justified.
 Valid and verifiable
This concept implies that whatever you conclude on the basis of your findings is
correct and can be verified by you and others.
 Empirical
This means that any conclusions drawn are based upon hard evidence gathered from
information collected from real life experiences or observations.
 Critical
The methods employed and procedures used should be critically scrutinized. The
process of investigation must be foolproof and free from any drawbacks. The process
adopted and the procedures used must be able to withstand critical scrutiny.
Objectives of Research
 To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into ( studies
with this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research
studies);
 To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a
group ( studies with this objective are called descriptive research studies);
 To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else (studies with this object in view are known as
diagnostic research studies.
 To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are
known as hypothesis testing research studies).
Motivations in Research
 What makes people to undertake research? The possible motives for doing
research may be either one or more of the following among others:
 Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
 Desire to face the challenges in solving the unresolved problems, i.e.,
concern over practical problems initiates research;
 Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
 Desire to be of service to society;
 Desire to get respectability.

Types of Research
 There are different bases in classifying researches; however we will see only the
most common bases and these classifications which are relevant to our syllabus.
 First, there are two broad classification of research that follows:
1. Research in physical sciences
2. Research in social sciences
 Physical sciences deal with things, which can be put to laboratory tests under
guided conditions. These researches deal with physical phenomena upon which
man has complete control.
  Researches in social sciences are based on human behavior, which is influenced
by so many factors, such as physical, social, temperamental, psychological and
economic. We dwell for some time on this category of research in the
forthcoming subtopics as the whole handout is about social sciences research
methods.
Social Research
 Social research is part of research, which studies human behavior on a part of
society. Social research is to find explanation to unexplained social phenomena, to
clarify doubts and correct the misconceived facts of social life.
Social research can be defined as:
 Systematic investigation to gain new knowledge about social phenomena and
surveys.
 A systematic method of exploring, analyzing and conceptualizing social life in
order to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aid in the
construction of a theory or in the practice of an art.
 A scientific undertaking which by means of logical and systematized techniques
aims to discover new facts or verify and test old facts, analyze their sequences,
interrelationships and causal explanation which were derived within an
appropriate theoretical frame of reference, develop new scientific tools, concepts
and theories which would facilitate reliable and valid study of human behavior
and social life and thereby gain greater control overtime.
 A study of mankind in his social environment and is concerned with improving
his understanding of social orders, groups, institutions and ethics.
 A collection of methods and methodologies that researchers apply systematically
to produce scientifically based knowledge about the social world.
Characteristics of Social Research
From the above given definitions the following characteristics of social research may be
drawn:
1. It deals with social phenomena. It studies the behavior of human beings as a
member of a society and their feelings, responses and attitudes under different
circumstances. It encompasses the study of social phenomena covering economic,
political, social, educational, administrative and related aspects of social life. The
social research was born out to solve social problems.
2. It aims at discovering of new facts. The scientific research techniques are applied
to find out truth reasoning or relationship of various kind of human behavior.
3. It is a scientific undertaking in which logical and systematized techniques are
used. It also develops new scientific tools and concepts which facilitate reliable
and valid study of human behavior.
4. It assists in the undertaking of evolution of new theories. Every research
highlights some broad principles, establishes some scientific truth and analysis
their sequences, interrelationships and causal explanations. This results in
expansion of knowledge, improvement in the understanding of the social
phenomena and in the evolution of new theories.
5. It requires deep knowledge and minute investigation of the topic concerned.
6. It must be objective. Research should not take his own interest because any
personal bias vitiates the universality criterion of scientific proposition.
 7. Experimentation is not possible in social researches. However, in some cases
social research takes the shelter of controlled experiments.
8. Inter-relationship between variables under study is must. Besides it, the variables
of social research study can not be measured correctly, only rough estimation of
variables is possible.
9. It is dynamic in nature, therefore, what was true of past might not be true of
present.
10. It is inter-related. Therefore, we can not draw water-tight compartments for each
sector or we cannot say whether it is purely political, economic, or sociological
research.
11. It tells that the social events are also governed by the rules and regulations as
physical events.
12. It is complementary to research in physical sciences and both branches of
knowledge help each other and are the way to progress.
Motivating factors of social Research
 The following are four motivating factors:
1. Curiosity about unknown: Curiosity is an intrinsic trait of human mind and a
compelling drive in the exploration of man’s surroundings. It is natural instinct in
the makings. A man is always curious about the unknown and mysterious objects
that he notices around him and tries to understand them in his own. The same
curiosity drives social scientists to explore, reveal and understand unknown
factors behind the social phenomena.
2. Desire to understand the cause and effect Relationship of Social problems:
The research of cause and effect relationship has been more relentless than almost
any other scientist effort upon which human energies have been spent.
3. Appearance of New and unexpected Situations: In modern complex and
dynamic world a man is often faced with many acute and difficult problems. It is
the duty of the social scientist to find out their real cause and suggest solutions to
such problems.
4. Desire to Discover New and Old Scientific Procedures: It concerns with the
technique or methods used in social research. Social scientists have been busy in
devising and developing new methods and techniques in place old ones for
dealing with social problems.
Importance of Social Research
 In general way, some of the directly practical benefits and theoretic implications of
social research may be listed as follows:
1. Guides in social planning: Adequate social planning depends for its success
on a systematic knowledge of the social resources and liabilities, of the people
and their culture, of their similarities and differences, of organizations and
operative controls of their needs, hopes and problems, etc.
2. Provides knowledge to Control any social Phenomena: By affording first
hand knowledge about the organization and working of society and its
institution, Social research acts as a source of a power to control social
phenomena. Furthermore, social research has practical implications for formal
and informal types of leadership, pattern of influence and reform in different
spheres of society.
 3. Contributes to the betterment of social welfare.
4. Ascertain orders among facts.
5. Contributes for the advancement and improvement of social research
techniques.
6. Provides solutions to social problems.
7. Contributes to the development of developing countries.
Problems/challenges in Social Researches
 Following are the main difficulties faced by the researchers in the application of
scientific methods in social research:
1. Complexity of Social Data: The behavior of human beings or economic
problems, a subject of social research, are influenced by so many factors. Because
of these factors a researcher is generally confused.
2. Problems in Interpreting Relationship Between Cause and Effect: In case of
social phenomena the cause and effect are interdependent and one stimulates the
other. It is very difficult to establish cause and effect relationship in social
sciences and to find as to what is the cause and what is its effect?
3. Problems of Concepts
4. Dynamic Nature of Social Phenomena: Human society is constantly changing
and improving itself by past knowledge.
5. Problem of Maintaining Objectivity: Achieving an effective degree of
objectivity in social inquiry is very difficult task. Different findings on the same
issue arise most often.
6. Unpredictability: Predictability is one of the most important characteristics of
science. Because of the complexity of social data and irregularity of social
behavior, predicting is challenging in social researches.
7. Difficulty in the verification of the Inferences: Verification of the results
obtained is possible in physical sciences but in the case of social sciences it is
much more difficult. The events in social sciences are non-repetitive and social
scientists are ill-equipped with their tools to verify prediction.
8. Difficulty in The Use of Experiment Methods: It is not possible to put human
beings to laboratory tests. Even if it is done their responses would not be natural
but subject to the awareness of the artificial conditions.
9. Incapability of being Dealt Through Empirical Method: Exact sciences tend to
become increasingly quantitative in its units, measures and terminology while
most of matter of social sciences in qualitative and does not admit to quantitative
statement. Direct quantification of socio-economic variables is not possible; we
can have only rough estimates. Data is more reliable in physical sciences.
Because data obtained in social research is always changing, as some variables
are changing in social sciences. Empirical method gives very accurate results
when experiment on social phenomena is repeatedly carried on. But in case of
social sciences repeated experimentation is is not possible. Empirical methods are
methods of statistics therefore, all problems, limitations, distrusts in statistical
methods are also problems of social research. For example problem of unbiased
sampling, selection of data etc.
10. Problem of Inter-disciplinary Research: Social research in any field are
interrelated, therefore, we can not draw watertight compartments for each sector
 social sciences. We can not say whether it is purely political research, economic
research or purely sociological research. But in case of physical sciences, it is
possible to a very great extent to state whether it is physical or chemical or
biological problem. The main problem in interdisciplinary research is that every
branch of knowledge has its own line of approach and a methodology suited for
the purpose when these are tried to be fitted in a single frame, distortions are
bound to take place.
11. Less Finance: Social researchers get less finance than a researcher in physical
sciences as a result the rate of progress in social sciences research is less than that
of the physical sciences researches.
To sum up, social sciences are less precise in its findings than the natural sciences
because it deals with human society whose group as well as individual behaviour has
always been more diverse, full of more surprises and less predicate. Like natural
sciences we do not have nice neat equations that will yield answers to all situations.
 Research can also be classified from other three perspectives. However, these
perspectives are not mutually exclusive .
1. The application of the research study;
2. the objectives in undertaking the research ; and
3. the type of information sought.
Classification of research based on Application of the research study
 If you examine a research endeavors from the perspective of its application, there
are two broad categories: pure research and applied research.
Pure research involves developing and testing theories and hypothesis that are
intellectually challenging to the researcher but may or may not have practical
application at the present time or in the future. Thus such work often involves the
testing of hypothesis containing very abstract and specialized concepts.
Pure research is also concerned with the development, examination, verification and
refinement of research methods, procedures, techniques and tools that form the body
of research methodology.
The knowledge produced through pure research is sought in order to add to the
existing body of knowledge of research methods.
In applied research the research techniques, procedures and methods that form the
body of research methodology are applied to the collection of information about
various aspects of a situation, issue, problem or phenomenon so that information
gathered can be used in other ways- such as for policy formulation, administration,
and the enhancement of understanding of a phenomenon.
Most of the researches in the social sciences are applied researches.
 Types of Research
From the View point of

Application Objectives Type of information

sought

Pure Research Descriptive Quantitative

Research Research

Correlational Qualitative
Applied Research Research
Research

Explanatory
Research

Exploratory
Research

Classification of researches based on Objectives of the study

a) Descriptive Research
 Includes surveys and fact finding enquires of different kinds.
 Its major purpose is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present.
 In social science and business research it is often called expost fact research.
Researcher has no control over the variables, he can only report what has
happened or what is happening.
 Also includes attempts by researchers to discover causes even when they can not
control the variables. The methods used in descriptive researches are survey
methods of all kinds, including comparative and correlational methods.
b) Correlational Research
c) Explanatory Research
d) Exploratory Research
Classification of researches based on the type of information Sought
a) Quantitative Research
 Is based on the measurement of quantity or amount.
 Is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.
b) Qualitative Research
 is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or
involving quality or kind.
 is especially important in behavioural sciences where the aim is to discover the
underlying motives of human behaviour.
 E,g, Motivation research, attitude or opinion research, word association tests,
sentence completion etc.
Significance of Research
 Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the
development of logical habits of thinking and organization.
 Research becomes an important aid in solving operational problems. This due to
the increasingly complex nature of business and government . Furthermore,
research is helpful aid in economic policy.
 Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic
system.
 Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning
problems of business and industry.
 Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships
and in seeking answers to various social problems.
 Research may mean a careerism or a way to attain a high position in the social
structure particularly for those students of Masters or PhD.
 Research may mean a source of livelihhod for those professionals in research
methodology.
 Research may mean the outlet for new ideas and insights for philosophers and
thinkers.
 Research may mean the development of new styles and creative work to literary
person.
 Research may mean the generalization of new theories to analysts and
intellectuals.
Research Methods and Methodology
Research methods may be understood as all those methods/ techniques that are used
for conduction of research.
Research methods/ techniques, thus, refer to the methods the researchers use in
performing research operation.
In other words, all those methods which are used by the researcher during the course
of studying his research problem are termed as research methods.
Research methods can be put into the following three groups:
1. In the first group we include those methods which are concerned with the
data collection of data. These methods will be used where the data already
available are not sufficient to arrive at the required solution;
2. The second group consists of those statistical techniques which are used for
establishing relationships between the data and the unknowns;
3. The third group consists of those methods which are used to evaluate the
accuracy of the results obtained.
Research Methodology
-is a way to systematically solve the research problem.
-may be understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically.
-consists of the various steps generally adopted by a researcher in studying a research
problem along with the logics behind them
--involves determing which research methods/techiniques are relevant and which are not,
and what would they mean or indicate.
-may differ from problem to problem.
-constitutes many dimensions and research methods is a part of it.
-has wider scope than research methods.
Decision of research methodology addresses the research methods to be used and the
logic behind the methods we use in the context of the research study and explain why we
are using a particular method and why we are not using others so that research results are
capable of being evaluated either by the research himself or by others.

In nutshell research methodology addresses:

 why a research study has been undertaken
 how the research problem has been defined
 in what way and why the hypothesis has been formulated
 what data have been collected and what particular method has been
adopted
 why particular technique of analyzing data has been used
Research and scientific Methods

The two terms research and scientific methods are closely related.
Research, as already stated, can be termed as an inquiry in to the nature of , the reasons
for, and the consequences of any particular set of circumstances, whether these
circumstances are experimentally controlled or recorded just as they occur.
On the other hand, the philosophy common to all research methods and techniques,
although they may vary considerably from one science to another, is usually given the
name of scientific method.
Scientific method is a pursuit of truth as determined by logical considerations. The ideal
of science is to achieve a systematic interrelation of facts. Scientific method attempts to
achieve this ideal by experimentation, observation, logical arguments from accepted
postulates and combination of these three in varying proportions.

The research process

 Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry
out research and the desired sequencing of these steps. These activities indeed
overlap continuously rather than following a strictly prescribed sequence.
 A brief description of these activities is as follows:
1. Formulating the Research Problem
 Formulating a research problem is the first and most important step in the research
process. It is like determination of the destination before undertaking a journey.
 There are two types of research problems, viz., those which relate to states of nature
and those which relate to relationships between variables.
  Formulation of the problem means defining the problem precisely. In other words, a
problem defined is half solved. Formulation of problem is often more essential than
its solution because when the problem is formulated, an appropriate technique can
be applied to generate alternative solutions.
 Formulation of a problem involves the following steps:
a) Statement of the problem in a general way
b) Understanding the nature of the problem
c) Surveying the available literature
d) Developing the idea through discussion
e) Rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition.
Importance of formulating a research problem
a) It determines the research destine. It indicates a way for the researcher.
Without it a clear and economical plan is impossible.
b) Research problem is like the foundation of a building. The type and
design of the building is dependent upon the foundation. If the foundation
is well-designed and strong, one can expect the building to be also. The
research problem serves as the foundation of a research study: if it is well
formulated, one can expect a good study to follow.
c) The way you formulate your research problem determines almost every
step that follows: the type of study design that can be used; the type of
sampling strategy that can be employed; the research instrument that can
be used; and the type of analysis that can be undertaken.
d) The quality of the research report(output of the research undertakings) is
dependent on the quality of the problem formulation.
Considerations in selecting a research problem
 When selecting a research problem/topic there is a number of considerations to
keep in mind. These considerations are:
a) Interest
b) Magnitude
c) Measurement of concepts
d) Level of expertise
e) Relevance
f) Availability of data
g) Ethical issues

2. Extensive Literature Review

 Once the problem is formulated, a brief summery of it should be written down.
Reasons for Reviewing Literature
 Literature review has three functions:
a) Bringing clarity and focus to the research problem
b) Improving the methodology
c) Broadening the researcher knowledge in the research area.
Procedures in reviewing the literature
 Reviewing a literature is a continuous process. Often it begins before a specific
research problem has been formulated and continues until the report is finished.
 There are four steps involved in conducting a literature review:
 a) Search for existing literature in your area of study
b) Review the literature selected
c) Develop a theoretical framework
d) Develop a conceptual framework.

3. Development of Working Hypothesis

After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in clear terms the working
hypothesis.
Working hypotheses is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical
or empirical consequences. Hypotheses affect the manner in which tests must be
conducted in the analysis of data and indirectly the quality of data which is required for
the analysis. Hypotheses should be very specific and limited to the piece of research in
hand because it has to be tested.
The role of hypotheses is to guide the researcher by delimiting the area of research and
keep him on the right track. It sharpens his thinking and focuses attention on the more
important facets of the problem. It also indicates the type of data and the type of methods
of data analysis to be used.
Working hypotheses are more useful when stated in precise and clearly defined terms.
Sometimes, particularly in case of exploratory researches, we do not need hypotheses.
4. Preparing the Research Design
The research problem having been formulated in clear cut terms, the researcher will be
required to prepare a research design, i.e., he will have to state the conceptual structure
within which research would be conducted. The preparation of such a design facilitates
research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal information.
A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collecting and analysis of data in a
manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in
procedure.
Research design is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted; it
constitutes the blueprint for collection, measurement and analysis of data.
Research design is a plan, structure and strategy of investigation so conceived as to
obtain answers to research questions or problems. The plan is the complete scheme or
programme of the research. It includes outline of what the investigator will do from
writing the hypothesis and their operational implications to the final analysis of data.
Research design is defined as a blueprint or detailed plan for how a research study is to
be complted, operationalizing variables so they can be measured, selecting a sample of
interest to study, collecting data to be used as a basis for testing hypothseses and
analysisng the results.
The function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant evidence with
minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. Furthermore, research design explains
how the researcher will find answers to the research questions. It sets out the logic of the
inquiry. But how all these can be achieved depends mainly on the research purpose.
Research purposes may be grouped into four categories, viz.,
a. Exploration
b. Description
c. Diagnosis
d. Experimentation.
When the purpose happens to be an accurate description of a situation or of an
association between variables, the suitable design will be on that minimizes bias and
maximizes the reliability of the data collected and analyzed. When selecting a research
design it is important to ensure that it is valid, workable, and manageable.
The functions of a research design
The research design has two main functions. The first relates to the identification and/or
development of procedures and logistical arrangements required to undertake a study, and
the second emphasizes the importance of quality in these procedures to ensure their
validity, objectivity, and accuracy.

A research design should include the following:

a) The study design per se and the logistical arrangements that you
purpose to undertake
b) The measurement procedures
c) The sampling strategy
d) The frame of analysis
e) Time frame
Selecting a study design
The study design is a part of the research design. It is the design of the study perse,
whereas the research design also includes other details related to the carrying out of the
study.
The various designs have been classified by examining them from three different
perspectives:
a) The number of contacts with the study population
b) The reference period of the study
c) The nature of the investigation.

The number of contacts

a) Cross-sectional study
b) Before-and- after study
c) Longitudinal studies
 Types of study design

Nature of
Number of contacts Reference period
investigation

One Two Three or more Retrospective Experimental

Crossectional studies Before and after Longitudinal prospective Non experimental

Retro- prospective Quasi experimental

 Review
concepts and
theories
Define Formulate Design Collect data Analyze data Interpre
Research Research ( Execution) (test t and
problem hypothesis report
(including hypothesis if
Review sample design) any)
previous
research
findings
Features of Good Research Design
A research design appropriate for a particular research problem, usually involves the
consideration of the following factors:
1. the means of obtaining information
2. the availability and skills of the researcher
3. the objective of the problem to be studied
4. The availability of time and money for the research work.

5. Determining Sampling Design:

All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a universe or population.
A complete enumeration of all the items in the population is known as a census inquiry.
Because of the difficulty, relative inaccuracy and biasness related to census study
determine sample, few elements from the population, becomes mandatory.
In such cases, the researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is
popularly known as the sample design.
In other words, a sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are actually
collected for obtaining a sample from a given population.
Samples can be either probability samples or non-probability samples.
With probability samples each element has unknown probability of being included in the
sample but in the non-probability samples do not allow the researcher to determine this
probability.
Probability samplings are those based on simple random sampling, systematic sampling,
stratified sampling, cluster/area sampling whereas non-probability samples are those based
on convenience sampling, judgment sampling and quota sampling techniques.
The sample design to be used must be decided by the researcher taking into consideration
the nature of the inquiry and other related factors.

6. Collecting the data

In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at hand are inadequate, and
hence, it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate.
There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in
context of money costs, time and other resources at the disposal of the researcher.
Primary data can be collected either through experiments or through survey. If the
researcher conducts experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements, or the data,
with the help of which he examines the truth contend in his hypothesis. But in the case of a
survey, data can be collected by any one of the following ways:
a. Observation
b. Interview
c. Questionnaire
The researcher should select one of these methods of collecting data taking in to
consideration the nature of investigation, objective and scope of the inquiry, financial
resources, available time and the desired degree of accuracy.
7. Execution of the project
The researcher should see, during this phase, that the project is executed in a systematic
manner and in time.
8. Analysis of Data
After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analyzing them.
The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment
of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and
then drawing statistical inferences.
The unwieldy data should be condensed in to a few manageable groups and tables for
further analysis.
9. Hypothesis Testing
After analyzing the data, the researcher is in a position to test the hypothesis, if any, he had
formulated earlier.
Do the facts support the hypotheses or they happen to be contrary? This is the usual
question which should be answered while testing hypotheses.
Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test may be applied.
10. Generalization and Interpretation
If a hypotheses is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the researcher to
arrive at generalization, i.e., to build a theory.
As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain
generalizations.
If the researcher had no hypotheses to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on
the basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation. The process of interpretation may
quite often trigger off new questions which inturn may lead to further researches.
11. Preparation of the Research Report or the thesis
Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him following
the appropriate formats and appropriate language.